TIE GEPEWL BOARD

United S t a t e s Farces, European Theatzr . i . ..

i'&I.SSI:ON: Prepare Seport and Rccomandat ions of Changes

Cons ida r sd Nocossary in t h e Doct r inc , Organiza-

t i o n and Equipment of Chenicnl Snoko G e n e r a t o r

Uni t s .

Thc G m c r a l Board was c s t a b l i s h c d by G3nzral Orders 128, I lcudqunr tc rs European Thcater of Opernt ions, US Army, d a t e d 1 7 Juno 1945, as amendLd by G c n s r r l Orde r s l G 2 ) da t ad 7 August 1945 and Gsncrctl Orders 312 d n t c d 80 Novmber 1945, Hcadqunr te rs United S t r h c s Forces, European Thcator, t o p r u p a r o a fQCtUnl nnolys is of t h o s t r a t e g y , t a c t i c 3 and odminis t rcAt ion omploycd by t h e U n i t i d StCtGs forces i n tila Surcpean Theator.

Study m b c r 69

2

TABLE 07 CONTENTS

PART ONE

INTRODUCTION

Chapter I Process of' Study . , . , . . , , . , . 1

S e c t i o n I Committee ulembership , . , , . , . . 1 s e c t i o n I1 S p e c i a l Conferences. , , , , , . . , .

PART TWO

REVIEW OF TIf lxLOYMEWT OF ShlOKF, GENEFLATOR UNITS, EUROPEAN THEATER CAMP-4IGN '

Chapter I

S e c t i o n I Genoral N i s s ion . . , , , , . . , . . 3 3 . . . . . . . 4

S e c t i o n I1 A n t i a i r c r a f t Smoke Miss ions , , , , , , S e c t i o n TI1 T a c t i c a l Smoke Miss ions , S e c t i o n I V

Chap te r I1

S e c t i o n I Genera l , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 S e c t i o n I1 T a c t i c s of woke . . . . . . . . . . . 6

S e c t i o n V Supply of Saoka Ganera to r Units. . . . 10

C h a p t e r I Necess i ty f o r Smoke G e n e r a t o r U n i t s . 13

13

Chap te r I1

1 3

18

20

S e c t i o n I D i s c u s s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

S e c t i o n I Discuss ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

S e c t i o n I Discuss ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C h a p t e r I V Chapter v Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . .

'

Miss ions of Smoke and Smoke Genera tc r Un i t s , . , . , , . . , , , 3

Secondary Miss ions of Smoke Genera tor Un i t s , . . . , . . , . 5

T a c t i c s of Smoke and Smoke Genera tor Un i t s . . . . . . . . . . . 5

S s c t i o n 111 S e c t i c n IV

T a c t i c s of Smoke Generator Units . , . 7 Cont ro l of' Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PdRT THREZ

COMMITTEE REPORT

Organiza t ion and Employment of Smoke Genere tor U n i t s . . , . , , . , 13

C h a p t e r 111 Improvement and Development of Smoke Genera tors . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

THE GENERAL BOARD UTJITEE STATES FORCES, XTJROP-TAtJ TIlEATER

?ART 0.m INTROUUCTI0s 5

CHAPTER I

PROC3SI; OF STUDY

SECTION I

-CO?IlITTEB M E U 3 E R S ~

a. P e m a n e n t Nembers :

co lone i H G r a C e r f . voociward, Jr, , 010188,mrs ( Chairman C o l o n e l Char l e s J. Norman, 0217653, GSC C o l o n e l P3Ersh;ll S t u b b s , 017706, cT.'IS Lieu tenan t Colonel Char l c s 5. Vance, 0118125, C.fLC L ieu tenan t Coloiiel W i l l h m 11, Fiske, 0203617 , CWS L ieu tenan t Colonel I r a B. R icha rds , Jr . , 022639, GSC L i e u t e n a n t Colonel E&mrd J. % i t c l e y , 024627 , Mod L ieu tenan t Colonel John A. B l i l l e r , 0320293, CE Major Edward L. L a s l i e , 01550211, Crd I:ujor John R. Bammond, 01633252, Sig

b. P r i i i c i p a l Consu l t an t s :

Ec igad io r Genera l Hugh #. Rowan, Cb ic f C h e m i c a l Off lcdr , European Theslter o f O p e r a t i o n s

Br igad ie r Genera l C. H. ,",rmstrong, Ch io f , !'&tiair-c r a f t A r t i l l e r y S e c t i o n , G a n c r a l Board I E u r o p c mThcntor of Opera t ions

L i c u t m a n t Colunol Richard Now". , CommandingOfficer, 25 Chemical Smoke G e n a r r t o r R a t t a l i on

Major Eober t H. Kennedy, Commanding Officer, 27 Chemical Smoke Gcnorntor E u t t u l i c n

Cap ta in M. VI. KAne, Commonfling O f f i c o r , 79 Choril icul Snoko Gonora to r Company

Cap ta in K. a. i h g o r , CoPmanding Officer, 80 Chcraicul Smoke Ganara t .or Company

Cciptcin L. H. S h w , Co.manding Off icer , 8 3 Chonicnl Snoke G e n e r a t o r Co.Tpcny

Capta in J. L. Dav i s , Commanding Officer, 8 7 Chcniical Shcko Gonerut o r Conpany

C a p t a i n C . D. Onderwcod, CorrLrlanding O f f i c o r , 1 6 1 C h s i i c u l Smke Gens ra to r Corlpony

Cap ta in J. S. Zolsor', Cowanding Officer, 165 Chum-i c a l Snnke Gcnx-ntor Conpany

Gap%zin R. J. F o l t z , Comanding Officer, 1 6 7 Chon-i c a l . Snolco Gonora tor Colrpeny

C c p t a i n M. H. Turner, Connunding Gf f i cc r , 1 6 2 Chor.1-i c a l Smoke Genera to r Ccnpany

F i r s t ' L iou tonan t 1'1. Re Mitchell, Cormxiding @ f f i c c r , 8 2 Chenj.cal Sncke GoncrGtor Gcmpany

- 1 -

F i r s t Lieutenant C . S. Levy, Commanding O f f i c e r , 84 Chomi c a l Smoke Generator Company

F i r s t Lieutenant J. E. King, Commanding O f f i c e r , 8 5 Chemical Smoke Generator Conpany

SECTION I1

SPBCIAL COKFEFGNCES

1. Conferencos were held with Brigadier Gonerul HughW, Rowan, Chiof Chemical O f f i c e r , Zuropenn Theater of Opdr-a t i o n s ; Br igadier Generc l C. :I. Arffistrong, Chief, A n t i a i r -c r a f t A r t i l l e r y S e c t i o n , The General Board, European Thcntcr of Operc t ions , and with s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u e l s who were commnnd-i n g o f f i c e r s of chemical smoke genera tor b a t t a l i o n s and cempenlas dur ing t h e European Theater Cmpaign cnd who are l i S t Q d i n t h i s r epor t as P r i n c i p a l Consxl tcnts . (So0 P a r t one, ChLpter I , Scot ion I b ) .

- 2 -

-- PART TWO

CEiAPTER I

MISSI0I"S OF SMOKE AND SM'CIICE GENERATOR UNITS

SECTION I

GENERAL MISSION

2. G e n e r a l l y s t a t e d , the mission of smoke, o r a r t i f i c i a l f o g , i s t o concea l an o b j e c t or a c t i v i t y from enemy o b s e r v a - t i o n and t h u s p r o t e c t i t from t h e e f f e c t s of enemy weapons d i r e c t e d towards i t s d e s t r u c t i o n . The mission of c h e m i c e l smoke g e n e r a t o r u n i t s is t o r e l e a s e smoke from p o s i t i o n sw i t h i n O U T l i c e s s o thcit it obscures t h e o b j e c t t o be pro -t e c t e d .

SECTION I1

ANTIA IRCHAFT SbfOICC XISSIONS

3 . The m i s s i o n of a n t i a i r c r n f t smoke i s t o o b s c u r e a n o b j e c t o r B T 8 8 on t h e e a r t h ' s sur face f rom enemy a e r i a l o b s e r -v a t i o n t h u s prevent in@ p r e c i s i o n bombing and f i r a f i n g . T h i s i s t h e t y p e o f m i s s i o n f o r which o u r p r e s e n t smoke g e n e r a t o ru n i t s were designed. A s t u d y o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f c h e m i c a l smoke g e n e r a t o r companies and b a t t a l i o n s i n the EuropeanT h e a t e r o f Opera t jons i n d i c a t e s t h a t a n t i a i r c r a f t smoke mis-s i o n s i n r e a r a r e a s were i n t h e minor i ty , (Refersnce : 1).The 25 Smoke Genera tor B a t t a l i o n operfitcd wi th t h e 50 AAA B r i g a d e i n t h e defense of POZTU?,'3 and YiJTYItOLlTF h a r b o r , i n S o u t h e r n England, f o r s e v e r a l months. l'he smoke de fense a t t h i s i n s t a l l a t i o n WEIS h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e accordinp t o B r i g a d i e rG e n e r a l C. H. Armstrong and L i e u t t n a n t Colonel R i c h a r d Newman. The 23 Smoke Genera tor B a t t a l i o n a r r i v e d i n France on 9 June 1944 t o provide m t i a i r c r a f t snoxe p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e a r t i f i -o i a l p o r t a t OMAPI BEACP. Thi:, o rganiza t ion was n e v e r c a l l e d upon t o perform t h i s miss ion . (Referenae: 2). On ar r iva l i n W s n c e , t h e 25 Smoke Genera tor B a t t a l i o n was a s s i g n e d an t i -a i r o r a f t smoke missions a t VEXINS EAM and FORTPWAULT where it was deployed b u t never c a l l e d upon t o smoke, a c c o r d i n g t o L i e u t e n a n t Colonel Richard Newman, The 82 Smoke G e n e r a t o r Company and 87 Smoke Generf l tor Company opera ted with f o u r B r i t i s h smoke companies u n d e r British c o n t r o l e t t h e p o r t of /,"TWERP, BELGIUN for s e v e r a l months, (Rcference: 1& 3 ) .

4. A n t i a i r c r a f t smoke missions under t a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s and i n c l o s e proximi ty t o enemy p o s i t i o n s , were performea byt h e 84 Smoke Genera tor Company and 1 6 1 Smoke G e n e r a t e r Company a t MPYENNE nnd U V J L i n August , 1944. (Reference: 2 & 4).From September, 1944, t o t h e end of t h e war i n Europe t h e smoke miss ion executed by smoke genera tor units were all of e. t a c t i c a l n g t u r e , a l though i n a few fns tenccs there was e secondary a n t i a i r c r a f t miss ion .

