Rural Definition Europe

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RuralEurope:Defnitions,IssuesandPoli

cies

EuropeanCitizensPanel

WhatRolesforRuralAreasinTomorrowsEurope?


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Table of Contents

Foreword .................................................................................................................... 1

Factsheet n1 Diversity of rural areas in Europe .......................................................... 3

Factsheet n2 The functions of rural area ...................................................................... 5

Factsheet n3 Urban-rural relations ................................................................................ 7

Factsheet n4 The economy and employment in rural areas ....................................... 9

Factsheet n5 Governance of rural territories...............................................................11

Factsheet n6 European policies .................................................................................. 13

Factsheet n7 International agreements and globalisation ........................................ 15

Factsheet n8 Climate change and the question of water........................................... 17

Factsheet n9 Energy shortages and renewable energy............................................ 19

Factsheet n10 Demographics and migration................................................................ 21

Factsheet n11 Information and communications technologies.................................. 23

Factsheet n12 Food security .......................................................................................... 25

Factsheet n13 The environment..................................................................................... 27

Factsheet n14 Isolation of territories: transport, health, education and culture....... 29

Appendix 1 How is a rural area defined?.................................................................. 31

Appendix 2 Brief glossary of rural development ..................................................... 33

Composition of the Sounding Board

ThefollowingpeopleagreedtoparticipateintheSoundingBoardoftheEuropeanCitizensPanelInitiative.Theyareallactive

inthefieldofruraldevelopment,atbothnationalandinternationallevel.Theyareactinghereasindividualsandnotasrepre-

sentativesoftheirinstitutions.

Jean-ClaudeBontron(France),JohnBryden(UnitedKingdom),NicolasCrosta(Italy),RobertLukesch(Austria),AlbertoMelo

(Portugal),DorotaMetera(Poland),ElenaSaraceno(Belgium),ArievandenBrand(TheNetherlands),LaurentVandepoele

(Belgium)andMauraWalsh(Ireland)

TheSoundingBoardoftheEuropeanCitizensPanelhasdoneitsbesttoguaranteethebalanceofthisinformationpackintermsof

thethemesaddressed,thecontentandthepointsofviewexpressed,whileatthesametimeconservingitseducationalcharacter .

ThisinformationpackhasbeenproducedunderthesupervisionofJean-PierreVercruysse(AEIDL),withtheaidofaverycomplete

bibliographyavailableatwww.citizenspanel.eu.


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EURO P E A N C I T I Z E N S ' P A N E L

1

Foreword

Why do we need a citizens panel on thefuture of rural Europe?The role and future of rural areas in tomorrows Europe

are crucial issues for all European citizens. A partnership

of foundations, public authorities and organisations expert

in citizens participation has invited citizens to developtheir viewpoints on these issues, which are usually left to

rural experts.

The European Citizens Panel is a pilot initiative that

encourages citizens from ten regions of Europe to have a

voice in the policies that affect rural areas. Regional pan-

els were organised in nine countries. Their conclusions

were made available to regional authorities. The initiative

will culminate in a European Panel held in Spring 2007, in

Brussels during which the citizens will deliberate and work

on developing recommendations to be presented to policy

makers and the wider public.

The citizens panel method has been used before. Itinvolves lay citizens selected in a random manner in a

debate on specific issues affecting their daily life. Citizens

have the opportunity to access documentation on the

issues adressed. They present their report and recom-

mendations to decision-makers.

Why was this information pack developed?The factsheets presented here aim to provide the citizens

panellists with European level information on various themes.

This information pack complements the material already

made available to them at the regional panels, and:

provides an overview of the European rural world taking

into account its broad diversity, summarises the issues raised by current developments

in the rural world,

provides basic information on the policies implemented

in rural areas,

and proposes a series of questions that could be

addressed by the citizens.

The information on rural issues presented here is neces-

sarily incomplete, as the rural question is highly complex,

reflecting the complexity of our society in general.

A validation process

A validation process was organised, in order to ensurethat the information made available to the participants in

the pan-European panel is accurate and unbiased. It was

the role of the Sounding Board, which is a balanced

group of individuals from throughout Europe and selected

for their expertise on rural development issues at a Euro-

pean level. This Board has amended a first version of the

European Infopack written under the supervision of

AEIDL on the basis of a large bibliography.

The European Infopack has been translated in 6 lan-

guages (Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian andSlovakian), which are the working languages of the initia-

tive. The idea was to disseminate it to a larger audience

in order to contribute to a wider European debate on rural

issues. The Infopack, together with the large bibliography

used to compile it, can be downloaded from the site of the

European Citizens panel: www.citizenspanel.eu.

You are cordially invited to express your views, additional

questions or new ideas on the content of these

factsheets.

Enjoy reading!

Benot Derenne

Director of the Foundation for Future Generations

Chair of the European Citizens Panel Steering Committee

The 14 factsheets

Factsheet n1 highlights the diversity of rural areas in

Europe and considers the question of a common identity:

is there a European rural model which differentiates rural

areas in Europe from rural areas in the rest of the world?

Factsheet n2 examines the functions of rural areas: we

are perceive the rural world in our own way and hold a

wide range of views in relation to its role. New functions

(recreational, ecological, etc.) are now joining the more

traditional functions (farming, forestry, etc.) of the country-

side. We are therefore speaking increasingly of the mul-

tifunctionality of agriculture, whose productive role is no

longer always considered to be central.

Factsheet n3 considers urban-rural relations, a crucial

issue for the future of the rural world. The relationshipbetween these two environments is often not sufficiently

taken into account in developing urban and rural policies,

despite its sometimes critical contribution of this inter-rela-

tionship on many aspects of life in both environments.

Intro


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p

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Factsheet n4 seeks to identify the specific features of the

rural economy. While the contribution of agriculture

remains significant, it is becoming a diminishing source of

economic growth and employment in rural areas. Mean-

while, other sectors of the rural economy are now gaining

in importance: tourism, rural services, environmental

management, etc.

Factsheet n5 deals with the governance of rural territo-

ries and considers the debate on decentralisation of deci-

sion-making: at what level should decisions be taken in

order to best take account of both local needs and higher

level priorities (national, European or even global)?

Factsheet n 6 briefly lists the main European policies

which influence the development of rural areas. It looks at

the coordination of these policies in the context of a global

strategy to promote the rural world and the mechanisms

which enable greater coherence to be guaranteed between

the various measures implemented in rural territories.

Factsheet n7 summarises the international context to

the development of European rural areas. The develop-

ment of a global network, the speed of communications

and, notably, the liberalisation of economies have alteredthe rules of the game and raise a number of issues, not

least with regard to the margins for manoeuvre and free-

dom of action of political decision-makers.

Factsheet n8 focuses on climate change and considers

the implications for Europes rural areas. In particular, the

risk ofwater shortages.

Factsheet n9 looks at the question ofenergy. The spiral-

ling cost of energy and the foreseeable shortage of fossil

fuels are presenting major challenges for the rural world,

which is highly dependent on energy for transport, but

also for other distinctly rural goods and services, such asfertilizers, for example. However, the energy issue also

presents new opportunities for the development of rural

areas: the source and/or locations for many renewable

energies (wood, water, wind and sun) are often found in

rural areas.

Factsheet n10 describes the demographic evolution of

rural territories. Demographic changes vary considerably

between different types of rural areas, with certain areas

still losing inhabitants, whilst other areas are experiencing

a growth in population. What policies should be imple-

mented, therefore, to combat rural depopulation and, atthe same time, manage the arrival of new inhabitants?

