Roman Gladiatorial Roman Gladiatorial GamesGames

1.1. The ContextThe Context

2.2. The GladiatorThe Gladiator

Forms of Roman SpectaclesForms of Roman Spectacles

(1) (1) Ludi CircensesLudi Circenses: chariot-races: chariot-races (2) (2) Ludi ScaeniciLudi Scaenici: plays: tragedy, comedy, : plays: tragedy, comedy,

mime, pantomimemime, pantomime (3) (3) Munera gladiatoriaMunera gladiatoria: gladiatorial games: gladiatorial games (4) (4) Venationes Venationes : wild-beast hunts: wild-beast hunts

Colosseum - where most Colosseum - where most muneramunera were heldwere held

Circus Maximus – where chariot Circus Maximus – where chariot races were heldraces were held

Ludi Scaenici – Theatrical Ludi Scaenici – Theatrical PerformancesPerformances

The origins of Roman The origins of Roman muneramunera

munusmunus = duty, tribute, obligation – Not included in = duty, tribute, obligation – Not included in LudiLudi Munus mortis = Munus mortis = duty paid to the duty paid to the manesmanes (shades of the (shades of the

underworld or dead Roman ancestors)underworld or dead Roman ancestors) First gladiatorial combat held in 264 BCE by the sons of D. First gladiatorial combat held in 264 BCE by the sons of D.

Junius Brutus in honor of their dead father (3 pairs of Junius Brutus in honor of their dead father (3 pairs of gladiators)gladiators)

Held in the Forum Boarium (cattle market)Held in the Forum Boarium (cattle market) Paid for privately (Paid for privately (editoreditor), usually in a funerary context), usually in a funerary context Private individuals could own troops of gladiators – trained by Private individuals could own troops of gladiators – trained by

a a lanistalanista (gladiator trainer) (gladiator trainer) muneramunera increase in frequency, organization, variety, and increase in frequency, organization, variety, and

scale over timescale over time 216 BCE (22 pairs); 200 BCE (25 pairs); 183 BCE (60 pairs); 216 BCE (22 pairs); 200 BCE (25 pairs); 183 BCE (60 pairs);

By 65 BCE Julius Caesar planned a show of 320 pairs of By 65 BCE Julius Caesar planned a show of 320 pairs of gladiators but was prevented by a senatorial decree. gladiators but was prevented by a senatorial decree.

Numbers and scale a direct consequence of Roman imperial Numbers and scale a direct consequence of Roman imperial expansionexpansion

The Person of the GladiatorThe Person of the Gladiator

Typically he (sometimes she) was a slave or prisoner Typically he (sometimes she) was a slave or prisoner of war or criminal condemned of war or criminal condemned ad amphitheatrumad amphitheatrum

Also included volunteers, numbers increased over Also included volunteers, numbers increased over time; Some were citizens, but participating as time; Some were citizens, but participating as gladiators was frowned upon and stain of gladiators was frowned upon and stain of infamia infamia and condemnation clung to the professionand condemnation clung to the profession

Suffered from an ambivalent image - both from Suffered from an ambivalent image - both from pollution (as an pollution (as an infamisinfamis) and adored like a rock star ) and adored like a rock star

Took an oath (Took an oath (sacramentum gladiatoriumsacramentum gladiatorium) to suffer ) to suffer to be burned, chained, beaten and killed by an iron to be burned, chained, beaten and killed by an iron weaponweapon

A gladiator could survive and eventually gain his A gladiator could survive and eventually gain his freedomfreedom

The gladiator – the most The gladiator – the most important developmentsimportant developments

Original gladiator (Original gladiator (bustuariusbustuarius) fought in ) fought in munera munera at funeralsat funerals

By the late Republic gladiators had become By the late Republic gladiators had become professionals (many were volunteers): professionals (many were volunteers): talented, trained, skilled specialists in talented, trained, skilled specialists in variety of weapons; received contract variety of weapons; received contract wages or prizes wonwages or prizes won

Originally recruited from Originally recruited from damnati damnati (criminals, (criminals, slaves, captives), slaves, captives),

increasingly also increasingly also auctorati auctorati (paid (paid contractees, (volunteers who took the oath)contractees, (volunteers who took the oath)

