Robotics

The Shadow robot hand system

RoboticsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design,construction, operation, and application of robots,[1] as well as computersystems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing.The design of a given robotic system will often incorporate principles ofmechanical engineering, electronic engineering, and computer science(particularly artificial intelligence). The study of biological systemsoften plays a key role in the systems engineering of a project and alsoforms the field of bionics. The mathematical expression of a biologicalsystem may give rise to control algorithms for example, or by observinghow a process is handled by nature, for example the bifocal visionsystem, an analogous system may be formed using electronics.

The concept of creating machines that can operate autonomously datesback to classical times, but research into the functionality and potentialuses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th century.[2]

Throughout history, robotics has been often seen to mimic humanbehavior, and often manage tasks in a similar fashion. Today, robotics isa rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue, research,design, and building new robots serve various practical purposes,whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots do jobsthat are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, mines and exploring shipwrecks.

Contents

1 Etymology2 History of robotics3 Components

3.1 Power source3.2 Actuation3.3 Sensing3.4 Manipulation3.5 Locomotion3.6 Environmental interaction and navigation3.7 Human-robot interaction

4 Control4.1 Autonomy levels

5 Robotics research5.1 Dynamics and kinematics

6 Education and training6.1 Career training6.2 Certification6.3 Summer robotics camp6.4 Robotics afterschool programs

Robotics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics

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7 Employment8 See also9 References10 Bibliography11 Further reading12 External links

Etymology

The word robotics was derived from the word robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer KarelČapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), which was published in 1920.[3] The word robot comesfrom the Slavic word robota, which means labour. The play begins in a factory that makes artificial peoplecalled robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans – similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapekhimself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English

Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator.[3]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, in hisscience fiction short story "Liar!", published in May 1941 in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unawarethat he was coining the term; since the science and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumedrobotics already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimov's other works, he statesthat the first use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround (Astounding Science Fiction, March1942).[4][5] However, the original publication of "Liar!" predates that of "Runaround" by five months, so theformer is generally cited as the word's origin.

History of robotics

In 1927 the Maschinenmensch ("machine-human") gynoid humanoid robot (also called "Parody", "Futura","Robotrix", or the "Maria impersonator") was the first depiction of a robot ever to appear on film was played byGerman actress Brigitte Helm in Fritz Lang's film Metropolis.

In 1942 the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov formulated his Three Laws of Robotics.

In 1948 Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics.

Fully autonomous robots only appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The first digitally operated andprogrammable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machineand stack them. Commercial and industrial robots are widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply,or more accurately and reliably, than humans. They are also employed in jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, ordull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly, packing and packaging,transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and the mass productionof consumer and industrial goods.[6]


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Date Significance Robot Name Inventor

ThirdcenturyBC andearlier

One of the earliest descriptions of automata appears inthe Lie Zi text, on a much earlier encounter betweenKing Mu of Zhou (1023–957 BC) and a mechanicalengineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. The latterallegedly presented the king with a life-size, human-

shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork.[7]

Yan Shi

FirstcenturyAD andearlier

Descriptions of more than 100 machines and automata,including a fire engine, a wind organ, a coin-operatedmachine, and a steam-powered engine, in Pneumaticaand Automata by Heron of Alexandria

Ctesibius, Philo ofByzantium, Heronof Alexandria, andothers

c. 420 BC A wooden, steam propelled bird, which was able to flyArchytas ofTarentum

1206Created early humanoid automata, programmable

automaton band[8]

Robot band,hand-washing

automaton,[9]

automated moving

peacocks[10]

Al-Jazari

1495 Designs for a humanoid robot Mechanical knight Leonardo da Vinci

1738Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flap its wings,and excrete

Digesting DuckJacques deVaucanson

1898 Nikola Tesla demonstrates first radio-controlled vessel. Teleautomaton Nikola Tesla

1921First fictional automatons called "robots" appear in theplay R.U.R.