Factsheet n11 considers information and communica-

tions technologies (ICTs). Their very rapid expansion can

reinforce inequalities, from which certain rural territories

already suffer. But they also offer new opportunities, notably

in the area of teleworking. The diffusion of ICTs has never-

theless rarely been the subject of great debate and the

factsheet offers the reader several paths for reflection.

Factsheet n12 analyses the complex issue offood secu-

rity. In this area, Europe leads the world, but repeated

food crises (listeria, CJD, dioxin, etc.) have demonstrated

the limitations of the European farming and agri-food

model. What food policy should be supported? What isthe future role of organic farming and genetically modified

organisms (GMOs) in terms of food production?

Factsheet n13 invites us to considerthe environment and

its protection. The battle against soil, water and air degra-

dation, supporting biodiversity and the preservation of land-

scapes are all more or less well accepted and encouraged.

But many political questions remain. Shouldnt rural areas

play a central role in terms of the environment?

Factsheet n14 is a reminder that many rural areas suffer

from varying degrees ofisolation. What are the conse-quences of this isolation on mobility, health, education

and culture? Combating remoteness and isolation

assumes a significant cost for the public sector. Should it

become a political priority?

Several additional tools:

Appendix 1 proposes several definitions of rural areas.

Behind an apparently technical question hides a highly

controversial issue, as these various definitions may serve

to determine whether a given territory should be consid-

ered as rural and therefore have access to specific poli-cies and funding which promote these areas.

Appendix 2 provides a brief glossary of certain essen-

tial terms. As rural development is the focus of numerous

projects, specialists in the field have gradually developed

a specific vocabulary. When it is not possible to avoid

using this vocabulary, the factsheet refers to the glossary

for an explanation.

Appendix 3 contains the bibliographical sources used

for each of the themes covered. The contents of each

source are briefly summarised to enable the reader totake their analysis further and to select the document they

consider to be of most interest. An Internet link facilitates

access to these documents online.

Intro

.InfoFor further information, click.
http://www.citizenspanel.eu/images/Biblio/UK/compilation_biblio_en.pdfhttp://www.citizenspanel.eu/images/Biblio/UK/compilation_biblio_en.pdf


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1

Diversity of rural areas in Europe

1. Unity and diversity in rural areas

Rural areas account for 80% to 90% of the European ter-

ritory and about half of its population. These figures are

approximate as it is not always easy to define a rural area,which some people have described as the vacuum left

after urban has been defined. Of course, the countryside

is very different from the town, but between the two, there

is a continuum of peri-urban areas, small towns and areas

of varying population density and the distinction between

rural and urban is going to be increasingly obsolete.

Are rural areas recognised by their landscapes? Their pop-

ulation density? Their culture? Their history? Their soil?

Their landuse? It is very difficult to say, due to the diversity

of rural areas, from the Hungarian steppe and the Mediter-

ranean garrigues, to the Italian vineyards and the forests

of Scandinavia, and the Dutch polders and the ScottishHighlands. This diversity arises largely from:

their landscapes, shaped by man, often exploiting natu-

ral resources to produce wealth, and marked by the

climate, the soil and the relief;

theireconomic activities, some areas with widespread

agriculture and others where it has practically disappea-

red (having been replaced by other activities such as

tourism), extremely variable unemployment levels and

activity sectors with varying degrees of diversification;

theirpopulation and settlement patterns, which may be

dense or sparse, declining in certain areas and expan-

ding in others;

their methods ofgovernance and local democracy, withvarying degrees of autonomy and varying levels of par-

ticipation.

All of the experts agree that diversity is the crucial factor

defining European rural areas.

In spite of this diversity, rural areas are facing similar

challenges, which notably include:

the transformation of their traditional activities (agricul-

ture, industry, etc.) and the appearance of new infras-

tructures and of new activities (tourism, leisure, services

for new residents, high-tech industries, etc.) owing to

the effect of technological change, population move-

ments and competition spurred by the opening up of

markets across Europe and the world; the development ofnew uses for areas and resources:

sports, walking and environmental protection.

the major developments affecting European society

generally, the effects of which are still uncertain with

regard to territories: future energy shortages and the

search for new energy sources; climate change; the

development and diffusion of new information and com-

munication technologies; questions regarding food

safety and energy supply and the ever increasing requi-

rements of European society with regard to the protec-

tion of the environment ;

theirrelationship with urban areas, in terms of both thepositive aspects but also the tensions owing to popula-

tion movements and competing uses of land and natural

resources, such as water;

the absence of an integrated rural policyon a European

scale.


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1

2. The European rural model

The notion of a European rural model appeared several

years ago in response to threats resulting from globalisa-

tion, the opening up of markets and the weakening of

public policies in the general context of liberalisation.

If these processes sometimes provide opportunities for

the development of certain European rural areas, they

also pose risks for others and lead to fears that the Union

will not be able to preserve certain of its characteristics to

which Europeans are attached.

What are these characteristics and do they constitute acoherent whole, which allows for the definition of an

objective for a future European Union rural development

policy? What issues should be emphasised most strongly,

for example during negotiations undertaken in the World

Trade Organisation?

In order to answer these questions, a number of Euro-

pean citizens and institutions have attempted to specify

what could be a common perception of the missions of

European rural areas, a model for rural Europe whose

content still has to be clearly specified.

In general, however, it incorporates the following goals:

the conservation of natural resources and the environ-

ment;

the conservation of cultural heritage, both living and

historic, as found in architecture, gastronomy and local

products, cultures and traditions, etc.;

economic dynamism based on projects adapted to local

needs and the intrinsic potential of each area;

inhabited and freely accessible rural areas, which have

numerous functions, from production to nature disco-very and leisure;

services offered to the rural population: transport,

health, education, administrative services, etc.

It is, therefore, not a matter of transforming rural areas

into living museums which are isolated from modernity, or

leisure areas for city-dwellers or even areas exclusively

devoted to environmental conservation, agricultural pro-

duction or the location of economic activities which are

not wanted in densely populated areas. European rural

areas are, simultaneously, places for living and for activi-

ties, natural areas to be protected, areas in touch with

current dynamics and notably with urban territories.

The multiplicity of these objectives and how to make them

compatible with and adapted to the diversity of situations

constitutes the challenge for rural policies.

Rural policies do not, therefore, have to be designed as

policies aimed exclusively at rural issues, since rural

areas also have to respond to the expectations of the

wider population and to the needs of urban areas

Predominantly rural

(> 50% of the population

living in rural municipalities)

Quite markedly rural

(15-50% of the population living in

rural municipalities)

Predominantly urban

(


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The functions of rural areas

1. Diversied functions

Rural areas have a number of functions that can benefit

both rural and urban dwellers.

The production function Agriculture is a traditional rural activity throughout Europe.

It is declining in importance in all countries, in terms of both

employment and wealth generation, but it remains signifi-

cant in terms of land occupation. It accounts, on average,

for about 45% of the European land area, but for more

than 60% in farming economies such as Denmark, the

Netherlands and Romania. However, the area given to

agriculture in European is declining.

Forests cover an average of 35% of the area of Europe,

and over 45% in wooded countries such as Austria, Swe-

den and Finland. The area given over to forestry isincreasing in Europe, owing to the abandonment of far-

mland, particularly in mountainous regions. Part of the

European forestry area is exploited for timber production.

Industry often employs more rural inhabitants than agri-

culture. It can be structured around large centres of

employment or in a network of small enterprises. In coun-

tries such as the United Kingdom, the rural environment

is seen as attractive for setting up new businesses.

Energy is a production activity which is experiencing a

renewal: the potential for hydroelectricity is virtually fully

exploited, the use of coal is in stagnation or decline,

while wind energy, solar power and biomass (e.g.

biofuels) are all undergoing expansion.