The The VenatioVenatio

VenatioVenatio = Wild beast ( = Wild beast (venationesvenationes)) Bestiarius Bestiarius = The beast-hunter= The beast-hunter Orignally had nothing to do withOrignally had nothing to do with munera munera Frequently held with Frequently held with munera, munera, became regular became regular

part under Augustuspart under Augustus Regular programme develops: Regular programme develops: VenatioVenatio in the in the

morning, Execution of criminals at noon, morning, Execution of criminals at noon, Gladiators the actual Gladiators the actual munusmunus followed in the followed in the afternoonafternoon

Funded by a private Funded by a private editor editor – who had to arrange – who had to arrange for the capture, transport, and maintenance of for the capture, transport, and maintenance of the animals the animals

Venationes: Venationes: purposepurpose

Often large numbers of animals Often large numbers of animals slaughtered slaughtered

Associated with the conquest of Associated with the conquest of Mediterranean WorldMediterranean World

Display of Domination over NatureDisplay of Domination over NatureSavaged beasts deserved to dieSavaged beasts deserved to dieAncient view of Nature as danger to Ancient view of Nature as danger to

civilized world: the Arena was place where civilized world: the Arena was place where civilization confronted nature in shape of civilization confronted nature in shape of beasts which represented danger to beasts which represented danger to humanity humanity

The animialsThe animials

Inscriptions set up by sponsors - Inscriptions set up by sponsors - listing types and numbers of animals: listing types and numbers of animals: four days of games at Beneventum four days of games at Beneventum starred: 4 wild cats, sixteen bears, starred: 4 wild cats, sixteen bears, four other dangerous animals the rest four other dangerous animals the rest being herbivores (feris numero IIII, being herbivores (feris numero IIII, usis XVI, noxeis IIII et ceteris herbariis)usis XVI, noxeis IIII et ceteris herbariis)

Other inscriptions specify “oriental” Other inscriptions specify “oriental” and African or Lybian beasts.and African or Lybian beasts.

From From venatorvenator to to bestiarius bestiarius Originally Originally venatores venatores – professional hunters and – professional hunters and

animal handlers, often from Africaanimal handlers, often from Africa Shot animals from a distance, often used Shot animals from a distance, often used

hunting dogshunting dogs Later Later venatorvenator replaced by replaced by bestiariusbestiarius (originally (originally

armed with knife or spear, condemned to fight armed with knife or spear, condemned to fight beasts, likely to die in the process)beasts, likely to die in the process)

Over time some Over time some bestiariibestiarii became trained beast became trained beast gladiators with a chance of survial and famegladiators with a chance of survial and fame

Fame for gladiator and Fame for gladiator and bestiariusbestiarius could be could be earned by skillful and entertaining performance earned by skillful and entertaining performance in the arena.in the arena.

In praise of Carpophorus, the In praise of Carpophorus, the bestiariusbestiarius

that which was the highest glory of thy that which was the highest glory of thy renown, Meleager, how small a part is it of renown, Meleager, how small a part is it of Carpophorus' - fame, a stricken boar ! He Carpophorus' - fame, a stricken boar ! He plunged his hunter's spear also in a plunged his hunter's spear also in a headlong-rushing bear, the king of beasts headlong-rushing bear, the king of beasts beneath the cope of Arctic skies ; and he beneath the cope of Arctic skies ; and he laid low a lion, magnificent, of bulk laid low a lion, magnificent, of bulk unknown before, one worthy of Hercules' unknown before, one worthy of Hercules' might ; and with a far-dealt wound might ; and with a far-dealt wound stretched in death a rushing pard. He won stretched in death a rushing pard. He won the prize of honour ; yet unbroken still was the prize of honour ; yet unbroken still was his strength (Martial, Spect. 15)his strength (Martial, Spect. 15)

Animal Combats – 3Animal Combats – 3rdrd Century Century CECE

http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/nenning6.jpg

Animal hunts = Animal hunts = venationesvenationes

Transformation of Roman Transformation of Roman GamesGames

From funerary honors to From funerary honors to entertainmententertainment

Games came to be expected and Games came to be expected and demandeddemanded

Increasing variety, scale, and crueltyIncreasing variety, scale, and crueltyAttempts by politicians to gain Attempts by politicians to gain

control of Gamescontrol of Games

From an “Obligation” to the Dead to From an “Obligation” to the Dead to an “Obligation” to the Peoplean “Obligation” to the People