Rossum's UniversalRobots

Karel Čapek

1930sHumanoid robot exhibited at the 1939 and 1940World's Fairs

ElektroWestinghouseElectricCorporation

1948 Simple robots exhibiting biological behaviors[11] Elsie and ElmerWilliam GreyWalter

1956First commercial robot, from the Unimation companyfounded by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger,

based on Devol's patents[12]Unimate George Devol

1960 First Robot to demonstrate mechanical binary memory. RudyMichael FreemanPh.D.

1961 First installed industrial robot. Unimate George Devol

1973First industrial robot with six electromechanically

driven axes[13][14] FamulusKUKA RobotGroup

1974

The world’s first microcomputer controlled electricindustrial robot, IRB 6 from ASEA, was delivered to asmall mechanical engineering company in southernSweden. The design of this robot had been patented

IRB 6 ABB Robot Group


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already 1972.

1975First Robot to create verbal output using words,sentences, and parts of speech

LeachimMichael FreemanPh.D.

1975Programmable universal manipulation arm, aUnimation product

PUMA Victor Scheinman

Components

Power source

Further information: Power supply and Energy storage

At present mostly (lead-acid) batteries are used as a power source. Many different types of batteries can be usedas a power source for robots. They range from lead acid batteries which are safe and have relatively long shelflives but are rather heavy to silver cadmium batteries that are much smaller in volume and are currently muchmore expensive. Designing a battery powered robot needs to take into account factors such as safety, cyclelifetime and weight. Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used. However,such designs are often mechanically complex and need fuel, require heat dissipation and are relatively heavy. Atether connecting the robot to a power supply would remove the power supply from the robot entirely. This hasthe advantage of saving weight and space by moving all power generation and storage components elsewhere.However, this design does come with the drawback of constantly having a cable connected to the robot, whichcan be difficult to manage.[15] Potential power sources could be:

pneumatic (compressed gases)hydraulics (liquids)flywheel energy storageorganic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)faeces (human, animal); may be interesting in a military context as faeces of small combat groups may bereused for the energy requirements of the robot assistant (see DEKA's project Slingshot Stirling engine onhow the system would operate)

Actuation

Main article: Actuator

Actuators are like the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far themost popular actuators are electric motors that spin a wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrialrobots in factories. But there are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by electricity,chemicals, or compressed air.

Electric motors

Main article: Electric motor

The majority of robots use electric motors, often brushed and brushless DC motors in portable robots, or ACmotors in industrial robots and CNC machines. These motors are often preferred in systems with lighter loads,and where the predominant form of motion is rotational.


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A robotic leg powered by air muscles

Linear actuators

Main article: Linear actuator

Various types of linear actuators move in and out instead of rotating, andoften have quicker direction changes, particularly when very large forcesare needed such as with industrial robotics. They are typically poweredby compressed air (pneumatic actuator) or an oil (hydraulic actuator).

Series elastic actuators

Main article: Series elastic actuator

A spring can be designed as part of the motor actuator, to allowimproved force control. It has been used in various robots, particularlywalking humanoid robots.[16]

Air muscles

Main article: Pneumatic artificial muscles

Pneumatic artificial muscles, also known as air muscles, are specialtubes that contract (typically up to 40%) when air is forced inside them.

They have been used for some robot applications.[17][18]

Muscle wire

Main article: Shape memory alloy

Muscle wire, also known as Shape Memory Alloy, Nitinol or Flexinol Wire, is a material that contracts slightly(typically under 5%) when electricity runs through it. They have been used for some small robot applications.[19][20]

Electroactive polymers

Main article: Electroactive polymers

EAPs or EPAMs are a new plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380% activation strain) fromelectricity, and have been used in facial muscles and arms of humanoid robots,[21] and to allow new robots tofloat,[22] fly, swim or walk.[23]

Piezo motors

Main article: Piezoelectric motor

Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentallydifferent principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, causelinear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of the piezo


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elements to walk the motor in a circle or a straight line.[24] Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nutto vibrate and drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and availableforce for their size.[25] These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.[26][27]

Elastic nanotubes

Further information: Nanotube

Elastic nanotubes are a promising artificial muscle technology in early-stage experimental development. Theabsence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with

energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm3 for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mmdiameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjumphumans.[28]

Sensing

Main article: Robotic sensing

Sensors allow robots to receive information about a certain measurement of the environment, or internalcomponents. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks, and act upon any changes in the environment tocalculate the appropriate response. They are used for various forms of measurements, to give the robotswarnings about safety or malfunctions, and to provide real time information of the task it is performing.