The residential function In many European countries (Germany, Northern Italy,

France, the United Kingdom, etc.), the countryside is no

longer a land of exodus: it is being repopulated by new

arrivals. This phenomenon is not affecting all rural

areas, however, and some areas continue to experience

depopulation, especially when these dont benefit from

good infrastructure such as high speed trains.

The influx of new inhabitants is stimulating employment

in construction and services. In many French regions,

the provision of services e.g. in healthcare to therural population, so-called residential jobs account for

over half of rural employment.

The tourism and leisure function Rural areas are important tourist destinations, particu-

larly areas offering accommodation services and with a

positive image (nature, cultural heritage, landscapes,

etc.).

Hunting, fishing, birdwatching, walking and outdoor

sports such as skiing, kayaking or mountain biking, are

all developing activities which require space and natural

resources.

The environmental function Rural areas are also home to many species of animals

and plants. Nature protection is considered to be a

highly important objective by the citizens of European

countries, including the United Kingdom and the Nether-

lands. The European Union is now developing a policy

to preserve biodiversity.

Rural areas also provide cities with water. The preser-

vation ofwater resources is an important issue for the

future.

Air quality is also an important factor in terms of thequality of the environment and the stability of the global

climate, and here too, rural areas play a critical role.

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What is agricultural multi-functionality?

Acknowledging the multi-functionality of agriculture

means acknowledging that as well as producing food,

farmers also provide services to the general public,

notably environmental: conservation of wild plants

and animals which require crops or livestock to sur-

vive, maintaining hedgerows, terraces or irrigation

systems, maintenance of arable landscapes, reduc-

tion of flooding or fire risks, etc.

Since 1985, the Common Agricultural Policy has madeit possible to pay for these services, thereby encourag-

ing farmers to adopt environmentally favourable prac-

tices. How should these services be financed? What

can be paid through higher prices to consumers and

what should be paid for by EU subsidies? Does the

latter remuneration distort competition, notably with

non-European farmers? Should it be reserved solely

for farmers or should it be open to other contractors in

the rural world? Is this policy effective in environmental

terms? What are public goods and what are market

goods? Multi-functionality incites heated debate and

there are no easy answers to these questions.

The heritage function Rural areas are of great important in term of European

history: buildings and vestiges, customs and know-how,

festivities and folklore, etc. The preservation of the

cultural identity of rural areas is increasingly being reco-

gnised as an important priority.

2. New functions, new questions

Certain functions of rural areas are recent or under devel-

opment, such as the residential, the environmental orleisure function. This can give rise to conflicting uses,

competition for land or buildings and a feeling on the part

of rural inhabitants of being dispossessed, particularly

when they see urban residents becoming increasingly

influential in deciding the future of their territory.

Separate or mix?Should mixed use be favoured or should some rural areas

become specialised according to their individual charac-

teristics? For example, should farming be maintained in

the rural areas around large cities or should these areas

be reserved for leisure and the conservation of naturalresources for city-dwellers? Different local authorities

have a different view on this question. Or, should certain

forests be reserved for timber production and others as

leisure areas or should forests be managed in such a way

as to enable timber production, leisure and environmental

conservation to coexist?

Regulation ormediation?Another question arising is how to manage conflicts

between different rural interests? Should new regulations

be introduced and the courts left to settle disputes? Or

should the search for locally negotiated solutions be

encouraged?

Territory or rurality?The relationship between urban and rural areas is becom-

ing increasingly important. Should a policy be maintained

which is specifically aimed at rural areas or should we

favour a much wider territorial policy, which integrates

both urban areas and their surrounding countryside into

single development concepts and plans?

2



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3

Urban-rural relations

1. Close relations

Urban and rural areas are connected by visible and invis-

ible flows of people, materials, energy, information, etc.

We can see for example: daily movement of people for work reasons;

regular movement for leisure activities;

permanent migration due to changes in residence;

movement of food products and manufactured goods;

flows of water and energy resources;

transfers of waste;

etc.

It can be seen that certain towns, notably capital cities

such as Paris, Madrid, Athens and Warsaw (in red on the

diagram to the right) or metropolises such as London,

Milan, Hamburg and Munich (in dark blue) have a stronginfluence on the surrounding countryside. Conversely,

some rural areas are very remote (in green) and have

scarcely any connections with urban centres. Between the

two, there is a space, either predominantly urban (in blue)

or predominantly rural (in yellow), composed of medium-

sized towns and closely integrated rural areas, which now

covers most of the European territory.

2. Interdependence

Rural and urban areas are therefore connected by the

choices which are made in the fields of transport, urban

planning, business creation assistance, etc. For example:

increasing the population density of urban areas (con-

struction or renovation of housing in city centres) or

making city centres more pleasant places to live (trans-

port, combating pollution, security, etc.) can make it

possible to limit the expansion of development into theperipheries of cities and, therefore, to preserve agricul-

tural and natural areas and to reduce energy consump-

tion. But this can also limit opportunities for develop-

ment in certain rural municipalities, arising from

demographic expansion;

Certain regions are said to be under urban domi-

nance as population, employment, services and

transport dynamics are dependent upon the growth

of dynamic urban areas.

But urban areas also need rural areas, to provide

housing, leisure and protected natural areas, water,

waste spreading or processing areas, etc. Some

urban areas also depend on rural areas to supplyregional food products and to preserve arable land-

scapes: they therefore implement policies to preserve

peri-urban farming or encourage short marketing

channels.

Urban-rural relationship

Remote rural area

Regions dominated by a large metropolis

Polycentric regions with high urban and rural densities

Polycentric regions with high urban densities

Rural areas with small and medium sized towns

So

urceSPESPFrance-GDR

LibergoEquipeParis-Moricori-Ebrard,

Gopolis1994,

Eurostats


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encouraging the development of large metropolises

which are interconnected on a European scale or pro-

moting the development of a network of medium-sized

towns (multicentrism as advocated by the European

Union) constitutes a strategic choice of major impor-

tance for the future of many rural areas;

the conservation of natural and/or historical areas limits

the expansion of some cities by making it impossible to

build in certain areas;

the distribution of public services in a given territory can

also contribute to limiting or encouraging population

movements; the development and maintenance of networks (trans-

port, energy and telecommunications) including sec-

ondary networks, facilitates the creation of businesses

beyond the main decision-making centres and the

decentralisation of the labour market;

through the distribution of subsidies (aid for high quality

products and short distribution channels, environmental

protection, etc.), agricultural policy can contribute to

connecting urban and rural areas or conversely, to the

specialisation of agricultural areas, thus keeping them

separate from urban areas.

3. A shared political future

With the decentralisation of policies and the principle of

subsidiarity promoted by the European Union and a

number of Member States, the district authorities, and

notably the Regions, are becoming relays in the devel-

opment and implementation of public policies. This is

the territorialisationphenomenon, which some believe

will expand in the future. In this context, the Regions

would take on a more important role. Some Regions are

critical of the notion of rural policy, preferring to highlight

town-country interrelations and speak instead of territo-rial policy. However, rural inhabitants fear that such

policies, defined by and for cities, will erode the power

of rural communities to make decisions about their

future.

Whilst relations between urban and rural areas are

numerous and their futures are highly interdependent,

their populations are often not well acquainted and the

territorial authorities do not always work together. To

address this issue, associations and municipalities

undertake town-country partnership campaigns and

organise meetings and information campaigns, for

example, aimed at facilitating communication and jointprojects between urban and rural areas. This is sup-

ported by a growing interest in fresh food and the spread

of farmers markets.

Officially, the European Union does not intervene in

spatial planning, although many European policies

have an impact on town-country relations or the bal-

ance of their respective development. The recent crea-

tion of the European ESPON1 observatory to focus on

this issue, demonstrates the significance of this subject

for European decision-makers.