- 3 -

SECTION I11

TJ.CTIC1.L SRWKE RIISSIONS

5. The miss ion of smoke i n t a c t i c a l s i t u n t i o n s is to obscure an o b j e c t , m a a o r a c t i v i t y on t h e e e r t h ' s sur fece from enemy t e r r e s t r i a l o b s e r v a t i o n rind prevent observed or di -ec t f i r s of h i s ground weopons egai l ls t t h e ter-e e t . Ey v i r t u e o r t h a l o r g e number of x i s s i o n s of t h i s tjrpenliich W e r E sxecut-d by smoke g s n s r s t o r Companies, t h e t z o - t i c a l smoke miss ions w e n of t h a g r e c t s s t imgortencc,

a - mPloYment O f chcmicel smoke genero tor companias i n t z c t i c n l s i t u c t i o n s wss i n i t i a t e d by T h i r d United States Army i n September 194.4,when t h e 84 Chenical Smoke GbnergtorCompnny W:?S u s e d , t o S G r e C n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of E briugs. =cross t h e NOSC18LE RIVER a t LRN?.VILIE, FRI.PJCZ, W7547, (Refs renoe: IC k 5 ) . Throughout t h e remainder of tht! war i n EuroDs, t h i s V I F S t h e prcdomjmt ing miss ion for smoke compcnies. I ts suc -c e s s f u l exccut ion mado the c o n s t r u c t i o n of heavy b r i d g e s p o s s i b l e E t en e c r l i e r phase of r i v e r orossing o p e r a t i o n s and thus speedod t h e support of ermor and h e m y E r t i l l e r y end f c c i l i t e t e d s u u p l y of tile f o r c e s in the bridgehecds.

b. fmothsr t y p e of mission performed ky t h e smoke g e n e r a t o r ' compenies WOS t h e screening of t r o o p movements on t h e b s t t l e f i e l d . J! eood exemple appears i n t h e operp t ion of a d e t e c h a s n t o f t h e 168 Smoke Generator Compeny, which sup-por ted t r o o p s of t h o 3 T n f e n t r y Divis ion i n reducing ldaginot f o r t s n e a r MUTZIG i n Dccember of 1944, (Reference: 6 ) .

c. I n F e b r w r y 1945, t h e 162 Smoke C-maretor Conpany,o p e r E t > l n g i n t h e v i c i n i t y of FREREMERSDORF, Q29, en6 bECKERN, a 9 , e s t a b l i s h e d e screen f o r t h e primery purpose of drawingf i r e and t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e enemy away from s n o t h s r localitywhere t h e i r p r i n c i p e l o p e r a t i o n took p lace . (Reference: 4 ) .A v s r i c t i o n of' t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n of smoke is i t s use \ )ho l ly t o draw a r t i l l e r y fire znd t h u s cause t h e enemy t o & i s c l o s e t h e l o c e t i o n s of' h i s weapons,

d. The exemples of t a c t i c a l smoke miss ions c i t e d above do n o t exheust t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r employment o f smoke g e n e r a t o r u n i t s i n b 6 t S l e f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s . The s o l e l i i u i t e -t i o n s i n t h i s respec t c r e t The b a s i c requirement t h e t t h e smoke positions must be w i t h i n ou r l i n e s ; t h e s i t u z t i o n mus t permi t adequate supply of smoke m a t e r - i d s ; and t h e c o m e n a e r of t h e suppor ted t roops n u s t hive a n open mind and vision t o ncce_ot a meens of a i d i n g h i s t r o o p s t o zccomplish t h e i r m i s -s i o n w i t h minimutr. c a s u a l t i e s end equipment l o s ses ,

e , I n 811 of t h e o p e r a t i o n s of chemicel Smoke gener -a t o r comprnies, Iviechanicel Smoke Generetors , o r iv12, heve besn t h e pr imrry smoke p r o 2 u c i q mems. On s a v e r u l o c c a s i o n s , however, heve been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e mechanical g e n o r e t o r s . he rensons f o r t h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n weye t h e need f o r s i1en-e i n e b i l i t y t o reech smoke p o i n t s wi th t r a n s - P o r t F t i o n so to supply t h e r e q u i r e d q u e n t i t i e s of fog O i l *

potsheve p roven to be s a t i s f e e t o r y i n t h i s employ-The ment, find t h e i r r i t e t i n ! q u a l i t y Of t h e HC smoke has bean b o t h F.dvFlntaeeotls2 n d disadvsnteFeOUS. In i t s o p e r 2 t i o n ~i n support of ROE^. ~ 1 1 3 ~ t h e X I T I CorPs, a detach-crossings of ment of the 7& Smoke Generator COmDBnY used. Mb pots, ana it is repor ted t h c t a l m g e p a r t Of EErrisont h e G e r ~ ~ c n

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--

--

obtndoned t h e i r p o s i t i o n s uue t o the i r r i t a t i o n caused by t h e smoke, (Reference1 7 ) . I n o t h e r ins tcnoes where HC smoke muni t ions were employed t o s c r e e n br idge c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e smoke c?~used some i n t e r f e r e n c e with the work of t h e e n g i n e e r t r o o p s because of i t s i r r i t a t i n g q u a l i t i e s , (Reference: 8 ) .

SECTION Ili

SECONDiBY M I S S I O N S OF SMOKE GENERATOR UZJITS

6 , There wsre p e r i o d s during t h e war i n Europe when t h e r e was l i t t l e o r no demmend f o r smoke. The personnel and equipment of smoke b e t t e l i o n s End companies were n o t was ted a t t h o s e t i m e s , bu t were d i v e r t e d t o secondary m i s s i o n s a c c o r d -i n g t o t h e i r c o p o b i l i t i e s . (Reference2 2 & 9).

7 , I n many CEISSS t h e employment o f smoke g e n e r a t o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s on sezon6ary miss ions hed a profound e f f e c t on t h e i r m a i l a b i l i t y snd r e a d i n e s s t o perform t h e i r p r imsrym i s s i o n , IJsually i t was necessary t o turn i n , o s s t o r e , t h e i r smoke g e n e r a t o r s End o t h e r equipment not r e q u i r e d t o perform t h e i r ess igned miss ion s o t h e t v i h l c l e s would be e v e i l a b l e and personnel not burdened with chre and mnir,tenenc e o f impedimente f o r which t h e y hod no inmediate use, This caused s e r i s u s d e l e y s i n p r e p c r i n g f o r snoke oper6t ions. Some organ- i z a t i o n s which were committed t o secondary miss ions i n t h e commnica t ions zone were not re leased when t h e r e was a need f o r them i n 'the e r n i e s t o perform smoke missions. During t h e l a t t e r p m t of Merch 1945, i t was proposed t h e t o t h e r Chemical Worfnre Serv ice t r o o p s be converted t o smoke g e n e r a t o r u n i t s t o meet t h e es t imated future needs of t h e erfiiies whi le s i x coxpanies w w e being employed on seeonaery missions, (Ref-e r e n c e : 2 ) . The i n s u f f i c i e n c y of smoke genera tor companies i n t h e armies was, i n p a r t , responsible f o r t h e p r a c t i c e of breeking companLes up i n t o a m 1 1 detachments, sometimes w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d , fsr smoke opesa t icns . T h i s pluced a burden o f supply and a d a i n i s t r t l t i o n on t h s companies for which t h e y were n c t deeigne6 and added n;ucll t o t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s .

CHAPTER I1

SECTION I

GENERIL

8. (This d i s c u s s i o n i s based on a s tudy of a v n i l e b l e o p e r a t i o n r e p o r t s cf smoke u n i t s and experiences o f L i e u t e n a n t Cclonel Fiske End t h e 23 Chemical Smike Generator B a t t a l i o n ) ,Tho t e c t i c s of m t i o l r c r f i f t snake and t h e o p e r a t i n g p r c c e d u r e s of smoke c a p n n i e s prc Gdequately Set fGr th i n F i e l d Manual 3 - 5 0 , "Largo Area S m k e Screening", In t h e e x e c u t i m o f a n t i -e i r c r o f t smoke miss ions i n t h o European TheEter of O p e r a t i c n s ,t h e procedures c u t l i n e d i n t h i s manual hnve been f c l l o w e d q u i t e c l o s e l y . Hohever, t h e r e is no publ ished d o c t r i n e t o g u i d e smoke u n i t s i n performing t a o t i c e l smcke m i s s i c n s o r t o provide i n f o r m t i m t o t h e comclonders nf suppor ted u n i t s r c l - t i v e t o t h e c e p o b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s 3f smoke e n d smoke genera tor units. The procedures t h o two t y p e s of srioke o p e r e t i o n s d i f f e r somewhat , and t h e w d i f f e r e n c s s fire p o i n t 0 6 out i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

- 5 -

-- SECTION I1

T!,CTICS OF 0:OiCE

9 . P lacenent of t h e screen . Since the purpose o f stclke is t o p r e v e n t Gbservoticn, it is obvious t h a t t h e screen s h r u l d be pieced between t h e Gbject t a b e cbscured ana t h e enemy o b s e r v a t i o n pc in t . Screening i s ROE e f f e c t i v e when t h e smoke Gnvelopes t h e enemy, but t h i s placerdent i s u s u c i l y beycnd t h e c e p a b i l i t i e s 3f smoke generetor organizRt i ns . I n o n t i a i r c r a f t scicke nissicns, t h e screen must CDvEr t h e a re8 o r o b j e c t l i k e n blanket l n x d e r t o cone between t h a enemy o b s e r v a t i o n poin ts and t h e a r e a ur a c t i v i t y which we do n o t went 'the enemy t o s e e . Thus, i n r e e s m a b l y level t e r r c i n ,i t is n o t necessary f o r b u r fo rces t o be envelcped i n sncke I n crder t o prevent t e r r e s t r i a l jbaerva t icn . Khen t h i s nethcci i s p r a c t i c o b l e , it has t h e zdvsntcge of p e m i t t l n g o u r a c t i v -i t y t o be c a r r i e d cut i n en m e a f r e e of smoke, t h u s h a s t e n i n gi t s conclusicK and n i n i n i z i n g t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e ts i t caused by poor v i s i b i l i t y . Screens of t h i s type shculd nc,t be t w olcse t o t h o screened o b j e c t o r f i r e d i r e c t e d c t t h e s c r e e n will heve e f f e c t on our a c t i v i t y , I n s;me l o c a l i t i e s , c.f which t h e upper Rhine River V b l l e y i s t y p i c c l , d n m y obser-v a t i o n p o i n t s may be in pos i t ions comparable t o t h a t o f 6n a i r observer . Since t h e smoke cannot always be depended upon t o r i s e h i g h enough so t h a t the enemy observer o a m o t see over t h e t o p of t h e s c r e e n ana i n t o t h e area t o be obscured, i t may be necessary t o envelop o u r a c t i v i t y i n smoke.

