RM All Lectures FT

8/8/2019 RM All Lectures FT

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BUSINESS

RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY


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OUR JOB

Our major objectives are.

To understand the importance of research in

business.To understand the various terminologies related

to research.

To understand the process of business

research.To conduct research in area of your interest .


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An Example..

You want to know your Employees opinion

about having a health center in your organization.

Think of the steps that you would take to get theanswer .


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The things that would have struck your mindare.

You will be ( Who )

Asking your employees ( Whom )

Their opinion ( What )

Through interview OR questionnaire ( How )

While they are in the office ( Where )

During lunch time ( When )

To find out if they need a health centre ( Why )

The Steps..


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AND ONLY THEN WILL YOU TAKE

YOUR DECISION ABOUT THE

HEALTH CENTER.

This is RESEARCH .


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Functions of Research

Validation of Knowledge

Correction of Knowledge

Generation of Knowledge Diagnosis of the situation

Prediction of events

Evaluation of process /product /project


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RESEARCH AREAS..

Employee attitude

Leadership styles

Performance appraisals

Product innovations

Consumer complaints

Image building

Investment decisions

Dividend policies


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Alternate work patterns

Outsourcing

Management info systems

Brand building & positioning

Retirement policies

Diversification

Continued


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Check your Progress

You have been sent to another country

to study the feasibility of opening a

branch office of your organization.

Identify the research areas.


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BUSINESS RESEARCH

RESEARCH

AREAS

MARKETING FINANCEHUMAN

RESOURCE

INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY


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Managerial Value of

Business Research

Identifying problems or opportunities

Diagnosing & assessing problems or

opportunities

Selecting & implementing a course of

action

Evaluating a course of action


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Every Business works in a variety of ENVIRONMENTS.

Economic ( Macro & Micro )

Social ( Human beingsAttitudes , Perceptions )

Cultural ( Socio-cultural changes , Value crisis )

Political ( National & International)

Knowledge ( Science ,Technology & Skills )

Legal ( National & International )

BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT


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There is a constant change in each of these

environments.

The people who run the business & their employeesalso undergo change continuously.

Hence there is always a generation of newer

problems, which need solutions.


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Hence there is always a

constant demand for

RESEARCH in BUSINESSBUSINESS ..


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Types of Research

Basic

Applied


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Basic Research

Basic research is also known as pure orfundamental research.

Objective is to extend the existing domain of

knowledge about certain subject or topic eitherin physical form like sales, or in abstract formlike human behviour.

The knowledge itself could be in the form of

trend, pattern or relationship. Individuals conduct basic research primarily out

of their curiousity, inquisitiveness, conviction etc.


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Basic Research - Examples

Relationship between intelligence and creativity

Relationship of analytical ability and verbal ability withthe scores obtained in various subjects

Relative impact of factors like salary, work environment,reward system affecting motivation of employees

Relative impact of advertisements on various mediasuch as newspaper, magazine and television

The BlackScholes model (mathematical model of the

market for an equity) McGregors Theory X and Theory Y (theories of human

motivation : Y are self motivated; X have to bemotivated)


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Applied Research

It is the research relating to specific

product, service or system or campaign.

A

pplied research aims at solving anyproblem or resolving any issue in a

scientific and systematic manner.


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Applied Research - Examples

A branch manager may like to streamline

the functioning of its customer counters to

reduce waiting time for the customers.

A company may like to evaluate impact of

its advertising campaign.

It may also be used to promote a product

or class of products through favourable

results obtained through research.


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Internal Vs External Research

Internal research is conducted by team ofexperts within the organisation.

External research is conducted for anorganisation by an outside agency like aconsultant, consultancy firm or a professionallike a Faculty in an academic institution.

Whenever a problem needs to be solved or aresearch study is considered desirable, in an

organisation, an issue arises as to whether itshould be conducted internally or through anexternal agency. Both strategies have certainadvantages and disadvantages.


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Advantages of Internal research

The internal team is well versed with theenvironment, systems and procedures,culture, etc in the organization.

It may get a quick grasp and comprehendthe various aspects of he problem / study

The problem is solved quickly. Of course it

presumes that the requisite competent andskilled team is available within theorganization.


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Advantages of External research

Availability of Expertise

Pool of Expertise

Fresh Perspective and IndividualThinking

Acceptability

Quality


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Limitations of External research

The external team may not be well versed with

the environment, systems and procedures,

culture, etc in the organization

They may take time to grasp and comprehendthe various aspects of the problem / study

The selection of external agency plays a crucial

role, and has to be done carefully to ensure

credibility and acceptability of their research in

the organisation


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Criteria for Selection of External

Research Agency

Reputation

Record of completing assignments in time

Credibility in maintaining ethical standards.