1 European Spatial Planning Observation Network.

http://www.espon.eu/

p



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1. A diversied economy

Many Europeans believe that agriculture is one of the main

economic activities in rural areas. This is no longer true,

except for certain regions of Greece and Spain, as well asfor central and eastern European countries like Poland and

Romania. In most regions, the rural economy is highly diver-

sified. As an example, in England, agriculture alone accounts

for just 4% of the rural economy: see the distribution of

employment in rural areas in England presented below.

AgricultureApart from its general importance for the national econ-

omy, the different ways of farming vary greatly from one

region to another.

It can be a highly specialised and professional activity(cereal or dairy operations in France, Germany, Denmark,

etc.), a part-time activity to supplement other income

(Greece, Italy, etc.) or even a subsistence activity, which is

essential in order to feed families (Poland, Romania, etc.).

It can be subsidised under the Common Agricultural

Policy (e.g. cereal, milk or meat production) or on the

other hand, receive little support and be dependent

upon markets (viticulture, fruits and vegetables, etc.).

It is mainly a family activity, but can also be undertakenby large enterprises.

It nevertheless remains a highly important sector in the

EU, particularly owing to the opportunities offered by the

European food industry which is the worlds leading pro-

ducer.

0 5 10 15 20 25 %

Distribution of employment in rural areas in England

Source:DEFRA,

DepartmentforEnvironmentFoodandRuralAffairs

The economy and employment in rural areas

4

Administration, education and health

Trade, hotels and restaurants

Industry (except agri-food)

Banking, finance and insurance

Agriculture and agri-food

Transport

Other services

Construction

Water and energy


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IndustryIndustry provides employment in rural areas, notably:

in the large industrial regions of France, Germany, the

United Kingdom, etc.

in rural areas where a network of small and medium-

sized enterprises has developed, such as in the indus-

trial districts of Italy.

On a European scale, industrial employment is in decline,

but some industries choose to establish themselves in

rural areas for reasons of security, access to resources,

the price of land and/or locational preferences of the lead-ing staff. These industries may, however, remain depend-

ent on transport, energy (e.g. high voltage electricity) and

telecommunications networks.

ServicesOn a European scale, service employment accounts for

most rural jobs. This is also a sector which has been

experiencing steady growth. The services industries are

generally dependant on ready access to customers and

tend to develop in areas where the population is suffi-

ciently large.

Tourism in particular has grown rapidly, as rural areasoffer a response to the growing demand for nature and

open space. This highly labour-intensive sector gener-

ates many low-skilled jobs. Some are predicting, how-

ever, that saturation point will soon be reached in this

sector and advise that rural areas should not be depend-

ing on tourism to deliver future increased employment in

riral areas.

2. Public Policies

Public policies can contribute to the creation of jobs in

rural areas, in various ways: by investing in appropriate transport infrastructure;

by maintaining public services: education, health and

administration;

by offering support for setting up businesses in rural

areas (tax incentives, etc.);

by supporting agriculture where it is under threat, for

example, in mountainous regions;

by supporting local project dynamics.

Yet, since there is a multitude of situations, it is very dif-

ficult to design global policies: there is a need to utilise a

multitude of context-specific solutions, according to popu-lation densities, settlement patterns, dominant economic

use, etc.

3. Questions

Is the decline in agricultural employment in Europe

inevitable or can it be stemmed, notably by means of

appropriate public policies?

For certain economists, the reduction in agricultural

employment is inevitable and results from the reductionin the relative share of this activity in developed econo-

mies, along with the comparative advantages available in

non-European countries in this sector. For others, it is

necessary to establish voluntarist policies to protect jobs

in farming. A policy option could be to make labour

cheaper and polluting more expensive, in order to support

the creation of more job opportunities in sectors such as

organic agriculture or horticulture. There is no consensus

on this subject, either in the EU member States or in the

agricultural sector.

Should the State intervene to boost the rural economy

or should it let market forces operate freely?One of the objectives of the European Union is to avoid

or to reduce excessively large disparities between regions,

notably to counterbalance the competition created by the

single market and to forestall population movements and

urban concentration. To do this, specific policies for

regions in difficulty have been implemented, such as

cohesion policy through its instruments of the Structural

Funds and the Cohesion Fund.

Project dynamics: the LEADER example

In 1991, the European Union established a mecha-

nism to support rural development projects. This

Community Initiative Programme LEADER (Links

between actions for the development of the rural

economy) is based on the principle that economic

development projects have to be initiated by territorial

actors (local authorities, businesses, training centres,

associations, etc.) rather than the State. In total, over

1,000 rural territories organised into Local Action

Groups, which have established innovative operationswith the support of community funding. The LEADER

experience has inspired several European policies.

4



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Governance of rural territories

5

Western societies are governed by liberal democra-

cies and governance, in the political sense, refers to

interactions between the State and society, i.e. coali-

tion systems between public and private actors. These

initiatives to coordinate the various actors aim to

make public action more effective and societies moreeasily governable.

This very broad definition is interpreted in different ways,

depending to the viewpoint of the organisation. Thus:

For the OECD, the pillars of good governance are the

primacy of law, the rational specialisation of tasks, res-

ponsibility and transparency mechanisms, a highly qua-

lified professional civil service, etc.

For the European Commission, good governance is

achieved through effective institutions, productive rela-

tions between the various actors involved in the deve-lopment process and positive attitudes towards the pri-

vate sector and businesses.

In a time of globalisation, which form of governance is

appropriate for rural territories, which serves both local

needs whilst also guaranteeing coherence with policies at

a higher (regional, national and international) levels?

1. Governance, from the globalto the local level

In 2001, the European Commission published a white

paper on European governance. Its aim was to work

upwards from the bottom rather than downwards from the

top and to improve procedures for the development of EU

policies.

According to this white paper:

On a global scale, the EU is attempting to distil the prin-

ciples of good governance in international authorities

(notably through better representativeness and impro-

ved consultation with stakeholders).

The Council of the European Union defines the policiesand takes decisions;

The European Parliament contributes to political debate

and on certain subjects, has joint decision-making

power;

The European Commission is responsible for the exe-

cutive; The Member States relay and implement these policies

by delegating them, according to the country and compe-

tences, to the regional and lower territorial authorities.

2. A few rules currently regulatethe governance of rural areasin the EUIn a context of multi-level governance, the European

Union as a general rule applies the principle ofsubsidi-

arity, according to which responsibility for a public actionhas to be allocated to the most appropriate and lowest

possible level. According to the level of centralisation in

a particular, and depending on the issue involved, deci-

sions are invariably taken at different levels: States,

regions or local authorities. Thus:

In Spain, the competences of the Autonomous Regions

are extensive (even including tax collection). In fact,

these regions themselves delegate a number of func-

tions to sub-regional entities. This is the case in the

Basque Country, which has three provinces and 286

municipalities grouped autonomously in comarcas.The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country

exercises exclusive responsibility in 31 fields, including

social affairs, scientific and technical research, economic

planning, agriculture and fishing, urban planning, housing

and industry. Rural development policy is delegated to


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5

provincial authorities, which define their own adminis-

trative institutions, budgets, municipal elections and

sub-municipal territorial delimitations. This system

requires good municipal cooperation and coordination

in order to remain coherent. In other, more centralised countries (such as Great Bri-

tain), there is a preference for deconcentrating State

services, which through local relays makes it possible

to rapidly implement a national policy, with the risk

nevertheless of overlooking local territorial needs.