Touch

Main article: Tactile sensor

Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent researchhas developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human

fingertips.[29][30] The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by anelastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodesis deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expectthat an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.

Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009, called SmartHand,which functions like a real one—allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and performother fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in itsfingertips.[31]

Vision

Main article: Computer vision

Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific discipline, computer visionis concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data cantake many forms, such as video sequences and views from cameras.


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KUKA industrial robot operating in a

foundry

In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, butmethods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common.

Computer vision systems rely on image sensors which detect electromagnetic radiation which is typically in theform of either visible light or infra-red light. The sensors are designed using solid-state physics. The process bywhich light propagates and reflects off surfaces is explained using optics. Sophisticated image sensors evenrequire quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Robots canalso be equipped with multiple vision sensors to be better able to compute the sense of depth in theenvironment. Like human eyes, robots' "eyes" must also be able to focus on a particular area of interest, andalso adjust to variations in light intensities.

There is a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing andbehavior of biological system, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methodsdeveloped within computer vision have their background in biology.

Other

Other common forms of sensing in robotics use LIDAR, RADAR and SONAR.[citation needed]

Manipulation

Further information: Mobile manipulator

Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify,or otherwise have aneffect.Thus the "hands" of a robot are often referred to as end

effectors,[32] while the "arm" is referred to as a manipulator.[33] Mostrobot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to performsome small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannotbe replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, forexample a humanoid hand.

For the definitive guide to all forms of robot end-effectors, their design,and usage consult the book "Robot Grippers".[34]

Mechanical grippers

One of the most common effectors is the gripper. In its simplestmanifestation it consists of just two fingers which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of smallobjects. Fingers can for example be made of a chain with a metal wire run through it.[35] Hands that resemble

and work more like a human hand include the Shadow Hand, the Robonaut hand,[36] ... Hands that are of amid-level complexity include the Delft hand.[37][38] An example of a simpler mechanical gripper is Cornell'suniversal jamming gripper,[39] which does not use fingers but instead uses the principle of granular jamming toswitch the gripper from deformable to solid.

Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use allthe force of the gripper to hold the object in place using friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place,using less friction.


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Segway in the Robot museum in

Nagoya.

Vacuum grippers

Vacuum grippers are very simple astrictive[40] devices, but can hold very large loads provided the prehensionsurface is smooth enough to ensure suction.

Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car screens, often use very simplevacuum grippers.

General-purpose effectors

Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully humanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS,[41] and theSchunk hand.[42] These are highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom andhundreds of tactile sensors.[43]

Locomotion

Main articles: Robot locomotion and Mobile robot

Rolling robots

For simplicity most mobile robots have four wheels or a number ofcontinuous tracks. Some researchers have tried to create more complexwheeled robots with only one or two wheels. These can have certainadvantages such as greater efficiency and reduced parts, as well asallowing a robot to navigate in confined places that a four wheeled robotwould not be able to.

Two-wheeled balancing robots

Balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a robotis falling and then drive the wheels proportionally in the oppositedirection, to counterbalance the fall at hundreds of times per second,based on the dynamics of an inverted pendulum.[44] Many differentbalancing robots have been designed.[45] While the Segway is notcommonly thought of as a robot, it can be thought of as a component ofa robot, when used as such Segway refer to them as RMP (RoboticMobility Platform). An example of this use has been as NASA'sRobonaut that has been mounted on a Segway.[46]

One-wheeled balancing robots

Main article: Self-balancing unicycle

A one-wheeled balancing robot is an extension of a two-wheeled balancing robot so that it can move in any 2Ddirection using a round ball as its only wheel. Several one-wheeled balancing robots have been designedrecently, such as Carnegie Mellon University's "Ballbot" that is the approximate height and width of a person,and Tohoku Gakuin University's "BallIP".[47] Because of the long, thin shape and ability to maneuver in tight