10. I n near ly every s i t u a t i o n the commarder hes t h 6 choice of using one l a r g e screen o r severa l s m a l l ones. This i s t r u e i n both a n t i a i r c r a f t and t a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . Gere-f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y in a n t i a i r c r a f t sit-u a t i o n s h a s r e s u l t e d in the d o c t r i n e being e s t e b l i s h a d t h a t wi th a g i v e n number of smoke t r o o p s ava i lab le , it i s u s u z l l yb e t t e r t o employ a l l on one l a r g e screen r a t h e r t h a n e s t a b - l i s h decoy screens. I n t a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s , smoke u s u a l l y drews t h e f i r e of enemy ground weapons. S m a l l s c r e e n s s e r v e t o mark, w i t h 8 f a i r degree of p r e c i s i o n , t h e scene of our a c t i v i t y , snd so a re l i k e l y t o drnw.intense and r c t h e r occur-a t e f i r e , The l o r g e s c r e e n , on the other hand, e s p e c i a l l y i f wel l p l a c e d , covers such a le rge e r e a of p o s s i b l e c c t i v i t y On our p a r t t h a t the enemy may consider i t a waste of zmmunition t o f i r e i n t o I t s t a l l , because o f h i s doubt t h a t he will hit anything p r o f i t a b l e . As an example, a l e r g e smoke screen designed t o p r o t e c t t a c t i c u l b r idge c o n s t r u c t i o n should be s e v e r a l thousand yards in length , and SeVtirsl p o s s i b l e con-s t r u c t i o n s i t e s should be included within the a r e a o f t h e screen , If t h e r e i s o n l y one poss ib le crossing s i t e , it i s l i k e l y th: t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s c r e e n w i l l be g r e c t l y reduced, beceuse of thg enemy knowing t h t t h i s p e r t i c u l s r p o i n t is t h e scene of our ~ o t i v i t y , c6n p l a c e e f f e c t i v e un- observed f i r e ~t t h e cons t ruc t ion s i t e . However, observed end d i r e c t f i r e would be denied t o the enemy,

11. Time of development o f t h e screen . '&hen t o s t a t srcoking is an equal ly importcnt f x t o r i n t h e t o c t i c s of srroke. I n a n t i a i r c r a f t smoke operc t ions i t i s n e c e s s z r y t h i t t h e screen be f u l l y developed before t h e enemy 6ir e t t s c k be-gins . I n t a c t i c a l smoke opera t ions t h e enemy should be d e n i e d ObservRtion of t h e arep. before ou r a c t i v i t i n t h a t a r e e com-mences. If t h i s is not done, theenemy hag D chance t o l e 6 r n V ~ g o i n gS o n , know i ts p r e c i s e l o c r t i o n and make a c c u r -a t e ed jus tments of h i s wea_oons on poin ts i n t h e m e a . He c a n

t h e n , even though he k t e r i s n o t able t o s e e t h e a rea , p l a c eI -ccura te f i r e s which w i l l s e r i o u s l y hamper OUT a c t i v i t y end p o s s i b l y prevent i t s compleTion. Smoke coverage i s n o t i n -s t m t n n e o u s , but r e q u i r e s from 1 5 minutes t o h a l f a n hour , Fnd sometimes more, t o cmnplstely cover the flrea t o be s c r e e n -ed. T h i s has 3t t i m e s been a source of t rouble t o smoke u n i t cc;a"nders. The commander of t h e supporc,ed uni t w i l l i n s t r u c t t h e smoke u n i t commander t o s t a r t smoking a t a s p e c i f i e d t h e , end l e t e r i t is l e s r o d thEt t h e supported uni t commmder wsnted t h e screen fully developed a t t h a t time.

SECTION 111

TACTICS O~SIflOICEGEbTERATQR UNITS

12, The t a c t i c s employed by smoke genera tor u n i t s a r e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e n e t u r e of t h e i r mission. In any smoke oper-a t i o n irivolving smoke g e n o r a t o r cimpsnies, it i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t p r o v i s i c n be n&de t o accomplish t h e smoke miss ic r , w i t h m y wind d i r e c t i - n , I n z n t i a i r c r a f t smoke o p e r e t i w s , t h i s ,

i s done by heving a smoke c i r c u i t , c r s e r i e s of smcke g e n e r - e t o r p o s i t i c i i s , surrounding t h e s i t e t o be screened. However, o n l y t h c s o p o s i t i o n s which Ere r e q u i r e d f o r a g i v e n wind d i r e c t i o n a r e occupied a t any ..ne time, Should. t h e wind d h e c t i m chmnge, s u b d i v i s i c n s i.f the smoke o r g a n i z a t i m a r e mcved t 3 new p c ; s i t i i n s . This procedure i s p o s s i b l e i n most a n t i a i r c r c f t m i s s i m s i f t h e rosdnet i s fevorebie a n d t h e a c t i v i t y i s not i n c l o s e proximity t c enemy l i n e s a n d t h u s exposed t c . f i r 3 o f ground weapons, I n t a c t i c a l m i s s i o n s , t h e n e p r n e s s cf the enemy p r e c l u d e s m a v a e n t of e lements o f t h e smvke genera tor c r g s n i z a t i o n t o ccmpenscte f o r changes i n wind d i r e c t i o n . Therefore , t h e u s u e l p r a c t i c e is t s emplace g e n e r c t o r s cnd s u p p l i e s a t t h e . ind iv idua l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e smolte c i r c u i t . Coverage w i t h a n y wind Gir6ct ion i s t h e n accomplished by s t a r t i n g up 3r s h u t t h g down a p p r o p r i a t e gen- e r c t m e . The e n t i a i r c r a f t smke c i r c u i t i s u s u e l l y l o c E t c d cne t o cne ond P ho l f m i l e s upv~ir-d c f t h e v i t a l p o i n t t o be screened. With g e n e r a t o r s ( N i l t y p e ) space a t 100 t o 1 5 0 y a r d s i n t e r v c l s , t h e smoke r i s e s and beccmes l e s s dense by t h e t i m e it reaches t h e a r e a t o be p r o t c c t e d . This behavior of t h e smoke r e s u l t s i n minimum i n t e r f e r e n c e t o t r a f f i c ffiove-ment and c t h e r impoztant groand a c t i v i t y i n t h e p r o t e c t e d erw. Tnct icn l smolts c i r c u i t s a r e u s u a l l y n o t more t h a n 500 yards upwind of t h e Eirei. o r o b j e c t $3 be Gbscured End so i t i s necessary t o h n e l e s s i n t e r v s l between g m o r n t o r s t o a s s u r e t h o t a screer. i s formec, frau t h o g e n e r a t m smcke trail 's . Genern tcr spacing i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s has vasied frcln 40 t o 150 y a r d s with M2 g e n e r a t o r s . F a c t c r s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s p e c - i n g of g e n e r a t o r s i n both e n t i e i r c r a f t and t e c t i c a l s i t u z t i o n s a m t e r r a i n wind speed end u i r e c t i o n , end a i r t u r b u l e n c e . U s u a l l y i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o l i m i t t h e e f f e c t i v e range of smoke s c r e e n so FS ti! minimi'ze t h e Barger c f i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h o p e r - a t i o n s . T h i s i s f r e q u e n t l y d l f f i c u l t to Rccomplish w i t h gen-e r a t o r s i.n which t h e smoke output car.not be v a r i e d .

13: Reconnaissance p d , p e p a r a t i o n of t h e p l a n , As in all n i l i t r r y o p e r n t i m s , it i s s s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e smoke unit csnmenCer prepare t: p l a n for t h e snoke opere t ion . T h i s plani n t h e r e s u l t G f hl.s knewledge of t h e supported u n i t ' s m i s -s i c n , t h e Li i ss ion a s s i g n e d him by t h e ccronnnLer of . the sup-porter: u n i t and h i s recnnnaissance of t h e arei! i n w h i c h he i s t d opera te . These a c t i v i t i e s r e q u i r e a c e r t a i n amount of

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t i m e , and a P t e r he has Prepared zn acceptable p lan , i ts cie-t e i l s m u s t be cc"unica te8 t o t h e smoke generator o r g a n i z a t i o n and s m e t ine a l lowed f Or reconnaissence by subsrc;in- a t e CCIJ-roaniers. I n a n t i a i r c r a f t OperatiGns, t h i s procedure u s u a l l g need n o t be a has ty one, but i n t a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s t h e t i m e f a c t o r demands that t h i s be done quickly. It has besn char-a c t e r i s t i c Of t a c t i c a l smoke operat ions i n the European T h e a t e r of o p e r a t i o n s $hat i n s u f f i c i e n t t ime was allowed t h e smoke uni t commander t o make a reconnaissance and prepare e n ade- quate p l a ~ f o r t h e opera t ion , Smoke companies have u s u s l l y besn r e q u i r e d t o begin opera t ions 'wl . th in a few hours o f t h e i r arr ive1 i n t h e v i c i n i t y Of t h e operat iondl s i t e . Experivnceof smoke u n i t commanders ind icEtes t h a t when t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s i s preceded by a long a c t o r msrch, it i s neoesszry t o t h o r - oughly check a l l smoke generator and r e d i o equipment t o in-sure t h c t i t w i l l ba i n working condi t ion when i ts use is requi red . It is be l ieved tha t t h e minimum time of one f u l l day of daylight should be givcn a smoke uni t t o prepcre f o r . nn oper&tlon. . (An e x c e l l e n t example of thorough End pnin- s t a k i n g p r e p m a t i o n s appeers i n the opemtion of a detach-n s n t of t h e 83 Chemicel Smoke Generator Compeny a t SCBOPHOVXN, GERhljINY, 23 and 24 Fobruzry 1545 i n support of 30 I n f c , n t r yDivis ion E s s n u l t crossing of t h e ROER RIVEA, (Reference: 1 0 ) .

14. Occupation of pos i t ions . I n the usual a n t i e i r c r a f t smoke m i s s i o n of a prolonged c a t u r e , p o s i t i o n s a r e s e l e c t e d a s a r e s u l t of thorough reconnaissance, adequate ly marked or otherwise msde known t o a l l subordinetes , end then a r e occu-p ied d a i l y e t s p e c i f i e d times. In t a c t i c c l miss ions , the o c c u p ~ , t i o nof p o s i t i o n s s h o u l i be c c r r i e d out under caver of darkness , and suppl.les f o r severa l hours opera t ion moved t o t h e D o s i t i o n a t t h e same time. Daylight occupeTlon of p o s i t -ions f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t s ir. d i sc losure t o t h e enamy o f t h e p r e - c i s e l o c a t i o n s of g e n e r a t o r s end t h e i r opere t ing personnel , with consequent e e r l y des t ruc t ion by a r t i l l e r y f i r e .