France, previously highly centralised, has been imple-

menting a decentralisation process since 1982, granting

greater competences to the regions and territorial autho-

rities. The accumulation of administrative divisions, as

reforms progress, does not help the distribution of compe-

tences and the coordinated implementation of policies.

The national level has frequently become both too large totackle regional and local problems and too small to deal

with globalisation. If the decentralisation of competences

makes it possible to take decisions which better reflect the

real needs of local populations, it can, however, lead to

certain difficulties: inadequate resources can make it

impossible to respond to citizens expectations, local inte-

rests and conservatism can take precedence over real

needs, etc.

Most Western European States have opted for a combi-

nation of two orientations:

an increased territorialisation process for public sectorinterventions (decentralisation and/ordeconcentration)

accompanied by a process ofincreased Europeanisa-

tion of policies in national public sectors.

3. What is the ideal form ofgovernance for the sustainabledevelopment of rural areas?

Whether it involves improving the current governance

processes, or the creation of new institutional frameworks,

the following questions could be asked:

At what level and how should political decisions be

taken? Should the principle ofsubsidiarity always beapplied, even at the local level? What are the adminis-

trative divisions and what degree of autonomy do they

have? Should decentralisation take place, despite the

difficulties in relation to competence, priorities and

coherence? Or deconcentration?

How should local governance be adapted, with an

ascendant approach, to maintain or create European

territorial coherence? (In other words, how can vertical

integration of policies succeed between the internatio-

nal, national and sub-national levels?).

How can the participation of citizens be improved? In

many European countries, public debates are orga-nised at national or local level. Should citizens only be

consulted? Made to actively participate? What should

the be link between participation and decision-making?

Based on what information? Should there be more refe-

rendums on popular initiatives? Is giving back power to

citizens also about giving them the possibility to go to

court, alone or jointly, to criticise certain policies?

Should there be legislation or should voluntary agree-

ments be encouraged? What checks should be introdu-

ced for public authorities? How should they be

assessed?

How can the long-term situation be taken into conside-

ration, given that electoral cycles are approximately 5years?



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6

European policies

Several European Union policies have an impact on rural

areas.

Agricultural policy in general and its rural development

chapter in particular.

The LEADER initiative

Regional policy and Cohesion Policy, whose objectivesare to reduce development disparities between regions,

notably to offset the effects of interregional competition

due to the single market.

Policies for transport, the promotion of communications

technologies, the environment, etc. As with regional and

cohesion policies, these sectoral policies are not specifi-

cally applicable to rural areas, but broadly affect them.

1. Agricultural policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the largestEuropean Union policy: it accounts for 43% of the EU

budget (this percentage is progressively falling). Agricul-

tural policy is divided into two pillars:

The first pillar finances subsidies to farmers and market

support;

The second pillar supports rural development measu-

res, a part of which is accessible to non-farmers and can

finance actions such as the creation of micro busines-

ses, improving food quality, the promotion of tourist acti-

vities, and village and environmental enhancement.

The first pillar accounts for approximately 85% of the CAP

budget. However, certain organisations request that alarger proportion should in future be allocated to the sec-

ond pillar.

2. LEADER

LEADER is a European initiative, launched in 1991, which

is specifically aimed at rural areas and particularly at sup-

porting local development initiatives. These initiatives are

sponsored by Local Action groups (LAG), which involve a

partnership of professional organisations, associations,

local authorities and businesses. These LAGs undertakevarious activities to promote tourism, the environment,

agriculture, etc. The originality of the LEADER programme

is the focus on encouraging the emergence of local

projects. This bottom-up approach has, in particular,

been recognised by the European Parliament, which has

proposed to make it a general principle of European rural

policies. The LEADER approach will continue to be applied

during the 2007-2013 period, as an integral and obligatory

component of the general rural development policy.

3. Regional development andcohesion

Regionalpolicy is financed by the Structural Funds,

which account for a little under 40% of the EU budget.

The Structural Funds are not specifically designed for

rural areas but are aimed at reducing disparities between

regions,helping those regions experiencing difficulties,

such as industrial regions in decline, isolated agricultural

regions (regional development policy) and also assisting

the development of poorer Member States (cohesion

policy). The Structural Funds are managed by the national

or regional authorities jointly with the European Commis-

sion. They contribute to the financing of training activities,

business supports, infrastructural improvements (trans-ports, energy networks, etc.). The Structural Funds have

already enabled countries such as Ireland, Spain, Portu-

gal and Greece to catch up in terms of their development

with other European Union countries.


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4. Sectoral policies

Even if it is not their objective, many other sectoral poli-

cies have a profound territorial impact. This is notably the

case for:

Transport policy

Transport can contribute to boosting the development of

certain areas: transport policies should ensure appro-

priate access within as well as to and from rural areas.

Energy policy Renewable energies present an important opportunity for

the development of certain rural areas, although the shor-

tage of fossil fuels can also create problems in rural areas.

Telecommunications policy

Telecommunications networks can promote teleworking

and the establishment of small businesses in rural areas.

Environmental policy

For some, improving the environment improves the

attractiveness of rural areas, whereas for others, it

constitutes a constraint which can limit their economicdevelopment.

5. Questions

Is there a Europeanrural development strategy?Various policies affect rural areas. Certain European net-

works, such as the Assembly of European Regions, con-

sider that improved coordination between these policies

is necessary and that the European Union needs to

establish a real integrated strategy for rural areas, which

does not currently exist. Is there a need for such a Euro-

pean strategy? Why?

Piloting policiesEuropean policies have always vacillated between the

need to guarantee a certain coherence of actions under-

taken and the need for subsidiarity (decentralisation of

the decision-making level) to adapt to the specific fea-

tures of territories. Bottom-up approaches have demon-

strated their effectiveness where the social fabric is

dynamic, but are they possible everywhere? How should

European policies be piloted? This debate has been

ongoing in European circles for a number of years, espe-

cially since for Member States, regions and local authori-

ties, the distribution of poweris also at stake in the man-agement of these policies.

Competitiveness and solidarityThe European Union has an objective of solidarity

between its territories, which is notably reflected by its

regional and cohesion policy. Another objective is to

encourage regional competitiveness, which could lead to

competition. These various objectives result in difficult

budgetary decisions. Furthermore, the question arises as

to whether competitiveness and solidarity are compatible

or contradictory objectives. How can a balance be

achieved? These questions lead to wider political debates,

for example, on whether we should support the furtherliberalisation of services or the maintenance of State con-

trol of services of general economic interest. An associ-

ated question is whether the market is capable of organis-

ing social justice and ecological sustainability?

Source:Eurostat

Regional GDP per head in 2001

for EU27 in purchasing power parties


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2. The question of public policiesand levels of decision-making

Globalisation is closely related to economic deregulation.

For the OECD, for example, free trade and investment

are the driving forces of global growth and the improve-

ment of living standards. The OECD has become a pro-

moter of privatisation and free trade but admits that the

increased competition between people, businesses and

regions has distressing effects on employment and theenvironment. It is for this reason that the organisation has

called for the introduction of rural development policies.

For several decades, relations between the public and

private sectors in Europe has been an important area of

debate. In the context of the WTO, another important

issue, however, is that of the level at which decisions

affecting citizens should be taken: locally, nationally or

internationally. These questions are of particular concern

in the area of agriculture.

Agriculture is one of the sectors to be opened up to further

international trade and competition. This liberalisation ofthe European market is called for by many exporting

countries from the South, as well as those who believe

that in Europe, the decrease in farm prices will benefit

consumers, and particularly the less well-off. But this

argument incites strong reactions:

Can the European Union maintain its policies for consu-

mer protection (for example, continuing to ban the use

of hormones in livestock farming) or should it comply

with the WTO rules?