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TALON military robots used by the

United States Army

spaces, they have the potential to function better than other robots in environments with people.[48]

Spherical orb robots

Main article: Spherical robot

Several attempts have been made in robots that are completely inside a spherical ball, either by spinning aweight inside the ball,[49][50] or by rotating the outer shells of the sphere.[51][52] These have also been referredto as an orb bot [53] or a ball bot.[54][55]

Six-wheeled robots

Using six wheels instead of four wheels can give better traction or grip in outdoor terrain such as on rocky dirtor grass.

Tracked robots

Tank tracks provide even more traction than a six-wheeled robot.Tracked wheels behave as if they were made of hundreds of wheels,therefore are very common for outdoor and military robots, where therobot must drive on very rough terrain. However, they are difficult to useindoors such as on carpets and smooth floors. Examples include NASA'sUrban Robot "Urbie".[56]

Walking applied to robots

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots havebeen made which can walk reliably on two legs, however none have yetbeen made which are as robust as a human. There has been much study on human inspired walking, such asAMBER lab which was established in 2008 by the Mechanical Engineering Department at Texas A&M

University.[57] Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, due to these robots beingsignificantly easier to construct.[58][59] Walking robots can be used for uneven terrains, which would providebetter mobility and energy efficiency than other locomotion methods. Hybrids too have been proposed inmovies such as I, Robot, where they walk on 2 legs and switch to 4 (arms+legs) when going to a sprint.Typically, robots on 2 legs can walk well on flat floors and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk overrocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:

ZMP Technique

Main article: Zero Moment Point

The Zero Moment Point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboardcomputer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth's gravity and the acceleration anddeceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on therobot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate andfall over).[60] However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is obvious to humanobservers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory.[61][62][63] ASIMO'swalking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (see below). However, it still requires a


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Two robot snakes. Left one has 64

motors (with 2 degrees of freedom

per segment), the right one 10.

smooth surface to walk on.

Hopping

Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated verydynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot, could stay upright simply byhopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it wouldjump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself.[64] Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and fourlegs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults.[65] A quadruped was alsodemonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound.[66] For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg LabRobots (http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/robots-main-bottom.html) page.

Dynamic balancing (controlled falling)

A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially morerobust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot's motion, and places the feet inorder to maintain stability.[67] This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot,[68] which isso stable, it can even jump.[69] Another example is the TU Delft Flame.

Passive dynamics

Main article: Passive dynamics

Perhaps the most promising approach utilizes passive dynamics where the momentum of swinging limbs is usedfor greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentleslope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount ofmotor power to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to makewalking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.[70][71]

Other methods of locomotion

Flying

A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with twohumans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stageof the journey, including takeoff, normal flight, and even landing.[72]

Other flying robots are uninhabited, and are known as unmanned aerialvehicles (UAVs). They can be smaller and lighter without a human piloton board, and fly into dangerous territory for military surveillancemissions. Some can even fire on targets under command. UAVs are alsobeing developed which can fire on targets automatically, without theneed for a command from a human. Other flying robots include cruisemissiles, the Entomopter (http://www-robotics.usc.edu/~avatar/), and theEpson micro helicopter robot (http://www.epson.co.jp/e/newsroom/news_2004_08_18.htm). Robots such as the Air Penguin, Air Ray, andAir Jelly have lighter-than-air bodies, propelled by paddles, and guidedby sonar.