15. S e c u r i t y and p r o t e c t i o n o f the uni t i n opere t ion . I n nee r ly a l l smoke genera tor cpers t ions, whethar t e e t i c a l o r a n t i a i r c r a f t , the-orgcniza t ion is s o widely d i s p e r s e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s connot mutual ly support ezch o t h e r i n defense a g a i n s t any ground Pction. It m u s t r e l y , t h e r e f o r e , on t b e e c t i o n of o ther g round f o r c e s t o dafend t h e a r e a i n which it i s o p e r a t i n g , and forwarning of tiny s e r i o u s ensmy t h r e e t which would r:q.uire t h e i r withdrawal o r d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r equip- ment, Other s e c u r i t y measures i n a n t i a i r o r o f t suoke a s s i g n - ments incl i tde t h e U S Q of s u c h concealment o s i s a v a i l a b l e , s t e g g e r i n g of ind iv idua l genera tors znd t h e s i t i n g of c r g s n i ca n t s i a i r c r & f tmachine guns so a s t o discourage s t r a f i w a t t c c k s by enemy s i r p l c n e s , I n t a c t i c a l smke miss ions , d e f i l a d e o r cover o r scme s o r t i s sought f o r i n d i v i d u d g e n e r a t c r s and o p e r c t i w personnel t o minimize t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i n j u r y t o men and equipment, \Amen time permi ts , t h e g e n e r a t o r s a n d o p w f t i n g s u p p l i e s a re dug in . S l i t t renches shouid be provided f o r pcrsoimel.

SECTION 1 V

CONTROL OF SMOKE

16, H i h r commander and coordinat ion with t h e o v e r c l l operat i 3 n . * D e r e t i o m , t h e smoke u n i t is a t t a c h e d t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n of one of t h e arms, and +,he c o m n d e r of t h e supported u n i t decides i n a genera l w a y t h e mamer i n which smoke w i l l be employed.

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a. I n t h e Eur0pea.n T h e a t e r of Operat ions, a n t i o i r - c r a f t smoke i s under the c o n t r o l of t h e a r - t i a i r c r a f t a r t i l l e r y commander. Other a g e n c i e s , wi th whom snoke employment must be coord ina ted , a r e the a i r f o r c e , which may veto t h e smoke o p e r e t i o n ; and army end navy a u t h o r i t i e s respons ib le f o r t h e d i s c h a r g e of sh ipping a t p o r t s , who m u s t ogree d a i l y t o t h e employment of smoke. I n p r a c t i c e , t h i s procedure was sat is-f a c t o r y a t e s t a b l i s h e d p o r t s i n t h e United Kingdom. It was f'olind, however, t h t due t o poor communic~tions f o c i l i t i c s i n t h e OMAKA BEACH a r e a , it wss cumbersome and d i f f i c u l t z o c o n t a c t ncv6l e u t h o r i t i e s . (Reference : 2 ) . Control of a l l a i r defense means was e x e r c i s e d througfi A j o i n t AA O p e r a t i o n s -F i g h t e r Cor-ti-01Room. The smoke bat t ,e l ion had .a l i a i s o n o f f i c e r a v a i l a b l e t o be p r e s e n t a t t h i s pl.ace. The Naval O f f i c e r In Charge of OMAHA BEACH l ikewisa had l i e i s o n o f f i c e r s . t h e r e , bu t t h e y never c o u l d be found. It i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t had t h e r e been c n urgent n e e d f o r smoke i n t h i s E r e c I , t h e t t h e s e c o o r d i n a t i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s w o u l d have been c o r r e c t -e d q u i c k l y .

b. T h c t i c a l smoke o e r a t i o n s . I n t o c t i c a l smoke o p e r a t i o n s , s m b k e g e n e r a t o r c z p a n i a v e opervted under conTrol of e n g i n e e r b a t t a l i o n s snd groups, i n f s n t r y r e g i m e n t s , end s o n e t i n e s i n f s n t r y end ermored d iv is ions . I n such s i t u -a t i o n s , it i s impor tan t t h a t t h e conmender, who has t h e . pr imary i n B e r e s t i n the o v e r e l l operat ion , inform e l l d e m e n t s of h i s command t h a t smoke will be used, where it w i l l be used,who i s i n d i r e c t c o m e a d of t h e smoke operat ion and who s h o u l d b e c o n t a c t e d should t h e smoke ceuse excessive i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h m y phase of t h e o v e r e l l opera t ion . There have been numorous c a s e s o f c o r p s o r d i v i s i o n s t a f f o f f i c e r s o r d e r i n g f n d l v i Z u a l g e n e r a t o r operators o r smoke s e c t i o n s t o s t o p t h e i r g e n e r a t o r s ,

17, I n smo'ke o p e r a t i o n s , e i t iner a n t i a i r c r a f t o r t a c - t i c a l , it i s t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e smoke uni t commmder t o d i s - p o s e h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n s o t h a t he can p e r f o m the m i s s i o n e s s i g n e d him e f f i c i e n t l y . A l l o r d e r s t o s t a r t smoking, s t o p smcking, and r e q u e s t s f o r more o r l e s s smoke, m u s t p a s s through him.

18, The smoke u n i t commander judges t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h i s screer. by observ ing i t s d e n s i t y and coverage and hy r e c e i v i n g r e p o r t s from h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s and o f f i c e r s of t h e suppor ted u n i t , who a r e u s u a l l y d ispersed ove r a f a i r l y l a r g e a r e a . Antieircraft smoke s c r e e n s C 8 r l I n O t be a c c u r a t e l y judged from p o s i t i o n s on t h e ground. These screens should be obse rv -ed from p o s i t i o n s which approximate poss ib le bomb r e l e a s e p o i n t s . In p r a c t i c e , a i r o b s e r v a t i o n of the s c r e e n i s used whenever p r a c t i c a b l e i n d a y l i g h t trial opera t ions t o c o r r e c t any d e f i c i e n c i e s i n placement o f smoke genera tors . S i n c e smoke i s r a r e l y u s e d during d c y l i g h t t o supporz t h e a n t i a i r - c r E f t d e f e n s e , it i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e t o e x e r c i s e o o n t r o l o v e r t h i s t y p e of smoke o p e r a t i o n from t h o &ir .

1 9 . Communicotions. Smoke generator campanies have o r g a n i c communicnt i m i q u i p m e n t designed f o r use i n perform-i n g r e a r a r e e a n t i a i r c r o f t smoke missions. The neans p r o v i d e da r e te lephone enh f requency moduleted red ios . IVith &mplet ime t o c o n s t r u c t te lephone l i n e s a long t h e whole smoke c i r l c u i t , findw i t h r e d i o t o supplement te lephone c o m u n i c e t i o n s , t h e communicetion system i s q u i t e cmnplete and e f f e c t i v e , Th6 communic c-ticm s p e r s o n n e l , however, i s not adequa2e t o m a i n t a i n t h e i n t e r i o r communic ? t iom s y s t effl end g r o v i d e com-municot ion t o t h e s u p p o r t e d u n i t un less i ts commend post i s

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q u i t e c l o s e t o t h a t of t h e smoke generator o r g e n i z s t i o n , I ntect-l.cel smoke opero t lons , rad io communication m u s t be wholly re l i . ed on, a s t h e r e is seldcm t i n e t o cons t ruc t t h e necessery te:cphone,lineS. I n someLpases it may be necessary t o augnent t h e organic r e c i i o equipment i n order t o insure r a p i d t r a n s - miSsi0n of Orders. I n t a c t i c a l smoke operat ions I t h e p r a c t i c e of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e smoke conmula post e t or very llear t h e c o n m n d p o s t o f t h e sUppOrte6 uni t h a s insured necessRry c l o s e c o n t c c t botween smoke commander and t a c t i c a l comander. In s i t u t - t i o n s where t w o 01’ more smoke compnies hove operatedunder c o n t r o l O f e b a t t a l i o n headquurters , CGUMlUications has been a s e r i o u s problem due ts t h e l imi ted ronge c f frequency msduleted r a d i o t ransmiss ions over i r r e g u l n r t e r r a i n ,

20. Weathor informst ion. Tha behcvior o f smoke i s dcpondent upon c e r t a i n we-ther elemerlts; t h e wind d i r e c t i o n , i t s speed, cnd t h e turbulence of t h e stmcsphere. O v e r a l l v i s i b i l i t y w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h e e e n s i t y of smake needed t o acccmplish the smGlre miss ion , It i s des i reb le t h a t e c c u r a t e f o r e c a s t s of these weather elements be ovs i lnb le t 3 t h e smoke cumandor when he i s preparing h i s p l m . Experience h a s shcwn t h ? t whilo f o r e c a s t s provided t o smoke ccmmmders have lwd r e p s c n r b l e eccurc-cy f o r t h e g m e r z l area cf s p e r o t i o n s ,t h e y hove been u n r e l i a b l e f’cr t h e s p e c i f i c time tmd p l e c e e t which t h e m a k e ‘ q u r e t i c n was p6rfOrmed. Smoke ccmpmies a r e prcv ided with e x c e l l e n t weother equipment and w i t h weclther observers t o ob ta in d a t a , The wind measuring equipment a v a i l - a b l e t o t h s e compani.es i s of two types: an e l e b o r a t e wind vane and enemometer (ML-80)with an i n d i c a t o r (ML-ll7) which o p e r a t e s by remote c o n t r o l , end a smell p o r t a b l e wind vane (I’LL-73) and anemometer (!a-62), The e labora te equipment has been used seldom because of t h e t ime requi red t o i n s t a l l it and d i f f i c u l t y of concea l ing it. I n p r a c t i c e , smoke commnd- ers have used a r t i l l e r y metro nesseges augmented by t h e i r own o b s a r v a t i o c s t o provide c u r r e n t w e t h e r informat ion . ‘yhsn u s e d , f o r e c a s t s of g e n o r a l weather and. f o r e c a s t s of wind d i r z c t i o n end speed p r o b a b i l i t i e s (wind r o s e s ) have been used p r i m a r i l y to e s t a b l j s h p r i o r i t i e s i n t h e development of the smoke c i r c u i t when tinie was an important f a c t o r i n g e t t i n g i n t o opera t ion .