There were two things which Murena, in his campaign for the There were two things which Murena, in his campaign for the praetorship, suffered seriously from the lack of, but which were praetorship, suffered seriously from the lack of, but which were both of considerable benefit to him when he came to stand for both of considerable benefit to him when he came to stand for the consulship. One was games, the expectation of which had the consulship. One was games, the expectation of which had been brought about by certain rumors and by the deliberate been brought about by certain rumors and by the deliberate suggestion of his rivals for office…Both of these advantages suggestion of his rivals for office…Both of these advantages fortune held back for him until he stood for the consulship…as fortune held back for him until he stood for the consulship…as for his not having put on games, a factor which had hampered for his not having put on games, a factor which had hampered Murena in his campaign for the praetorship, this deficiency had Murena in his campaign for the praetorship, this deficiency had been made up for by the extremely lavish games he had put on been made up for by the extremely lavish games he had put on in the course of his year as praetor…It may be that you…attach in the course of his year as praetor…It may be that you…attach more weight to the urban vote than to that of the soldiers. But if more weight to the urban vote than to that of the soldiers. But if so, you can hardly show the same contempt for the high quality so, you can hardly show the same contempt for the high quality of Murena’s games and the magnificence of the spectacle, since of Murena’s games and the magnificence of the spectacle, since this was unquestionably of enormous help to him. Do I need to this was unquestionably of enormous help to him. Do I need to point out that the people and the ignorant masses adore games? point out that the people and the ignorant masses adore games? It is hardly surprising that they do.” (Cicero, Pro Murena, A. It is hardly surprising that they do.” (Cicero, Pro Murena, A. Futrell, 2006)Futrell, 2006)

Political Aspect of Gladiatorial Political Aspect of Gladiatorial showsshows

In Republic – to put on games was In Republic – to put on games was obligation of aedilesobligation of aediles

Display of importance and wealth of Display of importance and wealth of a family a family

122 Gaius Gracchus put on shows for 122 Gaius Gracchus put on shows for free for all Romansfree for all Romans

used to attract attention and used to attract attention and support for elections to officesupport for elections to office

Boredom and VarietyBoredom and Variety

Increasing demand for games resulted: Increasing demand for games resulted: 1.Increasing frequency, 2. Increasing 1.Increasing frequency, 2. Increasing scale, 3.Increasing varietyscale, 3.Increasing variety

Games become all about spectacleGames become all about spectacle Events are combined and merged Events are combined and merged

(Theater, Munera, Venatio, Executions, (Theater, Munera, Venatio, Executions, Athletics, Triumphs)Athletics, Triumphs)

Games became celebrated outside of Games became celebrated outside of the regular calendar of games or the regular calendar of games or outside of the funerary contextoutside of the funerary context

Pompey’s Games of 55 BCEPompey’s Games of 55 BCE ““To be sure, the show (if you are interested) was on the most lavish To be sure, the show (if you are interested) was on the most lavish

scale; but it would have been little to your taste, to judge by my own. scale; but it would have been little to your taste, to judge by my own. To begin with, certain performers honored the occasion by returning to To begin with, certain performers honored the occasion by returning to the boards, from which I thought they had honored their reputation by the boards, from which I thought they had honored their reputation by retiring…I need not give you further details – you know the other retiring…I need not give you further details – you know the other shows. They did not even have the sprightliness which one mostly shows. They did not even have the sprightliness which one mostly finds in ordinary shows – one lost all sense of gaiety watching the finds in ordinary shows – one lost all sense of gaiety watching the elaborate productions…What pleasure is there in getting a elaborate productions…What pleasure is there in getting a Clytemnestra with six hundred mules or a Trojan horse with three Clytemnestra with six hundred mules or a Trojan horse with three thousand mixing bowls or a variegated display of cavalry and infantry thousand mixing bowls or a variegated display of cavalry and infantry equipment in some battle or other? The public gaped at all this; it equipment in some battle or other? The public gaped at all this; it would not have amused you at all…Or perhaps, having scorned the would not have amused you at all…Or perhaps, having scorned the gladiators, you are sorry not to have seen the athletes! Pompey gladiators, you are sorry not to have seen the athletes! Pompey himself admits that they were a waste of time….That leaves the himself admits that they were a waste of time….That leaves the venationes, two every day for five days, magnificent – nobody says venationes, two every day for five days, magnificent – nobody says otherwise. But what pleasure can a cultivated man get out of seeing a otherwise. But what pleasure can a cultivated man get out of seeing a weak human being torn to pieces by a powerful animal or a splendid weak human being torn to pieces by a powerful animal or a splendid animal transfixed by a hunting spear? Any how, if these sights are animal transfixed by a hunting spear? Any how, if these sights are worth seeing, you have seen them often; and we spectators saw worth seeing, you have seen them often; and we spectators saw nothing new.” (Cicero, nothing new.” (Cicero, Letters to his FriendsLetters to his Friends,),)