Can the European Union preserve the Protected Desi-

gnations of Origin? These designations enable certainregions to benefit from the reputation of specific local

products and to protect themselves, in part, from com-

petition.

Increased competition in the agricultural sector will lead

to a significant reduction in the levels of employment,

which will threaten the stability of rural regions that

depend on agriculture (for example, in Greece, Poland,

Romania, etc.). What effect will this have on local eco-

nomies?

A decline in farming activity in Europe would lead to a

reduction in the area of land farmed. One might imagine

that this situation would resolve local problems such as

water pollution caused by the use of nitrates. But many

wild animal and plant species are also dependent on

farming activities. What, therefore, would be the overall

impact on the environment? If food production is concentrated in the regions of the

world where agriculture is most competitive, will this

increase the risks of a failure in supply in the event of

climate changes or political crises?

3. Questions

Globalisation incites animated debates throughout

Europe. Individual Member States, pressure groups, pro-

fessional organisations and associations are frequently

opposed on this subject. We can attempt to summarise afew of the questions raised by these debates:

What is the balance to be found between competitive-

ness and solidarity within and between nations? What

budget decisions have to be taken to support the more

advanced regions and those trying to catch up in terms

of their economic development?

Should the European Union protect its agriculture from

international competition, for social, environmental or

geo-strategic reasons, or should allow its farmers to be

exposed to global competition?

Should the public sector intervene more strongly in the

European economy or should it leave the initiative to

the private sector? What should be the prerogatives ofeach?

European policies can also sometimes appear to be con-

tradictory, which is partly because they are the conse-

quence of sometimes fragile compromises between

divergent interests, notably as a result of the questions

outlined above.



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Climate change and the question of water

8

1. Climate change in Europe

The Earths temperature has been increasing for several

decades now and will continue to do so throughout this

century. Many controversies and even more uncertain-ties remain with regard to this issue, however, the exist-

ence of this phenomenon, and the role of human activity

in its development, is now widely accepted.

Global warming results from the emission of greenhouse

gases. Several gases are responsible, notably carbon

dioxide (CO2) resulting from the combustion of fossil

fuels, and methane (CH4) which is the product of fermen-

tation caused by farming activities (livestock breeding,

paddy fields, etc.). The accumulation of these gases in

the atmosphere causes the planet to warm up, leading

to changes in the climate, which affects the entire planet,although the effects are not felt to the same extent eve-

rywhere.

According to the European Environmental Agency, if this

phenomenon continues, the following consequences

could be envisaged in Europe:

An average temperature increase of 1.4 to 6.3C by

2100;

Greaterrainfall (+ 10 to 40%) in central and northern

Europe, and less (-20%) in the South;

More frequent storms and flooding in central and nor-

thern Europe; more frequent droughts in the South;

An increase in the sea level by 10 to 90cm betweennow and 2100 and the possible submersion of certain

deltas and coastal areas;

The disappearance of approximately 75% of the gla-

ciers in the Alps between now and 2050 and a general

reduction in snowfall;

An acceleration in the loss of biodiversity, i.e. the

disappearance of wild plant and animal species; and a

gradual shift of species from the South to the North;

An increase in agricultural production in central and

northern Europe, owing to the increase in temperature

and the concentration of CO2

in the atmosphere; and a

reduction in crop yields in the South due to the lack ofwater;

The spreading ofdiseases which until now have been

confined to hot countries.

Industrialised countries are mainly responsible for green-

house gas emissions. However, the most dramatic con-

sequences will be seen in poor countries, which do not

have the means to deal with the effects of current

changes.

In order to limit global warming, governments agreed in

1997 to draw up the Kyoto protocol, an international

treaty in which the signatory countries undertake to

reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by approximately

5% between now and 2012. All of the Member States ofthe European Union have now ratified the treaty and are

committed to an 8% reduction in emissions by 2012 and

a possible 20% to 40% reduction by 2020. This is a glo-

bal commitment, with participating countries having dif-

ferent individual commitments: some have to make major

reductions, others must maintain the status quo, whilst

others can actually increase their emissions.

The level of emissions decreased by 3.3% between 1990

and 2000, but since then they have increased again.

According to the European Environmental Agency, the

European Union will not be able to honour its commit-ments.

Source:EuropeanEnvionmentalAgency;2004.

Evolution of averageannual temperatures in Europe

(0 = average of the years 1961-1990)


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2. How can climate changebe limited?

In 2005 the European Union set up a market for emis-

sion permits for greenhouse gases, which aims to

facilitate the adaptation of businesses to help meet the

objectives of the Kyoto protocol. Public authorities are

responsible for establishing the total amount of emission

permits and for supervising the implementation of this

system.

Other measures are enforced by the Member States.

For example, part of the overall energy production must

now be provided by renewable energies, such as wind

power, biofuels and biomass. Governments in countries

like France also believe that nuclear power, which doesnot result in greenhouse gas emissions, contributes to

the Kyoto objectives, but this view is contested by those

who point to the risks of accidents and the problems of

storing nuclear waste.

Another series of measures involves improving energy

efficiency, i.e. limiting the wasting of energy and reduc-

ing activities which consume energy, in particular trans-

port and heating. Energy consumption in Europe has

increased steadily since the mid 1990s. Human behav-

iour and lifestyle is a important contributory factor, as is

the issue of urban planning (low or high density develop-ment) and the transporting of goods (specialisation and

the distance between production and consumption cen-

tres). These last two issues are also closely related to

land usage.

3. Water

The risk of water shortages could increase during this

century because of global warming, particularly in south-

ern Europe. Certain regions in southern Europe (Spain,

Portugal, etc.) are already suffering from recurrent

droughts.

Water quality has been improving in Europe over the

past thirty years. In particular:

The ecological quality of water courses has improved

Urban and industrial pollution has decreased Water consumption in most sectors has decreased

However, in certain areas, there has been no progress

Agricultural pollution from nitrates have remained

constant

Pesticides are difficult to measure but are of concern to

scientists

Water consumption has increased in the farming and

tourist sectors.

Through its Water Framework Directive, the European

Union is attempting to encourage the participation ofeconomic actors and citizens in the management of

water resources, by promoting consensus building at

local level.

4. Questions

Should rural areas be considered as a key to the fight

against climate change? If yes, should they benefit from

a specific support for fulfilling this mission?

Should recognition be given to the key role rural areas

play in the stocking of water and should they receive

special treatment for supporting this status?



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9

Energy shortages and renewable energy

1. Energy, geo-strategicand environmental issues

The search for new energy sources is inspired by threemain concerns: the depletion of hydrocarbon reserves,

the European Unions desire to secure its energy supplies

and the need to limit global warming.

Existing global oil reserves will meet demand for about

the next thirty years; there is about 40 years worth of

gas reserves and enough coal to last for several centu-

ries. To this we have to add the probable discovery of

new deposits, but also the potential impact of increased

consumption in Asia. Experts do not agree, therefore,

on the date when reserves will be exhausted, but they

do admit that the increasing scarcity of resources will

lead to a progressive increase in prices in the comingdecades.

European dependence on imported oil supplies consti-

tutes a risk, in the face of international economic and

political instability. By producing part of its energy requi-

rement internally, the European Union will improve the

certainty of its supplies.

The Kyoto protocol adopted by European countries

envisages a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions to

limit global warming.

For all of these reasons, the European Union has under-

taken to promote the development of renewable energy,

which could lead to the exploitation of resources in ruralareas.

2. Renewable energy

What are the different types of renewable energy and

what prospects do they offer?

