Research MethodologyFoundations – The Social

Sciences

T. JayaramanSchool of Habitat Studies

Lecture IV & V

Studying the Social World

What is the difference between the study of the natural and social worlds?

One view – There is no substantial difference. The natural sciences are the exemplar for the social sciences, especially as understood in the pursuit of the empirical perspective.

In later years, natural sciences as understood in the sense of “logical empricism”

Generally referred to as “positivism”

Typical tenets of Positivism

The empiricist view of the natural sciences is accepted

Science is valued as the highest or even the only genuine form of knowledge

Scientific method, as represented by empiricism, can and should be extended to the study of the human/mental/social, to establish them as science

Once social science has been established, it will be possible to have an “objective”, “predictive” view of the social world.

A Positivist Manifesto

In his 1929 presidential address to the American Sociological Society, William F. Ogburn laid out the rules.

In turning sociology into a science, he said,‘‘it will be necessary to crush out emotion.’’ Further, ‘‘it will be desirable to taboo ethics and values (except in choosing problems); and it will be inevitable that we shall have to spend most of our time doing hard, dull, tedious, and routine tasks’’ (Ogburn 1930:10). Eventually, he said, there would be no need for a separate field of statistics because ‘‘all sociologists will be statisticians’’

(p. 6).

Natural vs Social

But is not society different from nature? Thoughts, feelings, subjective experience

matter!! Thoughts and feelings matter and have a

causal effect on the world (both social and natural)

Acts based on the “meanings” we attach to them – The way we act depends on the way we think about the world around us.

Empiricism and Social Science

Are there facts in the social sciences? Natural facts and Institutional facts – Latter

created by human agency What about “emergence”? “Social” facts as a consequence of emergence

Critiques of Positivism

Are there “laws of society” ? Many of them turn out to be trivial.

Even if there are laws can we meaningfully determine what they are? There are no experiments to conduct.

More generally, vast variety of “conditions” under which laws will be valid, make it doubtful whether such laws would indeed be derivable or useful

Human vs the Natural Sciences

The question of humanism Endowed with feelings. Other issues like

values, rights, etc Importance of Empathy!!Value-ladenness of enquiry

More Fundamental CriticismInterpretation & Meaning

Actions have “meaning” invested in them. (Ex. Raising the hand to vote, going around the

temple) Key aim of social enquiry – Understanding why

people act the way they do Make sense of the actions, beliefs, value systems,

institutions, that form the social world Uncover the beliefs and intentions that inform

human action within the larger (social) context in which they reside

Aim is Understanding and NOT explanation (but which explanation?!)

What is “Meaning”?Perceptual meaning – How a subject perceives the

world, including actions of others and selfDoxastic meaning – What a subject believesIntentional meaning – What a subject intends,

desires, etc to bring aboutLinguistic meaning – How the verbal behaviour of

the subject is to be translatedSymbolic meaning – What the behaviour of the

subject (verbal or non-verbal) symbolizesNormative meaning – What norms are reflected or

embodied in the behaviour of the individual

The Traditions from the Social Sciences

This view of science as “Understanding” and not explanation embodied in the practice of many social sciences – sociology and anthropology

Economics a different case – Especially contemporary mainstream economics

Behaviourism in psychology (the equivalent of extreme empiricism in the natural sciences)(Social data based on purely behavioural description)

Descriptivism Descriptivism (Phenomenology)Seek to describe how people “make sense of their

everday world” - Draws from cultural anthropology and ethnomethodology

Aim – to uncover the sense of purpose and meaning of their beliefs and actions within the broader context of worldviews, institutions, values and practices.

Produces not explanation but a “thick description”

But is this sufficient for “critique” or tell us “what is going on”?

Hermeneutics Meanings yes, but not only that of the subject Dialogic interaction between that of the subject

and those studying it. Term taken from the study of texts – constant

interpretation and re-interpretation Meanings are not singular – Multiple meanings

that have to be negotiated between themselves Hermeneutical enquiry is “evaluative”(Positivism pushes values to the subjective,

descriptivism is “uncritical” of the values of the subject)

Hermeneutics as Explanation

As long as “meaning” can be expressed, they provide an empirical basis for understanding behaviour, actions.

Their validity can be verified. Meaning-ladenness not an issue when we have

accepted theory-ladenness in the natural sciences

Materialism/Marxism

Being determines consciousness The objective/natural and social/subjective are

both important but with a clear order of priority Marxism enables one to make sense of the

debate between interpretive and positivist schools of thought

Does it presuppose a definite commitment to a particular view (broadly speaking) of the evolution of society?

More on the D-N model of explanation

Closely related form is the I-S (inductive-statistical) explanationIn this form very common in the social sciences.

But statistical inference needs to be carefully handled. All correlations do not necessarily indicate causal connections.

More generally, DN is suspect in terms of causation (and therefore explanation)

Ex: Barometer is falling. Whenever a barometer is falling, a storm is approaching. Hence a storm is approaching. Obviously the barometer is not the cause.

Functional Explanation

Is an explanation with two characteristic claims:That a social practice or institution has a

characteristic effectThat this social practice or institution exists in order to

have this characteristic effectExamples:Birds have hollow bones in order to help flyingThe custom of brideprice among the Lele serves to

enhance social interdependence across generations

More on the FunctionalFirst part of functional explanation not very significant.Second part is the real key.A practice has a particular effectThe practice persists because it has that effectThe practice is causally prior to the effect.Example: Initiation rites and social solidarity(key – solidarity alone does not produce initiation)Also typical in trait-environment relations ( but need a selection process to select a particular practice)

Fresher's party and learning from peers!! (Ceremonial custom)

In general we must show a causal connection between the outcomes of a social institution/practice for preserving the overall equilibrium and the practice itself.

From Functional to the Evolutionary

Functional explanation may “freeze” the existing state of the world.

But a changing world will provide a better explanation of why a practice or institution survives. And how it comes into being.

In biology, very powerful.

Structural Explanation

Social phenomena determined by the causal properties of social structures

Social structures are persistent over long periods of time. Independent of the behaviour of individuals. Imposes constraints on the behaviour of individuals.

Social structures are enduring regulative systems that define opportunities and constraints that guide, limit, and inspire individual action.

Version 2: Structures are abstract constructions which are then realised in a particular form. Built by the mind, in abstract form.

Example: Kinship

Social Construction and Social Constructivism Revisited

Much more significant in the social sciences.

What about “poverty”? Is poverty natural ORSocially constructed?

Social construction much better here .....Explanation in terms of social, economic, political

processes that make social realityAlso explains how poverty is gradually eradicated

Social Constructivism

Identity is a typical arena for Social Constructivism.

How we conceive of ourselves makes for what is identity? Identity is constituted by the way we think about ourselves. Or the description of “roles” such as motherhood? Is it biology or is it the way we conceive of motherhood (caring, feminine qualities) that determines what it But is that all?

Critical Theory/Post-Modernism

Knowledge as PowerThe Skeptical ViewDeconstruction/etc.

Revisiting Marxism

Some characteristic featuresConcept of Ideology

Standpoint epistemology