Variety of Games Variety of Games

Mock Battles - recreating historical Mock Battles - recreating historical battlesbattles

Naumachia Mock Sea battleNaumachia Mock Sea battleCaeasar;s Games 65 BC 1Caeasar;s Games 65 BC 1stst

naumachia naumachia large number of large number of victims 4000 rowers, 2000 fighters victims 4000 rowers, 2000 fighters

Caesar’s Caesar’s NaumachiaNaumachia(46 BCE)(46 BCE)

““[in Caesar’s quadruple triumphal celebration] There [in Caesar’s quadruple triumphal celebration] There was…a naval engagement of 4,000 oarsmen, where was…a naval engagement of 4,000 oarsmen, where 1,000 fighting men contended on each side.” 1,000 fighting men contended on each side.” (Appian, (Appian, Civil WarsCivil Wars, 2.102, A. Futrell, 2006), 2.102, A. Futrell, 2006)

““The naval battle was fought on an artificial lake dug The naval battle was fought on an artificial lake dug in the lesser Codeta, between Tyrian and Egyptian in the lesser Codeta, between Tyrian and Egyptian ships, with two, three, or four banks of oars, and ships, with two, three, or four banks of oars, and heavily manned. Such huge numbers of visitors heavily manned. Such huge numbers of visitors flocked to these shows from all directions that many flocked to these shows from all directions that many of them had to sleep in tents pitched along the of them had to sleep in tents pitched along the streets or roads, or on roof tops; and often the streets or roads, or on roof tops; and often the pressure of the crowds crushed people to death. The pressure of the crowds crushed people to death. The victims included two senators.” (Suetonius, victims included two senators.” (Suetonius, Julius Julius CaesarCaesar, 39, A. Futrell, 2006) , 39, A. Futrell, 2006)

Tertullian on people’s attitudes Tertullian on people’s attitudes towards their “stars”towards their “stars”

““Look at their attitude to the charioteers, actors, Look at their attitude to the charioteers, actors, gladiators, most loving of men, to whom men gladiators, most loving of men, to whom men surrender their souls and women their bodies as surrender their souls and women their bodies as well, for whose sake they commit the sin they well, for whose sake they commit the sin they blame; on one and the same account they glorify blame; on one and the same account they glorify tem and they degrade and diminish them; yes, tem and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum senate, excluded from council chamber, rostrum senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They love whom they lower; they despise whom they love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace (Tertullian, disgrace (Tertullian, De spect.De spect. 22) 22)

Change in attitudes towards the Change in attitudes towards the gladiatorgladiator

No individual gladiator named in sources prior to No individual gladiator named in sources prior to 33rdrd century BCE century BCE

Later development of ‘stage names’ of star Later development of ‘stage names’ of star gladiators who survived several fightsgladiators who survived several fights

By 150 BC – gladiatorial training used for the By 150 BC – gladiatorial training used for the militarymilitary

Gladiators used as instructorsGladiators used as instructors Army became vehicle of spreading Army became vehicle of spreading muneramunera to to

provinces and frontiers provinces and frontiers By 1By 1stst century BCE – notion developed gladiators century BCE – notion developed gladiators

could provide military could provide military exemplaexempla for citizens (skills, for citizens (skills, discipline, courage – all traditional Roman virtues)discipline, courage – all traditional Roman virtues)

A famous victor (3A famous victor (3rdrd century century BC)BC)

“ “ in the public show given by the in the public show given by the Flacci was a certain Samnite, a nasty Flacci was a certain Samnite, a nasty fellow, worthy of that life and station. fellow, worthy of that life and station. He was matched with Pacideianus, He was matched with Pacideianus, who was by far the best of all the who was by far the best of all the gladiators since the creation of man.”gladiators since the creation of man.”

Lucilius 4.2.172-5Lucilius 4.2.172-5

The gladiator as an The gladiator as an investmentinvestment

Cicero, Phil. 2.29.74: gladiators are an Cicero, Phil. 2.29.74: gladiators are an investment to be rewarded not wastedinvestment to be rewarded not wasted

Augustus banned fights without survivors: Augustus banned fights without survivors: ((munera sine missionemunera sine missione) in which winners ) in which winners had to fight the next man until all were had to fight the next man until all were dead.dead.