SECTION _V

SUPPLY Ob Si’,DKE GENEXATOR UNITS

21. Supply h a s been t h e g r e e t u s t i rob lm of chemical snoke g o n e r a t o r companies. The bas ic rcason f o r t h e i r d i f f i -c u l t i e s is t h o l a c k of cargo t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n t h e company. However, supply d i f f i c u l t i e s vcr ied i n c o m p n i e s due t o d i f f e r e r c e :n t h e i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , In the European T h e a t a r Of Operat ioLs, t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e a or smoke company organ; z a t i o n s e x i s t e d . Two types conformed t o t h o p r e s e n t Tables 0 f Organiza t ion snd Equipment 3-267 , t h e s e b e h e o r g a n i z a t i o n sequipped with t h o LIechqIl Lcal Smoke Generator , M2. The t h i r d type of comp~ny r e s u l t e d from incomplete re-equipment under the l a t e s t Tables of Organizat ion and Equipment 3-267. These companies were re-equipped wi th Mechanical Smoke Generator.s, M 2 , b u t bi:cuusa of E o n - a v a i l e b i l i t y o f $-ton t r u c k s end t r a i l e r s r e t a i n e d t h e i r 22-tcn t rucks and, i n Some c a s e s , a S u b s t a n t i p 1 nunbar of t r a i l e r s , The type Organiza t ion equip- Ped w i t h t h e hi,;ochmict.l Smoke Gonerator, 11, i s omi t ted fran c o n s i d e r e t i o n i n tp-is s t i j d y because of i t s gclnerotor being

o b s o l e t e . I n consider ing t h e supply of smoke genera tor u n i t s , t h e t o n n a g e requirements should be borne i n mind. The hIech- a n i c a l Smoke Generator, k?, uses abodt 560 pounds of f o g o i l , g a s o l i n e and water per hour. Assuming t h x t a l l o f t h e com-pany’s 48 g e n e r a t o r s ore cpera ted , i t s requirements e r e approximate ly 134 tons p e r hour. A company equipped s t r i c t - l y in accordancc w i t h Tables of organizat ion and Equipment h a s 124 t o n s of cergo CPpQCity i n i t s 24-ton t r u c k s , provided t h e k i t c h e n t ruck i s used f o r opera t iopa l suppl ics . Water and g e s o l i n e a r e usua l ly a v c i l a b l o from sources w i t h i n t e n mi les o f t h e s i t e of t h e smoke company’s operet ion, Tog o i l supply p o i n t s , however, heve been very much f a r the r than t h i s , vary ing from 50 miles t o s e v e r a l hundred miles , Three spec- i f i c i n s t a n c e s ore c i t e d here f o r example: When t h e 84. Chem-i c a l Smoke Generator Cornpny operated ~t lU.YXN?JQ, WAtTCE, i t s f o g o i l had t o come from OMAHA S U C H , E dis tence of zbout 120 m i l e s ; (Reference : 2) . When t h e 84 Chemicel Smoke Generator Company was r e l i e v e d of i t s smoxe mission s t AFdUVILLE, FRANCE(U74),i t sent 20 t r u c k s 2nd t r a i l e r s bsck t o Oh’AKA BEACH t o r e p l e n i s h i t s fog o i l supply, an e s t b c t e d d i s t m c e of approximately 400 m i l e s ; (Reference: 4 ) . The 23 Cheaiccl Smoke Gen- e r a t o r E a t t a l i o n , o p e r a t i n g or. t h e RIILVE RIVE3 e t p o i n t s be-tween BO” and RBNAGEN, arew i t s fog oil s u p p l i e s from ROLS- DORF on t h e west s i d e of t h e ROER RIVEI neEr D W m , about 60 m i l e s @way, (Reference : 9 I.

a. Fog o i l supply. The convent iona l ly orgznized smoke g e n e r a t o r compeny i s not capable of supplying i t s oper-a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m n t s o f fog o i l with i t s orgznic t r a n s p o r t - a t i o n when t h e t u r n around t ime from t h e Tog o i l dump t o t h e g e n e r a t o r p c s i t i o n s exceeds one hour, This type of compeny has i n v a r i a b l y been suppl ied ir- i t s operat lons b y t r a n s p o r t -a t i o n provided by t h e suppor ted uni t . In some c a s e s , detach-ment s f r o m quartermaster t r u c k companies have been a t t a c h e d t o t h e smoke uni t t o t r s n s p o r t i t s f o g o i l . On t h e o ther hand, t h e type o f company w i t h w c h a n i c a l Smoke Generators , u2, and 28-ton truc!m, sm handle a l e r g e por t ion of its supply requirements . As an example, the 23 B a t t a l i o n , cper-a t i n g on t h e RHINE, t r a n s p o r t e d spproxini&tely 50% of i t s f0 O i l r equi rements wi th company t ranspor tn t ion . (Reference: g?.The c o n v e n t i o n a l l y equipped company cannot c a r r y any b a s i c l o a d o f o p e r a t i o n a l s u p p l i e s and move i ts T/E equipment.Companies equip ed with 28-ton t rucks were nble t o c a r r y a b a s i c l o c d o f 42E hours o f smoke suppl ies .

b. Othe; supElies. Supply of requirements o ther t h a n smoke m t e r i e s wa not a s d i f f i c u l t , but did p r a s e n tSame problems. Thcse problems aro3e primErily from t h e b r e v i t y or t h e i r o t tachEents t o o t h e r o r g a d a a t i m s , r a t h e r t k s n l a c k o f t r a n s p o r t a t i m .

e. Maintenon=, Aside f r o m t h e supp ly of oper-a t i o n a l me t c r i a l s , maintemnce of the Mechanical ,%;ns_k.Gener- atur, M 2 , p resented a p r o b l m of g r e e t importence. ‘lilis machine, perhaps due t o an e f f o r t t o reduce i t s weight t o R m i n i m u m , ht:s shown a tendency t o be unre l iob le i n opere t ion . Ncrmally, t h e defec ts which occurred have n s t been s e r i c u s and u s u a l l y r e q u i r e some minor a d j u s b z n t o r t h e replacement of a p a r t . However, spcre p o r t s fer t h i s m c h i n e were never a v a i l e b l e f o r i s s u e of :he prescr ibed a r g a n i z a t i s n a l s e t o f s p e r e ps r t s t o companies, So far 8s i s known, even the chemica l maintenance c m p a n i e s were unable t c g e t s tandard s p e r e p s r t s , As R r e s u l t o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , genert‘ tors which r e q u i r e d simple f i r s t F n d secoad echelon maintenance hsd t o

be r e t u r n e d t o chemica l mein tencnce compenies f o r r e p c i r .In some cases maln tenence companies f a b r i c a t e d p a r t s which were f r e q u e n t l y needed ar,d m a i n t a i n e d small de tachment i n t h e v i c i n i l y of smoke g e n e r a t o r companies so a s t o r e p a i rq u i c k l y machines which were non-operational. Dur ing one week of smoke o p e r a t i o n s , the 23 Chemical Smoke Genera to r Battalio ( c o n s i s t i n g of two companies) s e n t 34 g e n e r a t o I s t o a m a i n t -enance c m p a n y for r e p a i r . ( R e f e r e n c e : 9 ) . Many more were a d j u s t e d o r had r e p a i r s mode on them by company g e n e r a t o rm c h a n i c s . k t o r v e h i c l e main tenance was a l s o a p r o b l e m i n smoka gene ra to r com$aniec, T h i s was due t o an i n s u f f i c i e c t number of motor mechanics i n t h e o r g s n i z a t i o n . Again t h e f r e q u e n t changes i n a t tachment maae i t d i f f i c u l t for compan-i e s t o ma in ta in c o n t a c t w i t h ordnoncfi u n i t s !which had t h e i r v e h i c l e s for t h i r d and f o u r t h e,che.lon n a i n t e n a n c c work.

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PART THEE

CHAPTER I

NECESSITY FOR SJlOK4 GZNERATOR UNITS

S?CTION I

DISCUSSION

22. Severa l f a c t o r s must bc cons idorsd i n doterminingwhothcr t ho rc is 3 n e d for c h c x i c n l smoke g e n e r a t o r u n i t s , Smoke ht.s proven t o b e of g r o a t viilue j.n dcfcnse a g a i n s t air a t t a c k nnd 03 t h e b a t t l e f i e l t . I t s f u t u r e u t i l i t y as n means of a n t i a i r c r a f t dcfcnso i s dspendent upon t h e t a c t i c s and t o c h n i q u e s which a i r f o r c e s may use i n t he f u t u r e , Alllor3 a i r f o r c o s havc used r ada r devieos e x t e n s i v e l y i n bombing enemy t a r g e t s . This a p p l i c a t i o n o f radar hes n u l l i f i e d t h e e f f e c t o f smoko. It i s rcasonnblo t o assume t h a t t h o enemyilir f o r c c i n t h a next weir w i l l bo as w e l l equipped w i t h r a d a r d e v i c e s ua o u r awn a i r f o r c e v i m i n t h i s war. Agoin, it has been p r e d i c t o d t h c t i n t h e f u t u r o bombing f l c e t s may be com-posed of p i l o t l c s s a i r c r a f t , which may bo guided t o t h e i r t a r g e t by remote r a d i o c o n t r o l , o r perhaps d i roc tod t o t h e i r target i n a manner similir t o t h e f i r i n g o f a cannon, t h a t is,i t bc ing s t a r t e d in '1 g i v e n d i r e c t i o n with u t iming d e v i c e t o c o n t r o l t h e p k c e c t which t h c m i s s i l e e x p l o d e s . Obviously,smoke ccn not be an e f f o c t i v e da fense a g a i n s t such a n a t t a c k . On t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , i t is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h o developmontof r a d a r and i n f r a - r c d observ ing equipment mcy l i k c w i s c n u l l - i f g t h c e f f s c t of smokc. This would be e s p o c i r L l l y t r u e i f s u c h dovices hcd wide enough d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the onemy f o r c e s t o m s u r a e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l o? fir0 and re l ic ib le o b s e r v a t i o n . The Gcrmnn xmmy hid G nurnber o f i n f r a - r ed obsorving dev iccs , b u t i t i s not knovm how e x t c r s i v o l y they were used , I n f r a -r o d r a y s a re capable o f p e n e t r a t i n g h u m and a r t i f i c i a l f o g ,b u t n o t n n t u r n l f o g . (Raforence: 13) . Thus, tho need for smoko i n t h u f u t u r o must be dotermined b!y s t u d y of s c i s n -t i f i c dovolapmcnts designed t o overcome thc co:-.cealing powerof smoko, and the e f f o r t s t o produce 8 smoke t h z t w i l l be opaquo t o i n f r a - r o d snd rcanr rays . It i t is ds te rmined t h a t t h e r c i s u need f c r snoko, t h e n tho need f o r chemical smoke g e n t r o t o r t r o o p s i s e s t a b l i s h e d .