Flexibility in the approach based on newdevelopments or new thinking

Quality of past assignments

Experience

Quality of Staff

Sharing of ideology and value systems


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Let us Revise..

Research is an important activity in anybusiness.

Its main purpose is to get solutions to

problems.

Research is the major contributor ofknowledge.

Managers of tomorrow will need to knowmore than managers of yesterday.


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RESEARCH AS A

SCIENTIFIC PROCESS


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Scientific Research

Scientific Research focuses on solving

problems and pursues a step by step

logical organised and rigorous method to

identify problems, to gather data, analyse

them and draw a valid conclusion.


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Characteristics of Science & Research

Purposiveness

Rigor

Testability

Replicability

Precision & Confidence

Objectivity

Generalizability

Parsimony


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Steps of Science & Research

Identification of a Problem

Theoretical framework

Defining Objectives Hypotheses

Tool construction

Data collection

Data analysis

Conclusion --- Generalization


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Research Scientific Process

We may conclude that ---

The characteristics of Science & Research

are same. The steps of a scientific process & thoseof a research process are same.

Hence we call Research a Science andResearch Process as a Scientific Process.


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What is a Good Research ?

Purpose clearly defined

Research process detailed

Research design thoroughly planned

High ethical standards applied Limitations frankly revealed

Adequate analysis done

Findings presented unambiguously Conclusions justified

Researchers experience reflected


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Sources of Knowledge

Customs & Traditions

Authority

Personal Experience

Logical Reasoning

Scientific Inquiry


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Types of Thinking

Inductive ----- From loose data touniversal relationships which are organizedin the form of Laws, Theories

(Derivation of theory)

Deductive ----- From Laws & Rules tofacts ( Application of rules to specific

situations)


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Components of Theory

Concepts

Constructs

Theory (Knowledge Generation)

Facts (Knowledge Generation)


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Research Process

The research process is the methodology of conductinga research assignment / project / study in a scientific andsystematic manner. It takes into account all the relevantfactors that are important in ensuring that the objectives

of the research study are achieved with optimumutilisation of resources. It also ensures that the approachis quite comprehensive with the involvement of all thosewho are

Experts in the area

Associated with the management of the project, and Associated with the execution or implementation of the

project with the help of research results or findings.


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Research Process

Specifyin

gA

rea &Objective

Defining &

Refining

Problem/Opportunit

y

Hypothese

s

Developm

ent

Research

Design * Collectin

g Data

Analy

se

Data

Interpreti

ng

Conclusi

on &

Report


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Research Process

Specifying the area and the objective of thestudy

Defining & Refining Problem Defining Problemand Refining Problem through LiteratureReview, Interviewing relevant people, Group

Discussion with relevant people, etc. Hypotheses Development

Preparing Research Design

Collection of data

Analysing the data Interpreting the results and drawing conclusions

based on data


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THE HIERARCHY


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MANAGEMENT DILEMMA (Level 1)

MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS (Level 2)

RESEARCH QUESTIONS (Level 3)


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LEV

EL 1 -- The top managementsconcerns about the business . These arethe symptoms of the actual problem .

LEVEL 2 -- The managers try to raise theissues underlying the symptom .

LEVEL 3 -- The researcher tries to

conceptualize the symptoms in the form of

basic issues or causes .


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Some Examples ..

Management Dilemma .. (In terms of

observations on a general level)

Declining sales, Increasing employee

turnover, Large no. of defective

products, Large no. of consumer

complaints ..


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Continued..

Management Questions .. (In terms

of questions to be answered but not

suggesting kind of research to be

undertaken)

Why are the sales declining? Are we on

the right track? Are we meeting our

goals? Why are the departmental costson the rise?


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Continued..

Research Questions.. (In terms of fact

finding & information gathering questions

in the form of unstructured exploration)

What factors are contributing to the

failure of XYZ dept? How good is the

customer service? What kind of

complaints are recurrent? What is the

system of quality control in XYZ dept?


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Continued..

Investigative Questions .. (In terms of

more specific questions after a careful

informal exploration)

How attractive are our services? Which

region is receiving more complaints ? Is

there enough manpower to handle the

cases? What is the system of redressal?

Are there any specific factors influencing

employee performance?


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Continued..

Measurement Questions.. (In terms of

specific information to be sought)

How shall we measure the quality of ourservice ? Which areas (of quality) need

to be covered ? What information about

the employees is required (morale,

training, experience, health etc.) ? Howdo we get this info?