Biofuels

Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) are produced using

oilseed rape, sunflower, sugar beet, cereals, etc. They

currently account for approximately 2% of transportfuels but the EUs objective is to increase this to 5.75%

by 2010. Even though the aim is not to make them the

sole source of energy for transport, biofuels could pro-

vide an opportunity to develop European agriculture,

particular in the context of limited opportunities in food

production. Encouraging the development of the biofuels

sector often involves the introduction of tax incentives.

Biomass

The combustion of wood, agricultural residues and

waste constitutes an important source of heat for hou-

seholds, businesses and communities. Wood is the

main source of renewable energy in Europe (54%).

Since the 1990s, firewood production has increased,

mainly to meet the increasing demand from households.

Overall, forestry resources are not under threat, as the

surface area devoted to forestry is actually increasing.

Exploitation of this resource can even contribute to the

maintenance and renewal of woodland. The effects onwild flora and fauna can be negative or positive, depen-

ding on the method of harvesting.

Totalenergyconsum

ption

(milliontonnesoilequivalent)

Time(years)

Renewable energy

Nuclear energy

Natural gas and by-products

Coal, brown coal and by-products

Crude oil and oil products


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9

Hydroelectricity

Further construction of large dams in Europe is unlikely,

but small hydroelectric units have been increasing in

number for several years.

Wind power

This is the source of electrical energy which has expan-

ded the fastest in Europe. But it is unevenly distributed:

three countries (Germany, Spain and Denmark)

between them account for 85% of wind power in the

European Union. In 2005, wind power provided 5.5% of

electrical energy in Germany.

Solar power

Thermal solar energy, aimed at hot water production

and heating, is increasing in Europe, but less quickly

than the European Union would like. Currently, Ger-

many, Austria and Greece produce 80% of thermal

solar energy in Europe.

Energy savings

Energy savings offer considerable potential. Specialists

differentiate between technological means (energy-

saving vehicles and equipment, the use of renewableenergy, insulation of buildings, etc.) and structural

means, including higher density residential develop-

ments, which enables transport and heating costs to be

limited. Urban sprawl results in higher energy expendi-

ture than more concentrated residential development:

a series of private homes in a rural area generate more

energy expenditure than a small urban block of flats

(heating, individual transport, waste collection, etc.).

However, access to firewood might be easier

There are other renewable energy sources of lesser importance:

photovoltaic solar power for electricity production, biogas, geothermal,

tidal energy, etc.

3. Questions

Rural areas can provide resources and a suitable envi-

ronment for the development of new sources of energy.

However, any decision to exploit this potential raises a

number of issues:

Conflict of uses

The production of new energy sources may compete

with other activities. We can cite for example:

- resistance to the installation of wind turbines by local

residents who are concerned by the potential impacton the landscape or noise;

- the risk of competition for land for the production of

biofuels versus the production of food, which is

already a source of controversy among specialists;

- conflicts arising from the construction of hydroelectric

power stations, which may reduce biodiversity and

threaten endangered species, but also displace spor-

ting activities (such as kayaking or canyoning).

Uncertainties in relation to environmental impact

For example, the ecological impact of biofuels is not

fully known. Some experts believe that the energyrequired to produce these crops (in some cases for the

production of fertilisers and pesticides, but always for

planting, harvesting, processing, etc..) could be

higher than the actual energy produced.

Effects on territorial development

It is generally accepted that the development of renewa-

ble energy sources creates jobs, but we do not know

whether this economic impact will benefit rural or urban

areas, whether it will affect the more densely populated

and wealthiest regions or whether it will contribute to

territorial cohesion.



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Demographics and migration

1. Densely and less denselypopulated rural areas

According to the geographer John Bryden no indicatorexpresses the diversity of rural Europe as clearly as popu-

lation density. The population profile of rural areas is in fact

very different from one region to another. Densely popu-

lated rural areas (100 to 150 inhabitants per square kilome-

tre) are situated in certain regions in England, the Nether-

lands, Belgium, Germany, Italy and Poland. Less densely

populated areas (less than 25 inhabitants per square kilo-

metres) are found in Ireland, France and Scotland, but

more particularly in Spain and Scandinavian countries.

In sparsely populated areas, populations are generally older.

The natural demographic balance (difference between birthsand deaths) is then negative and population growth can only

be brought about by the arrival of new inhabitants.

2. Demographic renewal

Europe experienced a rural exodus for much of the 20th

century. But since the 1970s and 1980s, this depopulation

dynamic has been reversed in many regions.

Currently, certain rural areas are being repopulated

thanks to the arrival of new residents. This concerns in

particular: Areas on the periphery of major cities, largely as a result

of urban deconcentration. In this case, new arrivals are

generally people in employment.

Coastal areas or areas which benefit from a favourable

climate and good service prevision and where people

can retire.

To a lesser extent, quiet or even remote rural areas

which are of interest to businessmen or working people

seeking a better quality of life. Teleworking sometimes

stimulates this type of relocation, particularly among

freelance workers.

Finally, certain areas are seeing the arrival of peoplewho feel excluded from cities and who believe that they

can to find resources in the country to which they no

longer have access in urban areas.

This demographic renewal has numerous consequences: development of employment opportunities in the service

sector (trade, crafts, etc.);

maintenance or development of education and health

services, administration and transport networks;

revitalisation of the economic fabric, emergence of local

economic initiatives and other spatial projects, notably

in regions where there is a young workforce;

increase in the price of land and buildings;

10

Rural population density (hab/km2)SourceSPESPFrance-GDR

LibergoE

quipeParis-Moricori-Ebrard,

Gopolis1994,

Eurostats


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competition between different interests farming, envi-

ronmental, recreational and residential interests in rural

areas;

sometimes difficult relations between new arrivals and

established inhabitants, for the aforementioned reasons

(land prices and competing interests) and also because

new rural dwellers often have lifestyles and perceptions

of rurality which are in conflict with those of the esta-

blished residents.

The arrival of new residents is sometimes encouraged by

political and economic interests, sometimes to guarantee

the maintenance of education and health services.Numerous district authorities (municipalities or regions)

develop programmes to welcome new inhabitants in order

to revitalise rural areas suffering from depopulation. For

example:

in France, the Limousin region has undertaken public

relations campaigns and renovated homes which have

been rented to people moving into the area;

in Sweden, the network Hela Sveridge Ska Leva, an

umbrella group for over 4,000 associations, developed

in the 1980s in response to the rural exodus and has

supported economic development projects in many vil-

lages in order to create jobs and maintain services; Ireland has launched a national programme to support

the purchasing of modest family homes in rural areas,

based on local initiatives established by associations.

However, these initiatives do not always meet with the

unanimous approval of rural inhabitants, who sometimes

fail to see the benefits of welcoming in strangers. These

opposing positions are found throughout Europe.

However, in spite of these efforts, populations in certain

rural areas continue to decline. This is the case, for

example, in former industrial regions or farming areas in

decline, such as northern and central France and Spain,or in southern Italy. In these regions, population mainte-

nance involves introducing activities and jobs and through

the maintenance of public services. Some of these areas

are highly dependent on agricultural employment. This

is particularly the case in certain regions in Italy, Greece,

Poland or Romania, where there are many small farmers,

which support small processing and distribution busi-

nesses. Changes to the Common Agricultural Policy can

have a serious impact in these areas.

10

3. Questions

Should we combat rural depopulation? Public authori-

ties see the maintenance or redeployment of publicservices (education, health, post, administrations, etc.)

as a means of combating rural depopulation. But this

approach is costly and its relevance has been questio-

ned. In the 1970s and 1980s countries like Sweden

and Finland opted to organise a progressive withdrawal

of services in certain areas.

Should populations be maintained at all costs in spar-

sely populated areas or should population movements

to more popular areas be assisted, with the rest reser-

ved for nature?