SECTION I

DISCUSSION

23. Smoke g c n o r a t o r t r o o p s were i n i t i a l l y s e p u r a t c companies. Being designed p r i m d r i l y f o r a n t i a i r c r a f t siiokc p r o t o c t i o n of l a r g e and i n p o r t d n t i n s t a l l a t i o n s , i t w a s found t h n t i n n c & > r l y o v c r y s i t u a t i o n s c v o r a l corip:,nics w o r e rcqui rod . I n o r d e r t o p rov ide 3 c o o r d i n a t i n g and comond

agency f o r such i n s t a l l a t i o n s , the b a t t a l i o n hecdquzders and h e n d w a r t e r s dotachnont WE& cruatcd , and compcniosv,eroa t tached t o and actached from b a t t o l i c n s i n accordcnco ;.,.ith t h e requirements for t r o o p s tlt ci given i n s t a l l a t i o n . .'nlcn t h e r e was no longer a need f o r a n t i a i r c r a f t smoke at ports and o t h e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e European Thaatar O p c r a t i c n s ,mriny o f t h e smokc companies and b a t t a l i o n s wcrtj avz,il-ab12 t o t h e O r I U i C S for such b a t t l e f i e l d usc c.3 they v,ero s u i t a b l e f o r . I n n o s t s i t u c t i c n s , a single cofipcny w3s cd-equate to PeTfOrm t h e miss ion assigned. Becruse ,,f t h i s ,and the inaaW,uacy of t h o present b h t t a l i o n haedqucrters oncl headquar te rs d o t a c h " t o accozpl i sh t h e propsr func t icns

. of a headqUUte;.rS, many smoke u n i t commanders and chemicals taff ' o f f l c o r s r e d t h a t them 'isno nee?. f o r a b a t t a l i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n . On t h c o t h e r hand, army ZhenicGl o f f i c c r s and u n i t cumrzandcrs g o n o r a l l y agree tk t t h e r c i s B naed f o r n b a t t a l i c n headquarters and headguarters company lvhich i s capable of p r c p e r l y suppor t ing smoke conpr.nies vvith supply, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and r e p r o s e n t a t ion i;t th.' hesdaucrters of t h e u n i t t o which t h e y a r o at tcchcd. (Rcforence: 1 2 ) .B e n though most snake n i s s i o n s &re pc-rfomed by $etachsd companies, occasions do c r i s e i n tact ic ; : l s i t u a t i o n s whore two o r nore cmpnnlcs 8r.o requlrad on a pinsla smoke mission. Ag2in, t h e r c a rc s i t u a t ons where o n l y m e coripany i s re-quirod f o r n snokil miss on, but sevcra l conpenias may be o p e r a t i n g i n c l c se pro:: KLity t o each o ther . I n t h e f i r s t s i t u a t i o n , a hoadquartore i s ' r o . ; t i i r s d t 3 c o o r d i m t e t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e two oonpJnies an2 exerc ise ccmanr! o w r the snoke opera t ion . In t h o second casa z b a t t a l i o n haad-c p a r t o r s , o r a porti.on of i t , can p r c f i t e b l y ncvo ti. t h o v i c -i n i t y of t h o cpcrat i 'cn, s x m c i s e gonarol supzrv is icn cvc r t h e o p e r a t i o n , 2nd through c l o s e r ccntac t i d t h t h z scTrera1 companies take o v c r t h e i r supply and l i a i a c n prcblons. L s e p a r n t c company, nct pc.mxiilntly ass ign& cr s t tzchcc? t c P,

given comand, i s hondicLppc6. by t h c Lack of a b a t t a l i o n hear?quzrters t o l cok aftw its supply En$. perscnncl a h i n - i s t r a t i c n , an?. g e n c r c l l y supcrv isc ' t s a c t i v i t i e s .

24. There hzs bocn scio thcught th;t t a c t y p e s of snckc g e n e r a t c r u n i t s should bc organized i n c r d o r t e a f f c c t eccn-cmies i n manpower a id oquiy icn t . It h.as bean prcpcsor? t h a t one type be croatec' f o r cnploynent i n t h e re1" t ive ly s t a t i c type of c i s s i c n , which wculd e x i s t i n t h e p r o t e c t i r n of pcrtS o r o t h e r r e a r a r e c i n s t n l l c t t i o n s whore supply of c p e r a t i c n e lm a t e r i a l s would nc.t requi ra nuch o r g e a i c t r a n s p o r t a t i c n .The c t h e r tygo o f c o n p a y wl-tild be designor? for use i n tho conbat zcne where supply poin ts a r c u s u a l l y s m e Pistnncc awLy frnn t h e sit2 3f opera t ions . To s v r l u a t o those prc-p 3 s a l s , it is f i e s i r a b l e t c ccnsiC-r Scm of t h e h i s t o r i c 2 1 a s p e c t s of t h i s war. A t t h e beginning of CUP p e r t i c i p l - t i @ n i n t h i s w u r , t h e eneny a i r f o r c e s Wtirc r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g . They t h e c a p a b i l i t y of do l iver ing e f f e c t i v e 2ir a t t a c k s s n w h o r e i n tho Thehtor of Opornticns, and t h e r e \Vas rear cf attacks a g n i n s t zone cf the I n t e r i c r i n s t a l l a t i c n s . To roducc tho e f f e c t i v e n e s s c f such a t t a c k s , t h e s2oke g e n e r a t o r u n i t s were c r e a t e d wi th t h e concept Cf CnPloYiW thou i n s i t u a t i o n s where gcod. rcada C ? X i S t O ? . cn(? WlPlS SUPP-l i e s were avni leb1e nearby, By t h e t in0 tho S l l i C S Were ready t3 t h e i r mjor c f f e n s i v e cigainst GerEany i n Europe, had 90 weakened t h e Gernan A i r Fcrce that it wag no longer capable cf s f f e c t i i i c sir a t t a c k W a i n s t

Sincc t h e r e was ncour importantrear area i n s t a l l a t l c n ~ . longer f o r cheEiCCil smcke g e n e r a t c r u n i t s in

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n i s s i o n s f o r which they werc designed, nn e f f o r t wGs t c f i l e SCIlO U s 0 f t r then . A t nbcut the sane t h e , t h e ,?;cchanicol Snokc Generator , 112, becam avai lab le rindposs ib lo t h e enployncnt C f those orgznizat icns i n t a c t i c a l y i t u n t i o n s . SC, sone coilpanics were nzdc a v a i l a b l e tc t h e c rmies , and o t h c r s mre Livcr tcd t o secondary n i s s i c n a . sce thon . tha t ar. c r g 3 n i z o t i o n w h i c h was d o s i m a d f c r cnplcy-ncnt unr?cr cn6 sot of cunZi t ions was C G W i t t s e . t o cpor.ting unc'or q u i t e d i f f e r c n t canc?i t icns which put i t r a t h e rsevere handicap. Tco nuch t h e ISrequire$. t c e f f e c t t 3 o ccnvcrsion of cn c r g m i z c t i o n frcn clnc type tc another tc perrrit t h c sfilvap,ice, cf r i m an?. equipment i n a u n i t fer which t h e r e i s no I.@np,Cr any need, SimilLrly, th6 t i n e rsquirefi. t . 7 c c r r o c t T/O & s CeficLcncies resulting from vJar exparioncei s exccss ivo . iVil.?jsrwurs are cf such grea t magnituCe t h L t a high dcgroo c.f cocP8inat ion nust bc exorcise?! cver a l l nciticnnl a c t i v i t y , and O X t r x l C cure m e t be cnplcyeC! in t h e u t i l i z n t i m c?f menpc,wor, Wizh reglrC! t c snoke generatoro r g o n i z a t i c n s , it i s believe<. t h z t t h i s cnn bost be noccmp-lishecl by t o s i g n i n g 8 single type cf mokc genera tor u n i t which ctin work c r f i c i e n t l y in t h e r e h r a rea n i s s i o n end cn t h e b a t t k f i o l ? . '

25. I n t h i s stu3.y of chemical s!:icke genorntcr u n i t s i t is not i n t o n d c d t o present E new organien t icn which i n con-p l e t c i n c l l ?et,c.j.is, but r r ; ther to in? icn te the changes r a -quircrl, i n s t r u c t u r e an?. m j [ ; r i t c r s cf equipment,

a. The chemical sncka generotcr b a t t a l i c n s h o u l e be ccnposoc! of a headqunrters und heoSquarters conpuny, a nefl.ic o l r7.stachriont, nnr? f o u r orgnnica l ly cssignocl chemical snake generator conpnnies, (See Chnrt #I, iippendix). It i s believe?. d e s i r a b l o t o have tho conpilnio:! o r g a i c a l l y a p a r tof t h e b u t t o l i o n so t h a t t h o compl3tc organiza t ion t r a i n s a9 a whole Qnd, through c o n s t a n t fissocihtion o f p e r s c m e l i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , it beconos 3 tow. . A l s o , by f i x i n g t h a number of companies i n t h a b a t t a l i o n , t h c r e is a c ' e f i n i t e proport ion of t r a n s p o r t n t i c n n v s i l n b l c f o r supply o f opera t iona l mi te r - i a . l s , 1: ~ ~ d . i c c 1 1~ . o t a c h m n thcs boen conaic'ercc? Aeslrabls by a l l smoke u n i t oornmanfhrs interviewee. I n stuCying t a b l e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n WIG: equipment of sep3rc te b a t t n l i c n s i n t h e nrElS an? s e r v i c e s , it i s ncte8. t h - t ntnc lack ~ _ i ncC.ica1 do-tnch_r?cnt. It is 21sc b a l i o v e d thet ths re should be 0. Chaploinanr! a p p r o p r i a t e u s s i s t a n t s atf;uchei! t c t h e b a t t a l i o n .

b. e l i o n headquarters nnil haadquarters ccmpany.

The ba t ta1 l .m h z a t q x n t e r s and headquarters( 1) ccripnny shoule be crganizec! s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n occcrdance w i t h the T/O & E prcpcseaby Major J. F u l l e r , fcrmerly com-anr?ingt h e z z cp.?anical Smok:: Generator B a t t a l i c n , wi th s l i g h t n c t i f i m t i c n s t o ccnforn t c c c m c n t s of var ious hi iulquarters which ?cviewcd t h i s proposal. (Reference: 12).The f a n c t i o n s G f t t e b a t t a l i r n h e a t q u a r t e r s a ro C C ~ F J ~ . ,a a n i n i s t r a t i o n and opora t icn- ai. c t m t r o l c,f snoko opera t ions when

more ccmpanies c f t h e b a t t a l i o n a r e en- gage2 i n Q single missicn. Personno1 of tho b a t t a l i o n hnaeQuuorters a s s i s t ?e-tache?. conpwnies by provifiing t e c h n i o a l Gdvioo t c t h e supported u n i t , a s s i s t i n the propara t icn of smoke p l a n s an?. i n

c c o r f i n a t i n g t h e snake p l a n w i t h c t h o r agoncics conccrned. Ratta13.cn hoae-q u a r t e r s c:lso nay p c r f c m t h e i n p r . r - t o n t functic-n, :?f a s s i s t i n g i n t h c r e h a b - i l i t c t i c n rJf ccnpanics which havo boon engaged i n operr i t ions and hnvo s u s t u i n e d e q u i p i e n t and p e r s o n n e l losses. The b a t t a l i o n h e a d q u a r t e r s shoul?. hnnc?le a l l supply m a t t e r s pertaining t c Clnss 11, IV cnd v ( f c g o i l ) f o r t h e c m n a r . i e s cf t h c b a t t n l i c n . I: 3.iagrw of a S u g g o s t c dheadquar te rs c r g a n i z c t i c n a p p e a r s i n C h a r t 2 , Appendix.