Now fights continued until one opponent Now fights continued until one opponent admitted defeatadmitted defeat

The specialized gladiator of the late The specialized gladiator of the late Roman republic received different public Roman republic received different public perception - from lowest status to perception - from lowest status to stardom – yet stigma of stardom – yet stigma of infamiainfamia remained remained

infamiainfamia

Augustan Law: Lex Aelia Sentia, AD 4Augustan Law: Lex Aelia Sentia, AD 4 Law on manumission: freed slaves, Law on manumission: freed slaves,

gladiators or gladiators or bestiariibestiarii took same status as took same status as subject foreigners (subject foreigners (peregrini dedicitiperegrini dediciti), men ), men who had fought in a war against Rome, were who had fought in a war against Rome, were defeated, surrendered, could never become defeated, surrendered, could never become Roman citizens or Latins, could not make a Roman citizens or Latins, could not make a will, could not receive anything through a will, could not receive anything through a willwill

A Roman citizen who became an A Roman citizen who became an auctoarius auctoarius forfeited his privileges as a citizen after his forfeited his privileges as a citizen after his retirement retirement

The Imperial GladiatorThe Imperial Gladiator

Their association with emperor increased Their association with emperor increased statusstatus

Similar to high status of imperial slavesSimilar to high status of imperial slaves selected for their physical strength and selected for their physical strength and

temperament, trained as imperial gladiators temperament, trained as imperial gladiators to perform in emperor’s showsto perform in emperor’s shows

Higher status than privately owned gladiatorsHigher status than privately owned gladiators Provided them with opportunity to serve Provided them with opportunity to serve

Rome, rewarded at least with an honourable Rome, rewarded at least with an honourable death, but at best with riches and freedomdeath, but at best with riches and freedom

paymentpayment

Even slave gladiators received pay Even slave gladiators received pay for performance – like the for performance – like the peculiumpeculium of slaveof slave

Could save Could save peculiumpeculium to buy his to buy his freedom, could marry, have children, freedom, could marry, have children, could own slavescould own slaves

Executions in the ArenaExecutions in the Arena

Hierarchy of ExecutionHierarchy of ExecutionRomans Citizens: died a quick deathRomans Citizens: died a quick deathCriminals of low status and Slaves: Criminals of low status and Slaves:

suffered a lingering deathsuffered a lingering deathForeign Enemies = Foreign Enemies = captivicaptivi also slow also slow

deathdeathForms: Death by beasts, crucifixion, Forms: Death by beasts, crucifixion,

burning aliveburning alive

The Function of Ordinary The Function of Ordinary Roman SacrificeRoman Sacrifice

pietas pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.)gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.)

Sacrifice demonstrates Sacrifice demonstrates pietaspietas Sacrifice cleanses both both Sacrifice cleanses both both vitiumvitium (intended (intended

transgression) and transgression) and impietasimpietas (unintended transgression) (unintended transgression) PietasPietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern; legitimized the right of individuals to govern;

Role of magistrates: to maintain the Role of magistrates: to maintain the paxpax deorumdeorum (peace of the gods)(peace of the gods)

pietaspietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the statestate

Roman Blood SacrificeRoman Blood Sacrifice

Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the godsthe gods

Under exceptional circumstances this could Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - include human victims - devotiodevotio

devotiodevotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a a commander before a campaign in return for a victory.victory.

Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boariumalive in the Forum Boarium

Execution of Christian martyrs described as Execution of Christian martyrs described as sacrificessacrifices

Roman ambivalence about Roman ambivalence about devotiodevotio

““why was it that, when Romans discovered that a why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and two women ..in the ‘Forum buried alive two men and two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls. ..Did they think it Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according to the instructions while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above herher tunic pulled up above her

devotiodevotio continued continued private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and

headdress scattered in different directions, her headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would become notorious; and that some outrage would become notorious; and that some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, slave ..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all been corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men. The women were convicted and punished, but as it was women were convicted and punished, but as it was such an appalling business, it was decided that the such an appalling business, it was decided that the priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot (the spot (Plutarch, Plutarch, Roman QuestionsRoman Questions 83). 83).