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Capuchin Climbing Robot

Snaking

Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the way real snakes move, these robots cannavigate very confined spaces, meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsedbuildings.[73] The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot[74] can even navigate both on land and in water.[75]

Skating

A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multi-mode walking and skatingdevice. It has four legs, with unpowered wheels, which can either step or roll.[76] Another robot, Plen, can use aminiature skateboard or roller-skates, and skate across a desktop.[77]

Climbing

Several different approaches have been used to develop robots that havethe ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics themovements of a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting thecenter of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain leverage. Anexample of this is Capuchin,[78] built by Dr. Ruixiang Zhang(http://ai.stanford.edu/~rxzhang/) at Stanford University, California.Another approach uses the specialized toe pad method of wall-climbinggeckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass.Examples of this approach include Wallbot[79] and Stickybot.[80] China's"Technology Daily" November 15, 2008 reported New Concept Aircraft(ZHUHAI) Co., Ltd. Dr. Li Hiu Yeung and his research group haverecently successfully developed the bionic gecko robot "SpeedyFreelander". According to Dr. Li introduction, this gecko robot canrapidly climbing up and down in a variety of building walls, ground andvertical wall fissure or walking upside down on the ceiling, it is able toadapt on smooth glass, rough or sticky dust walls as well as the various surface of metallic materials and alsocan automatically identify obstacles, circumvent the bypass and flexible and realistic movements. Its flexibilityand speed are comparable to the natural gecko. A third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing apole[citation needed].

Swimming (Piscine)

It is calculated that when swimming some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%.[81]

Furthermore, they can accelerate and maneuver far better than any man-made boat or submarine, and produceless noise and water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robots would like to copythis type of locomotion.[82] Notable examples are the Essex University Computer Science Robotic Fish,[83] andthe Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics (http://fibo.kmutt.ac.th/), to analyze and mathematicallymodel thunniform motion.[84] The Aqua Penguin (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8B4_fGopzw&feature=related), designed and built by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front"flippers" of penguins. Festo have also built the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which emulate the locomotion ofmanta ray, and jellyfish, respectively.

Sailing


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The autonomous sailboat robot

Vaimos

RADAR, GPS, LIDAR, ... are all

combined to provide proper

navigation and obstacle avoidance

(vehicle developed for 2007

DARPA Urban Challenge)

Kismet can produce a

range of facial

expressions.

Sailboat robots have also been developed in order to makemeasurements at the surface of the ocean. A typical sailboat robot isVaimos [85] built by IFREMER and ENSTA-Bretagne. Since thepropulsion of sailboat robots uses the wind, the energy of the batteries isonly used for the computer, for the communication and for the actuators(to tune the rudder and the sail). If the robot is equipped with solarpanel, the robot could theoretically navigate forever. The two maincompetitions of sailboat robots are WRSC which takes place every yearin Europe and Sailbot (http://www.sailbot.org/).

Environmental interaction and navigation

Main article: Robotic mapping

Though a significant percentage of robots in commission today are eitherhuman controlled, or operate in a static environment, there is an increasinginterest in robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment.These robots require some combination of navigation hardware andsoftware in order to traverse their environment. In particular unforeseenevents (e.g. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) can causeproblems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots such as ASIMO, andMeinü robot have particularly good robot navigation hardware andsoftware. Also, self-controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, andthe entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, are capable of sensing theenvironment well and subsequently making navigational decisions based onthis information. Most of these robots employ a GPS navigation device withwaypoints, along with radar, sometimes combined with other sensory datasuch as LIDAR, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for betternavigation between waypoints.

Human-robot interaction

Main article: Human-robot interaction

If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, theway they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told tostop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have littleor no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive.Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capableof communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions,rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most naturalway for the human to communicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It will probably be along time before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C-3PO.

Speech recognition

Main article: Speech recognition

Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a


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difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech.[86] The same word, spoken bythe same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or notthe speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent.[87] Nevertheless,great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input

system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952.[88] Currently, thebest systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of95%.[89]

Robotic voice

Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice for interacting with humans. For social reasons,synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium,[90] making it necessary to develop theemotional component of robotic voice through various techniques.[91][92]

Gestures

Further information: Gesture recognition

One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from arobot police officer. In both of these cases, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the firstcase, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation.In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is likelythat gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots.[93]

Facial expression

Further information: Facial expression

Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon maybe able to do the same for humans and robots. Robotic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics usingtheir elastic polymer called Frubber, allowing a large number of facial expressions due to the elasticity of therubber facial coating and embedded subsurface motors (servos).[94] The coating and servos are built on a metalskull. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language.Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot.Likewise, robots like Kismet and the more recent addition, Nexi[95] can produce a range of facial expressions,allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.[96]

Artificial emotions

Artificial emotions can also be generated, composed of a sequence of facial expressions and/or gestures. As canbe seen from the movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, the programming of these artificial emotions iscomplex and requires a large amount of human observation. To simplify this programming in the movie, presetswere created together with a special software program. This decreased the amount of time needed to make thefilm. These presets could possibly be transferred for use in real-life robots.