Is there a common interest in maintaining all inhabitedterritories? This debate is not clear-cut.



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11

Information and communications technologies

Information and communications technologies (ICTs),

based on the internet, multimedia and mobile telephones,

are booming: between 1994 and 2005 the number of peo-

ple connected to the internet globally increased from 3

million to 1 billion (48% of homes are connected to inter-

net in the EU25).

In general, ICTs are viewed positively by decision-makers:

It is crucial to encourage supply and demand for informa-

tion and communications technologies in order to achieve

the objectives of the new Lisbon strategy for growth and

employment, says the European Commission in its 2006

communication Bridging the broadband gap. What is the

current situation? Are there any risks to be avoided?

1. The digital divide

New information and communications technologies are

essentially based on the internet, multimedia, mobile

telephony, new software for sharing tasks and the intranet

in organisations.

A key issue in relation to the internet is access to broad-

band. Broadband access can be provided through a wide

variety of networks (telephone lines, wireless telephony,

fibre optic cables, satellite and electricity networks).

On average, 8% of households living in rural areas in the

European Union subscribe to broadband, compared with

18% in urban areas. This digital divide is explained bythe higher cost of the service in areas with a low popula-

tion density and lower incomes. In some of the more iso-

lated rural areas (at the bottom of valleys and in sparsely

populated plateaux), it is still not possible to connect to a

broadband network.

The EU has decided to promote access to broadband in

less-favoured regions (eEurope 2005 action plan and

i2010 project) by combining private (majority) and public

interventions (where the market is ineffective). Each

State has drawn up a national broadband access strat-

egy, coordinated at the European level by the i2010project.

2. What are or could be the usesof ICTs? Reinforcing existing activities

ICTs can contribute to strengthening, developing and

diversifying traditional rural activities, such as the mar-

keting of traditional craft products, tourism and agricul-

tural products, by:

- Facilitating access for rural products to European and

even the global markets;- Retaining added value locally;

- Reducing transaction costs.

Whilst at the same time, also exploiting the competitive

advantages of rural areas,, which can include access to

cheaper labour or a more attractive environment than

urban areas.

Creating new opportunities

ICTs generate teleworking jobs, defined as being those

which actively use network technologies: individuals

(employees or freelancers), small businesses, agenciesor subsidiaries of large businesses.


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Improving local services

Local services (administrative, social, medical and edu-

cational, people-oriented services, shops, public trans-

port, etc.) are fundamental to the dynamism, attractive-

ness and quality of life in an area. The use of ICTs can

improve such services by:

- Facilitating access to certain services, such as public

registrations, taxation, health services, education and

ongoing training, libraries, etc;

- Introducing new services: electronic cartography and

regional databases, electronic discussion forums,

distance learning, etc.

- Providing new ways of managing administrative tasksand improving service delivery for citizen: improved

service efficiency; reduced costs; enlargement of the

range of services offered; improved accessibility, for

example the possibility to reach more people, access

and 24-hour services, etc. (for example, shopping

online).

Expanding network activity through ICTs

Even more than traditional networks, the networking of

socio-economic actors through ICTs generates advan-

tages: effectiveness of regular contact and new possi-

bilities for diffusion and preservation of information;enlarged networks with improved capacity to manage

information. In all cases, ongoing training in IT is a

measure of success.

3. Questions

A societys adoption of new technology has consequences

for lifestyles. Thus, the massive ownership of cars has

certainly made individual movement faster and more fre-

quent, but it has also led to collateral effects which were

not initially envisaged: the need for costly road infrastruc-

ture, pollution, major maintenance costs, large shops onthe outskirts of cities, increasing individualisation, etc.

Television, for other reasons, has also had unexpected

negative effects. It is important, therefore, that society

debates the pros and cons of adopting new technology,

before it reaches a point of no return. This was not the

case for ICTs, giving the impression that they were nec-

essarily good.

Is a debate on the positive and negative impacts of

ICTs still desirable and still possible?

At a time when half of the world is being connected to the

internet, we are witnessing at the same time massive

relocations which have been made possible by, amongst

other things, the transmission of information in real time;

a withdrawal of services, notably public services, which

are being replaced by computer terminals; job losses

and a breakdown in real (as opposed to virtual) social

contacts, etc. It is highly probable that these potential

drawbacks are offset by other advantages, notably in

rural areas: preventing isolation, access to all kinds of

information, the possibility to create new jobs, telemedi-cine, etc. But before introducing ICT infrastructure into a

given area, shouldnt it be first debated with the potential

beneficiaries?

Should an infrastructure approach be favoured

(what Internet network provision?) over a services

approach (what is the demand for internet serv-

ices?)?

The LEADER experience has demonstrated that there is

a need for education, training, and the mobilisation of

users. There is also a need to translate the technology

into appropriate applications and services for businessesin the regions concerned. The availability of infrastruc-

tures does not automatically result in usage.

How can risks be managed and the potential benefits

of remote working be exploited?

In particular, how can remote working be facilitated whilst

at the same time avoiding the exploitation of workers as

prices and markets fluctuate? What can be done to com-

bat the risks of relocation? More generally, what condi-

tions are required for the success of an ICT project in a

rural area?



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Food security

The notion of food security can be considered from both

a quantitative and a qualitative perspective. For the FAO,

the United Nations agency responsible for food and agri-

culture, food security covers both of these concepts: it is

guaranteed when everyone, at all times, have economic,

social and physical access to sufficient, safe and nutri-tious food, which satisfies their nutritional requirements

and dietary preferences, enabling them to lead an active,

healthy life. 840 million people are still underfed in the

world today.

The European Commission considers food security from

the perspective of protecting consumer health. In Europe,

except for rare exceptions, people no longer die of starva-

tion. But food crises (listeria, CJD, dioxin, etc.), mostly

arising from the intensification of production and the

lengthening of distribution chains, have forced the Com-

mission to respond by proposing stricter food safetystandards.

Via Campesina, an international peasants movement,

adds to this notion of food security the concept of food

sovereignty: Food sovereignty is the right of people to

define their own food and agriculture policies, to protect

and regulate domestic agricultural production and trade

in order to achieve their sustainable development objec-

tives, determine the extent to which they want to be

autonomous and limit the dumping of products in their

markets.

1. Signicance and role ofagriculture in European ruralareas

The agriculture and food sectors are of major importance

to the overall European economy. The food industry con-

stitutes a leading sector in the EU, with annual production

worth 720 billion euros, i.e. approx 15% of the entire

processing industry. The EU is the worlds largest food

producer. The food industry is the third largest industrial

employer in the EU, with over 4.6 million employees, 46%of whom are employed in small and medium-sized enter-

prises. The farming sector has a total production worth

approximately 323 billion euros and provides the equiva-

lent of 10 million full-time jobs. Exports of agricultural and

food products amount to approximately 62 billion euros

per year.

Agriculture is a traditional rural activity across Europe. It

covers approximately 45% of the European land area.

However, the land area devoted to agriculture in Euro-

pean is slowly declining.

Apart from its production function, agriculture can also

have a positive or negative role in environmental protec-

tion (impact on water, soil, biodiversity, landscapes, pollu-

tion and global warming).


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2. Different optionsfor European agricultural policy

Global agreements, and particularly the WTO, which

failed to reach agreement in July 2006, have an impact

on agricultural policy. The main issues covered by these

negotiations: independence of choice in terms of con-

sumer protection; preservation ofProtected Designa-

tions of Origin; maintaining jobs in agriculture; and food

sovereignty.

In Europe, the Common Agricultural Policy is the main

European Union policy: it accounts for 43% of the over-all EU

Rural Definition Europe

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