The Martyrdom of SaturusThe Martyrdom of SaturusCarthage – 250 CECarthage – 250 CE

““Well washed! Well washed!….He is Well washed! Well washed!….He is well washed indeed who is washed in well washed indeed who is washed in this way” (washing is part of ritual this way” (washing is part of ritual cleansing)cleansing)

Martyr tales are rife with the language Martyr tales are rife with the language of sacrificial offeringof sacrificial offering

Expiatory qualities of bloodExpiatory qualities of bloodGladiator’s blood was likewise thought Gladiator’s blood was likewise thought

to have certain magical propertiesto have certain magical properties

Sacrifice ad Sacrifice ad muneramunera Gladiatorial games Gladiatorial games started started as one of the as one of the

highest expressions of personal pietashighest expressions of personal pietas The magical qualities of sacrificial blood, The magical qualities of sacrificial blood,

especially human blood, cleansed the state of especially human blood, cleansed the state of both both vitiumvitium and and impietasimpietas

Because Because impietasimpietas could occur unnoticed, could occur unnoticed, sacrificial blood had to be shed in a sacrificial blood had to be shed in a prophylactic way – prophylactic way – muneramunera helped in this helped in this functionfunction

When ritual sacrifice no longer served a When ritual sacrifice no longer served a religious function (religious function (by 341 CEby 341 CE) ) muneramunera discontinued – the fact that they had to be discontinued – the fact that they had to be ““de-sacralizedde-sacralized in first place underscores their in first place underscores their sacred qualitiessacred qualities

The Scape-Goat Ritual The Scape-Goat Ritual ancient Greeceancient Greece

Scape-goat = Scape-goat = pharmakospharmakosPurification ritual - expulsion of the Purification ritual - expulsion of the

Pharmakos:Pharmakos:The ritual: a man chosen for his ugliness is The ritual: a man chosen for his ugliness is

first feasted on figs, barley broth, cheese, first feasted on figs, barley broth, cheese, then whipped out of the community with then whipped out of the community with fig branches and sea onions, struck fig branches and sea onions, struck especially seven times on his genitals; in especially seven times on his genitals; in this way community is cleansed of any this way community is cleansed of any committed pollution known or unknowncommitted pollution known or unknown

Sacrificial Victims in RomeSacrificial Victims in Rome Ordinary Gladiator Ordinary Gladiator

Blood shed as offering to Blood shed as offering to godsgods

Victim had to be willingVictim had to be willing The offering of victims was The offering of victims was

an act of an act of pietaspietas Victim must stand outside Victim must stand outside

of the communityof the community Actual act of sacrifice Actual act of sacrifice

presided over by a presided over by a magistrate, priest, or magistrate, priest, or emperor but carried out by emperor but carried out by a slavea slave

Blood shed as offering to Blood shed as offering to deaddead

AuctoramentumAuctoramentum GladiatorumGladiatorum

Editor puts on games as an Editor puts on games as an act of act of pietaspietas

Gladiators suffer from Gladiators suffer from infamia infamia stand outside stand outside communitycommunity

Actual death of a gladiator Actual death of a gladiator as victim carried out by as victim carried out by another gladiator who is another gladiator who is likewise a slave/outsiderlikewise a slave/outsider

Function of Gladiatorial Function of Gladiatorial spectacles spectacles

Not just cruelty and bloodlustNot just cruelty and bloodlustSacrificial purpose Sacrificial purpose Important social functions in a status Important social functions in a status

conscious society, displaying of social conscious society, displaying of social hierarchyhierarchy

Display of boundaries between Display of boundaries between Insiders and outsiders Insiders and outsiders

Display of Rome’s Power and Conquest Display of Rome’s Power and Conquest of the Uncivilized of the Uncivilized

ConclusionsConclusions ambivalent image of the gladiator emerges out ambivalent image of the gladiator emerges out

of his status as sacrificial victim and his status as of his status as sacrificial victim and his status as victimarius victimarius (the one carrying out the sacrifice)(the one carrying out the sacrifice)

Gladiatorial games increased in scale and Gladiatorial games increased in scale and importance under the principate because importance under the principate because emperors needed to legitimize their positionemperors needed to legitimize their position

Political legitimacy is a function of one’s Political legitimacy is a function of one’s demonstrable ability to maintain the demonstrable ability to maintain the Pax Pax DeorumDeorum

Maintaining the Maintaining the Pax DeorumPax Deorum was carried out was carried out through public displays of through public displays of pietaspietas, the highest , the highest expression of which was public sacrificeexpression of which was public sacrifice