Personality


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Puppet Magnus, a robot-manipulated

marionette with complex control

systems

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played

ping pong at Tokyo IREX 2009.[101]

Many of the robots of science fiction have a personality, something which may or may not be desirable in thecommercial robots of the future.[97] Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have apersonality:[98][99] i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to try to convey an internal state,which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit

several apparent emotions.[100]

Control

Further information: Control system

The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks.The control of a robot involves three distinct phases – perception,processing, and action (robotic paradigms). Sensors give informationabout the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints orits end effector). This information is then processed to calculate theappropriate signals to the actuators (motors) which move themechanical.

The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it maytranslate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands.Sensor fusion may first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g.the position of the robot's gripper) from noisy sensor data. An immediatetask (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction) is inferred fromthese estimates. Techniques from control theory convert the task intocommands that drive the actuators.

At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot mayneed to build and reason with a "cognitive" model. Cognitive models tryto represent the robot, the world, and how they interact. Patternrecognition and computer vision can be used to track objects. Mapping techniques can be used to build maps ofthe world. Finally, motion planning and other artificial intelligence techniques may be used to figure out how toact. For example, a planner may figure out how to achieve a task without hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.

Autonomy levels

Control systems may also have varying levels of autonomy.

Direct interaction is used for haptic or tele-operated devices, andthe human has nearly complete control over the robot's motion.

1.

Operator-assist modes have the operator commanding medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot automatically figuring out howto achieve them.

2.

An autonomous robot may go for extended periods of timewithout human interaction. Higher levels of autonomy do notnecessarily require more complex cognitive capabilities. Forexample, robots in assembly plants are completely autonomous,but operate in a fixed pattern.

3.

Another classification takes into account the interaction between human control and the machine motions.


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Teleoperation. A human controls each movement, each machine actuator change is specified by theoperator.

1.

Supervisory. A human specifies general moves or position changes and the machine decides specificmovements of its actuators.

2.

Task-level autonomy. The operator specifies only the task and the robot manages itself to complete it.3.Full autonomy. The machine will create and complete all its tasks without human interaction.4.

Robotics research

Further information: Open-source robotics, Evolutionary robotics, Areas of robotics, and Roboticssimulator

Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types ofrobots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them but otherinvestigations, such as MIT's cyberflora project, are almost wholly academic.

A first particular new innovation in robot design is the opensourcing of robot-projects. To describe the level ofadvancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots" can be used. This term is coined by Professor HansMoravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing thenear future evolution of robot technology. First generation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have anintellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and should become available by 2010. Because the firstgeneration robot would be incapable of learning, however, Moravec predicts that the second generation robotwould be an improvement over the first and become available by 2020, with the intelligence maybe comparableto that of a mouse. The third generation robot should have the intelligence comparable to that of a monkey.Though fourth generation robots, robots with human intelligence, professor Moravec predicts, would become

possible, he does not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.[102]

The second is Evolutionary Robots. This is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help designrobots, especially the body form, or motion and behavior controllers. In a similar way to natural evolution, alarge population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measuredusing a fitness function. Those that perform worst are removed from the population, and replaced by a new set,which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves, and eventually asatisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any direct programming of the robots by the researchers.Researchers use this method both to create better robots,[103] and to explore the nature of evolution.[104]

Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated,[105] this technique may be runentirely or mostly in simulation, then tested on real robots once the evolved algorithms are good enough.[106]

Currently, there are about 1 million industrial robots toiling around the world, and Japan is the top countryhaving high density of utilizing robots in its manufacturing industry.[citation needed]