( 2 ) The Leadydnrters conpany s o r v e s t h e hotid-q u u r t c r s i n c a r r y i n g <:u t i t s f u n c t i o n s of ?i?pi.nistr:ition and supply of t h e b n t t a l -i c n . Chart 3, hppenfiix, shows cliaeran of a suggosted o r g a n i z a t i o n . Tho p r l n c i p l os e r v i c e rondarac? by the h e a l q u a r t c r sccnpany t o t h e smclio g e n c r u t c r c m p a n i e s i s s u p p l y o f fog c i l , I n a r ? d i t i c n t o t h i s , p e r s o n n e l of tie s u p p l y p l n t r w n c ? i l u t e fcg o i l w i t h k e r o s c n e t o t h i n i t for cclr?: wenthor o p o r c t j c n s . It i s b e l i o v o d thct f i r s t and SOccnA e c h c l r n n n i n t o n - nnce shculd be a c c o n p l i s h e d c n l y i n t h e sncke g e n e r a t o r c c n p a n i e s , Ii,lzintcnanca suppor t by t h c hecf iquar tors c o n p m y s h o u l d c c n s i s t of sparo p a r t s s t c c k s , n reserve cf three g c n e r a t c r s p e r cccipany ( i n aAdi-t i o n t o t h o twc:. Carrie8 by e a c h CC:npany)

a c t i n g a s i n t e r m s d i - r y betwecn t h o conaanics and c h o a i c a l Iznintenanoa corzpnn- i c s f c . r t h i r r ! me. f o u r t h o c h e l c n work.

anizat 'on of t h e supply s e c t i c n i n t o 1' squads, e a c h having f sur 2+-ton

t r u c k s an?. f-ur 1- ton cargo t r a i l e r s , p e r n i t s a t tnc .k ien t of @no scch squnr? t c a detacheft conpany when t h o s i t u a t i c n in-cl icatod t h a t t h o cc;r:pany's s u p p l y p m b l o ncculd be accnnpl i she6 b e t t e r i n t h i s nacner . Each s u p p l y squn?, augnontocl by maintenanco Den f rcn t h c c n n p a n i e s , oculrl h a c d l e th - s e q u i p r e n t of one conpany and hnv3 it avni lc lble q u i c k l y and i n g o d . .con-c l i t ion when it is necder? f r r s n c k e opora-t i o n s . The b a t t a l i o n c o r i m m i c a t i o n s 3eans should inc1ufi.e te lophono anti radio. The te lcphono c o m u n i c o t i c n i s n e c e s s a r y with-i n tie b o t t a l i o n h c a d q u a r t c r s and to all t h e ooripnnias when t h e y a r e r e a s o n a b l yc l o s c t o g e t h e r and t o t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s ; I n nost cases, t e lcphono c m u n i c a t i c n t g t h o headquar te rs t o which t h o b a t t a l i o n i s a s s i g n e d is a l s o n e c e s s a r y . Becruse t h e conpnnios arc f r c q u s n t l y a n a p p r o c -i a b l o d i s t a n c e away frcn the h e f i d q u a r t e r s ,r a r ' i c c c m u i i i c a t i r n i s nocss sn ry t o main-t a i n c o n t a c t . Raeics provif .ed shouLC hnvo a r e l i a b l e rnngo of 100 ni l c s . Sufficiont r d i o o p e r a t i o n p e r s o n n e l shoulr l be p r c v i d -e?. t o p e r n i t c o n t i n u c u s o p e r n t i c n o f t h o b a t t a l i o n r n e i o s t a t i o n ,

- 16 -

c - Experience i n t h e European Theater oroporo-t i o n s has Shown t h a t t h e chemical moke g s n e r a t o r conpany h a s some d e f i c i e n c i e s . The most s e r i o u s of t h e s e has beenit: i n a b i l i t y t o handle f o g o i l supply and to carry a ~ b a s i c load of smoke m a t e r i a l . The organiza t ion diagr-ed in Chart4 has been designed t o c o r r e c t t h e known o r g a n i z a t i c n a l de-f a c t s o f t h e ComWny. It COnSiStS O f s. company headquarters and two o p e r a t i o n s P la toons . This does not reprosent a n in-~ m a s di n t h o n m h e r or smoke genera tors which t h e company o p e r a t e s , b u t i s designed t c provide g r c a t e r f l e x i b i l i t y and b::tter C o n t r o l i n t h o O r g a l i z a t i o n . It has been found that continuous o p e r a t i o n of t h e company places an excessive s t r a i n on t h e p e r s o n n a l , BY having two 0PBrtlti.ons platoons, bo thcould be employcd i n m i s s i o n s r e q u i r i n g only dayl ight oper-a t i o n ; and i n s i t c a t i o n s whj rc both dayl ight and night oper-a t i o n s ore r e q u i r e d , Onc p la toon Can r s l i e v e the othaj-, T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n l ikowiso providos permancrntly organized small. dotachnonts which can convcnient ly be zssigned indcpondcnt miss ions a t p o i r t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h o companyfs l o c a t i o n , b u t not t o o far d i s t a n t . Each p ls toon is composed of two s e c t i o n s , n n d c t c h s o c t i o n has three squads. The aajor devi- c t i o n fro31 t h o prCSCnt o r g a n i z a t i o n appears i n t h e squad o r g c n i z o t i o n and equipmznt. The present squad i s composed o f one c o r p o r a l and t w o p r i v a t e s , and opera tes two >lechanica l Smoke 5enerator .9 , M2, Which a r e t r a n s p o r t e d i n a %ton trail- e r , squad personnel r i d i n g i n t h e *-ton ;ruck which tows the t r a i l e r . There are two s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h i s squado r g a n i z a t i o n . F i r s t , t h e squad cannot c a r r y wi th it a n y fogo i l . Second, t h e corporal . is t h e t r u c k dr iver . lrrhen it is necessary t o movc t h e v e h i o l e away f r o m t h e smoke opera t ions l i n e , t!ie squad l e a d e r goes w i t h i t . It may be argued that one o f t h e p r i v a t c s could d r i v s tho vohic lc away, but regard- less of who d r i w s i t , o n e - t h i r d of t h e squad i s l o s t . I n tho proposed o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e squad i s composed of one cor-p o r a l , two t e c h n i c i a n s f i f t h gr2d.e ( t r u c k dr ivers ) . , and f o u r p r i v a t u s o r p r i v a t e s f i r s t c l a s s . T h i s squad opuzrates four i$echanical make Conurntors , M2, which nro mounted on two 2*-ton t r u c k s . Each t r u c k w i l l c a r r y a flour and c h a l f hour supply of f o g o i l , g a s o l i n c and watar f o r t h o t w o smoke gcn-e r a t o r s . T h i s squad mag be used e f f i c i e n t l y i n e i t h e r a n t i - a i r o r e f t smoko o p e r a t i o n s or i n t a c t i c a l smoke opera t ions . I n tho a n t i a i r c r a f t smoke o p o r s t i o n s , the genera tors would bo opera ted from t h e i r moun%s 011 t h e t rucks . This provides for t h e n e c e s s a r y m o b i l i t y of elements of t h e company. Due t o tho r e l o t i v o l y s h o r t o p e r a t i n g per iods i n a n t i a i r c r a f t . smoke o p e r a t i o n s , resupply of f o g o i l :an be accomplished by ba t -t a l i o n h e a d q u a r t e r s company. When t h e present company is re-quired t o o p e r a t e i n a n t i a i r c r a f t smoke missions, it is nee-e s s a r y t h a t a s t o c k of f o g o i l be e s t a b l i s h e d a t each smoke point . T h i s i s time consuming i n preparing f o r t h e opera- t i o n , r e s u l t s i n p.aving on hand a n excoss ivc ly l a r g e q u a n t i t y Of fog oil, and dce t o i t s g r e a t d i s p e r s i o n i s imposs ib let o guard so as t o prevent p i l f e r a g e . Obviously, t h i s d i f -f i c u l t y i s .e l imina ted whan t h o f o g O i l Supply i s c a r r i e d w i t h t h o g e n e r a t o r s . I n t a c t i c a l smoke missions, t h e Squad t r u c k s a r e d r i v c n t o t h o s e l a c t a d p o s i t i o n s , g e n e r a t o r s , operating supplies and g e n e r a t o r o p a r a t a r s unloaded. Tho t r u c k s a r o then a v a i l n h l e t o augmcnt t h o b a t t a l i o n headquar- t e r s company i n supply ing fog o i l t o t h c companies- Some

in-o t h e r n o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e oompany organiza t ion d i c a t c d by cjxp3r-ence. ~t i s considered necessary t o have one a d d i t i o n a l o f f i c e r i n t h c company. I n many tactical smoke s i t u a t i o n s , s c c t i o n s of opera t ions platoons have been a s s i g n a d s e p a r a t e smoke miss ions . I n cvcry cas8 i t h a s bcQn considcrnd des i rab le t o have a n o f f i c e r i n c h a m c f . e a c h

- 17 -

sec t ion . This h a s r e s u l t e d i n Put t ing the whole respons- i b i l i t y f o r mess opera t ion and feeding of t h e personnel i n a c t i c n , t h e supply of o p e r a t i n g m a t e r i a l s , and motor and smoke g e n e r a t o r maintenance on a non-commissioned o f f i c e r , usua l ly t h e f i rs t ~ e W X n t . Two a d d i t i o n a l smoke genera tor mechanics Shoula be provided so t h a t there i s one per S J O -

t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n s p la toons . Auto mechanics Should bcincressod t o Provide b e t t e r second echelcn motor maintenance. The number of r a d i o o p e r a t o r s shou ld be increased s o t h a t thd company r a d i o S t a t i o n can bo oporatcd 24 hours a day f o r a prolonged p e r i o d . The prosent bas i s o f radio opera tors , one per r a d i o , i s inadCqUata when t h e company i s on a prolonged mission. It Whs found i n thu opera t ions of tho 23 mokc Generator B a t t a l i o n on t h e R " E t h a t the command r a d i o s o t opera tor and the company commander became exhausted r a t h e r e a r l y i n t h e opcra t ion bocauso t h e r e was h0 r e l i e f f o r them. (Reference: 18).

CILQTER I11

SECTION I .

DISWSSTON

26. Twel f th Army Croup comments and recommendations with r e g a r d t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r contained i n t h e Seport of Army Ground Force Equipment Review Board , and r e p o r t and recommendations o f European Theater o f Operations t o t h e Chief of S t a f f , Uni ted S t a t e s Army, based on s t u d i e s of t h e aforementione6 d o o m e n t s , regard ing "cont inuat ion o f re - search t o improve t h e mechanical smoke generators ' ' a r e concurred i n . S p e c i f i c comments on d e s l r a b l e inprovemonks i n t h e Mechanical Smoke Genera tor , hl2, follow:

a. Incroaaed ruggedness and dependabi l i ty is t h e most impor tan t improvement r e q ~ i r e d i n thc smoke genera tor .

b. Reduction o f s i z e and weight of t h e genera tor is d e s i r a b l e but s h o d d n o t be a t t a i n e d c t t h e exponse o f increased ruggednees an6 dependabi l i ty .

0 . An e f f o r t shculd Se made t o reduce t h e amount Of n o i s e made by t h e gdnera tor when i n operat ion. Excessive noise has precluded i t s USQ i n f r o n t l i n e opera t ions where secrecy was of paramount importance. (Reference: Il), On other o c c a s i o n s t h e noise of t h e genera tor prevented oper- s t i n g personnel frcm hear ing jncoming enemy a r t i l l e r y s h e l l s , causing c a s u a l t i e s which could have been avoided i f t h e men had heard t h e s h e l l s and t a k a n cover, (Reference: 4).

6 , A modi f ica t ion of t h e Mechanical Smoke Generator , M2, t o permit v a r i a t i o n of i t s smoke output is d e s i r a b l e . In t a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s i t i s u s u a l l y d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h o d is tance do~~nwindt o which t h e smoke i s c f f e c t i v c bo l i m i t e d S O as t odecrease i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h o t h e r b a t t l o a c t i v i t i e s . Another advantage of t h i s c a p a b i l i t y would be adjustment o f smokescreen d e n s i t y t o t h a t d e s i m d by t n e supportod u n i t . It may be argued t h a t t h i s can be 6ccomFlished by spacing goner-a to r s a t w i d o r i n t e r v a l s o r by decreasing t h e number of gen-

- 18 -

--

e r a t o r s i n o p e r a t i o n . In soma s i t u a t i o n s t h i s i s a s a t i s - f a c t o r y solution b u t i n many cases it is likely t o r e s u l t i n

s e r i c o of Separate smoke t r a i l s which never form D. home-g.:neous SCTFCn.

e . Another d e s i r a b l e m9dif icat ion of the generator 1s one p e r m i t t i n g ins tan taneous shutdown by stopping t h e 811-girie of t h o w k r a t o r . Although t h i s has been done many t i n o s i n p r a c t i c e , due t o ignOrenc2 nn t h e par t of t h e opera tor o r by mn"nm of s o n i o r o f f i c e r s , it r e s u l t s i n clogging viatcr l i n s componcnts w l t h fog o i l and oonsoquent f a i l u r c t o opor-a t c when s t a r t e d again. Normal shutdown proczdurs novr rc-quirts about t h r e o minutes ,

f . To prosorvo tho va lua of smnka it may be nocos-sary t o n l t o r i t s n a t u r e , if p o s s i b l e , s o t h a t i t counters t i la e f f e c t i v e n e s s of r a d a r and inf ra - red observing and f i r e c o n t r o l dovicos. Act ive r c s c a r c h t 3 accomplish t h i s end should he ca r r i ed o u t . F i s l d tests and t a c t i c a l s t u d i e s should bc cngagcd i n t o d & ? r d n o t h c u t i l i t y and d e s i r o b i l -i t y of s u c h a l t c m d smoko. It is bel ieved t h a t t h e require- mcnt f o r smokc gcn::rator u n i t s i n t h e fu ture hinges on t h i s p o i n t .

CIIkFTXR IV

COVCLUSIONS

SECTION I

27. It i s concluded that :

3 . A roquiremcnt e x i s t s for chemical smoke gener-a t o r companies but t h i s r c q u i ~ c m a n ti s subject t o avnlua-t i o n of t h c nood f o r smoke i n view o f pmsent known devioos which rcduco its e r f u c t i v a z s s .

b. rcquirdmcnt e x i s t s f o r o. b a t t a l i o n organi-z a t i s n f o r snoke g c n c r a t o r c o ~ p E d o s ,subjsc t t o tho#SamQ cons idcrn t ions as i n a , above.

c , Jt I 5 d e s i r n b l e t o change t h e organizat ion of Headqunrtcrs a n d Hcndqunrtors Dotzchment , Chemical Smoke Gcncrator Bnt tn] ion as sdt f o r t h i n T/O & E 3-2668, dated 28 Suptcmhcr 1944.

d. A change i n t h e orgac iza t ion of t h e Chemical Smokc Gcncrn to r Compmy a s s e t f o r t h i n Y/O & E 3-267, doted 4 Mcy 1944, is desirab1G.

e . publ i shed d o c t r i n c s f o r employmant O f chemical smoko g o n c r o t o r u n i t s do not providc infsrmotion and i n s -t r u c t i o n J 1 m a t o r i a l on t h o employment of these u n i t s i n b Q t t l c f i c l d s i t u a t i o n .

f, Improvcacnts i n the :Icchan?cal %nokc G m m -tor, 1'2, crc d e s i r a h l c .

- 19 -

CFA?TER V

RECOl!lbIEPJDATI ONS

SECTION I

28. It i s recommended t h a t :

n. Tables of Orgcnizvt ion nnd Equipment f o r e chemical smoke g e n e r a t o r b a t t a l i o n , with organic composi- t i o n t is indicated i n P a r t Three, Chaptor 11, Paragrcph 23, of t h i s r o p o r t , bo proparcd and published.

b . Rppropr ic t? r e v i s i o n s and changcs t o hl 3-5, !!Tactics of Chemic31 V m f w C ' f ; 33l 3-50, "Large Ares Smoke Screening' ' ; and FM 100-5, "Operationsif t o cdequstelg set f o r t h t h e d o c t r i n e s of' ernploynont and the c a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s of smoke g e n s r a t o r u n i t s i n t a c t i c a l smoko oper-a t i o n s be prepared an6 publishod.

e . Act ive r c s e a r c h and developmcnt bc continued t o improve mochanicul snoke g e n c r z t o r s os ind icc tcd i n P a r t Three , Chapter 111, Paragraph 26 , of t h i s r e p o r t .

- 20 -

(PROPOSED)

Chmiccl Smoke Generator Bet ta l ior .

Headquarters B z t t a l i o n company Hem3.Quaz-t ersI 1

Personnel for battelion Co"az13 - Admiaistratioa -O p r d i o n z l . Coiltrol =hen Attsched Xedicz.1

' staff sections. Radio -' two o r more C O E ~ X - ~ E Sara e. Ch2pl3in& telephone commw-i-

cation personnel, FOE engazed on s m e l l iss ion. oil a q p l y t o conpenies To chniczl advice to

25 sept 45

Headquarters Cheeczl 3sioke Generz3or Ez i i tc l io~

1

1”kI1 or Executive*

Cautain

J

* Available t o provide technical aadvice to supForted unit, assist i n smoke plan preperation ard coorOinEtion and &e ai2m.” axengenenta for sEoke company riben companies are detached, These persome1 cons t i tu te the forward echelon .. of bettalior, headqu,?rters when two or more companies are eg&&ged i n the s a m misaim,

l-l

Headquarters Compnny Caemical 3noke Generator Bs t ta l ion

En Bq Flaaar,

Section

PersonnEl fo r oper- ikl is ted Personnel etion & mir t emnce for operat icn OF of bo radio sietiocs. h e ~ d ~ i i a r t e r s . Personnel for switch-board o~erztion& telephone Xrie COII-

s t r u e t i o n it main*-, enc.nce.

Supply Flaturjn

Vehicle maintenance e: motor p o l supervisioi for Hq & -Fin Co. Fog oil s~p::ly to SG compzrLies GeLeral supe-rvisior of vehic l s .p- generator a2ixtczzqce i n Bn,

____

IF=””=-””’

G a m p n y . Chemical SmPke Generator Bat ta l ion

Co. Cemsnder Czptain

Forwcxd Echelcr. 1st Lt.

Com”icat ions & rieahter obser-vation personnel

1 Cpl 2 T/54 Fvts or

FfC

4 SG’S, x2 2 Trucks,

2$ t on , b x 6

1st Platoon 1st Lt.

The comp?zy corries a bcsic loo12 of L& hows supply sf fog o i l , gssoline nnrl w c t c r for moke generztor operation i a t i e sqmd trucks. In mti oircraft make nissicix the gcmxctors are opere.%& bn the t rucks & fog o i i rssupply is effected by birt tzlion he;:rlqu.r:rtsrscompzny. I n tactic.?: maks niss ions the geaerntora are placed o r the $rocr.t Tor operr.tion d the squcc trucks are mvnilzble t o mgnent th6 bcttclion hecdqwters c a p m y in mzintainirg oil supply.

-25sqt 45

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. L e t t o r , Hoadquarters European T h e a t e r of Operat ions (Rear:Chomical ' r a r fa re S e c t i o n , 1 7 October 1945, Sub jac t :" T a c t i c a l Employrncnt o f Chemicul Smoke Genesator Companiosn, To: Chemical Officer, Theater Genoral Board

2. U n i t Diary , 23 Chenicnl Saoko Genera to r m t t a l i o n .

3. Reply t o Ques t ionna i r e from: Comnandhg O f f i c o r , 82 Chomical Snoke Generator Company,

4, A f t e r Act ion Repor t , T h i r d US Army, Part 11,Chcnioal TTarfarl:.

5 . Fin o 1 Opera t ions R ~ p o r t ,A r n a v i l l e , France , 84 Chemical Smoke Gonorator Company,

6. Rcpor t on Use of Snoke, Hcndqunrtors European ThOatQr cf Opera t ions , Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e , - undated.

7 . Snokc Opcro t ion o f t h e 74 Chemical Smoke Canorator Conpnny, Hendquartors 27 Chanica l Smoke Generator R a t t n l i o n , 25 Februa ry 1945.

8 . War Departrient Observers Repor t Number 991, Smoke P r o t e c t i o n f o r R ive r Crossings.

9. Repor t of Ssioko Genera to r Opera t ion i n Suppor t of Rhino R i v e r Bri.dgo Cons t ruo t ion , Headquar te rs 23 Chomical Snoko Genorator B a t t a l i o n , 4 M~iy1945 (wi th 4 annexo8 una 2 i n c l o s u r e s ) .

10. Repor t on R o e r River SI" S c r e e n , Schophovcn, Gernnny, 23-24 P c b r u n y 1945, Headquar t e r s 30 I n f a n t r y Div-i s i o n , O f f i c e G f t h o Chcmical O f f i c e r .

11. Repor t of Snake Generator O p c r a t i o n s , 74 Chon ioa l Snoke Gclnerator Company, 9 March 1945,

12. L e t t e r , Hcadquartors 22 Chemical Smoko Gonerator Bot- t o l i o n , APO 758, d a t e d 25 February 1945, Subjec t :"Changes i n T/O and E 3-2669, dated 28 Soptonbcr 1944 f o r Hondquarters and Headquar t e r s D e t a c h " , Chcm-ic a l Smoke Genera tor B u t t a l i o n f f , w i t h 7 indorsomcnts.

13, Nunbor 1121 Gcrmnn Dcvolopmont and M i l i t a r y Us0 o f Infra-Rod Equipment.

14. L e t t e r , Hoadqunrtcrs S e v e n t h Amy, ,1pO 758, da tcd 6 Fob-r u n r y 1945, Subjcot: "Problems of Snokc Gonerator Opera t ions t ' . F i l e : 470.6 - CW, W t h 1 i n c l o s u r c and 7 indor scncn t s .

ANNEX

E x h i b i t 1 Charts 1, 2, 3 and 4. Proposed Organizationof Smoke Generator Bettalion,