Dynamics and kinematics

Further information: Kinematics and Dynamics (mechanics)

The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics.[107] Direct kinematics refers to thecalculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity, and acceleration when the corresponding joint valuesare known. Inverse kinematics refers to the opposite case in which required joint values are calculated for givenend effector values, as done in path planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling ofredundancy (different possibilities of performing the same movement), collision avoidance, and singularity


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The SCORBOT-ER 4u –

educational robot.

avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelerations have been calculated using kinematics,methods from the field of dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon these movements. Directdynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Directdynamics is used in computer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of the actuatorforces necessary to create a prescribed end effector acceleration. This information can be used to improve thecontrol algorithms of a robot.

In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies, improve existing ones,and improve the interaction between these areas. To do this, criteria for "optimal" performance and ways tooptimize design, structure, and control of robots must be developed and implemented.

Education and training

Main article: Educational robotics

Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications

for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics.[108]

Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and highschools, as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest inprogramming, artificial intelligence and robotics among students. First-yearcomputer science courses at several universities now include programmingof a robot in addition to traditional software engineering-based coursework.On the Technion I&M faculty an educational laboratory was established in1994 by Dr. Jacob Rubinovitz.

Career training

Universities offer bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in the field ofrobotics.[109] Vocational schools offer robotics training aimed at careers inrobotics.

Certification

The Robotics Certification Standards Alliance (RCSA) is an internationalrobotics certification authority that confers various industry- andeducational-related robotics certifications.

Summer robotics camp

Several national summer camp programs include robotics as part of their core curriculum, including DigitalMedia Academy, RoboTech, and Cybercamps. In addition, youth summer robotics programs are frequentlyoffered by celebrated museums such as the American Museum of Natural History[110] and The Tech Museum ofInnovation in Silicon Valley, CA, just to name a few. An educational robotics lab also exists at the IE & mgmntFaculty of the Technion. It was created by Dr. Jacob Rubinovitz.

Robotics afterschool programs

Many schools across the country are beginning to add robotics programs to their after school curriculum. Three


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A robot technician builds small

all-terrain robots. (Courtesy:

MobileRobots Inc)

main programs for afterschool robotics are Botball, FIRST Robotics Competition, and Vex Robotics DesignSystem.

Employment

Main article: Technological unemployment

Robotics is an essential component in many modern manufacturingenvironments. As factories increase their use of robots, the number ofrobotics–related jobs grow and have been observed to be steadily

rising.[111]

See also

Artificial intelligenceGlossary of roboticsIndex of robotics articlesJustin (robot)MechatronicsOutline of robotics

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Bibliography


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K. S. Fu & R.C. Gonzalez & C.S.G. Lee, Robotics: Control, Sensing, Vision, and Intelligence(CAD/CAM, robotics, and computer vision)C.S.G. Lee & R.C. Gonzalez & K.S. Fu, Tutorial on robotics"SP200 With Open Control Center. Robotic Prescription Dispensing System" (http://www.scriptpro.com/products/sp-200/SP_200_OCC_Low_Res.pdf), accessed November 22, 2008."McKesson Empowering HealthCare. Robot RX" (http://www.mckesson.com/en_us/McKesson.com/For%2BPharmacies/Inpatient/Pharmacy%2BAutomation/ROBOT-Rx.html), accessed November 22,2008."Aethon. You Deliver the Care. TUG Delivers the Rest" (http://aethon.com/brochure.pdf), accessedNovember 22, 2008.Waukee Robotics Club (http://www.waukeerobotics.com)Marco Ceccarelli, "Fundamentals of Mechanics of Robotic Manipulators"

Further reading

Journal of Field Robotics (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117946193/grouphome/home.html)R. Andrew Russell (1990). Robot Tactile Sensing. New York: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-781592-1

External links

Robotics (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Robotics/) on the Open Directory ProjectHarvard Graduate School of Design, Design Robotics Group (http://research.gsd.harvard.edu/drg/)The Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University (http://www.ri.cmu.edu/)Biologically Inspired Robotics Lab, Case Western Reserve University (http://biorobots.case.edu/)

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