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MANAGEMENTDILEMMA

ManagementQuestion 1 ManagementQuestion 2

ResearchQuestion 1 a

ResearchQuestion 1 b

ResearchQuestion 2 a

ResearchQuestion 2 b


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CONCLUSION

When we proceed from Management

Dilemma to Research Questions we move

from -----

1) general level to a specific &

focused level.

2) symptoms to the root causes.


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Have we understood ?

The deposits in the bank are to be increased.

Computer department shows excessiveturnover among programmers.

New health insurance is not picking upsales.

New branch is to be opened in rural area.

Change in the advertising strategy is to be

brought about.


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FORMULATION OF

A RESEARCH PROBLEM


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Research Problem

Should be clearly stated.

Should be focused.

Should convey the right meaning.


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Research problem flows from theresearch question.

Its stated in a statement form.


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Some Examples

1) Effect of new packaging on the sales of aproduct.

2) Effects of downsizing on the brand image

of the company.3) Study of performance management

systems in IT industry.

4) Case study of SVKMs NMIMS University.

5) Evaluation of ABC Policy / Programme /Process.


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Objectives

These are specific, concrete &achievable goals of research. They

generally flow from

the research questions. They give thedirection to the research.

e.g. To study the consumer perception of theproduct.

To analyse the annual reports of thechosen

companies w.r.t. the chosen parameters.


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Exercise

Write the objectives for the

Research problems in slide no. 4


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Variables

It is an attribute that takes different

values (for the same object at different

times or different objects at the same

time).

e.g. age, attitude, absenteeism, profits,

production units, job satisfaction,attrition


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Types ofVariables

Independent Dependent

Extraneous

1) Control

2) Moderating

(Context)

3) Intervening


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Independent Variable

It influences the dependent variable.

It is manipulated by the researcher

in experimental research.

Also known as treatment variable inexperimental research.

Research may have more than one

independent variable.


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Dependent Variable

It is affected by the changes in the

independent variable. It is not manipulated by the

researcher.

Research may have more than onedependent variables.


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Extraneous variables

1) Control--- it is controlled by the researcher

by keeping the values constant in both the

groups especially in experimental research.

2) Moderating--- it is studied by the researcheralong with the other variables.

3) Intervening--- it can neither be controlled

nor studied. Its effect is to be inferred from

the results.


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Exercise Identify & classify the

variables in the given problem.

1. A study of effect of training on the performance of

employees.

2. A study of effect of celebrity endorsements on

the sales of a product.

3. A study of relationship between motivation & jobsatisfaction.

4. A study of customer satisfaction at a retail outlet.


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Definitions of the terms

Types -----

1) Conceptual [ Theoretical basis ]2) Operational [ Research basis ]

O f


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Operational Definition

includes ----

Contents of the concept

Areas of measurement of eachcontent

Sources of data

Scoring / Categorizing


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Exercise

Define the terms / variables in

the

problems in the slide no. 12


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HYPOTHESES


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HYPOTHESES

A logical relationship between two or

more variables expressed in the form

of a testable statement.It is an intelligent guess of the probable

solution to the problem.

They are derived from the theoretical

framework formulated for the research.


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TYPES of HYPOTHESES

1) Null

2) Alternate ( Positive or Research )

a) Non directional

b) Directional


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Meaning Null Hypothesis

Null hypothesis assumes no difference

or no relationship between the twohypothesized variables.

It indicates unbiased attitude of the

researcher to the research.


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It is represented as Ho.

It is a statement which can be tested

Statistically .

When previous research literature is not

available sufficiently or it does not give a

clear cut direction, it is better to frame a

hypothesis in null form.


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Examples

1) There is nosignificant difference in thesales of the product before & after newpackaging. M1=M2

2) There is nosignificantrelationshipbetween TV viewership & aggression among

teenagers.


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Meaning Alternate Hypothesis

It assumes some difference or some

relationship between the hypothesized

variables.

When sufficient research literature isavailable indicating definite difference or

relationship, alternate hypothesis isformulated.


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It is represented as H1 .

It can be tested statistically as null

hypothesis.


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Examples

1) The performance of motivated

employees is significantly different than

those who are not motivated.

2) The sales of a product is significantly

related to the expenditure on the

advertisement.


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3) The debt equity ratio of org. ABC

is significantly higher than that of

org. XYZ .

4) The level of motivation of male

employees is significantly lower than

that of female employees.


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Types of Alternate Hypotheses

Examples no. 1 & 2 belong to one category

AND

Examples no. 3 & 4 belong to other category.

Can you differentiate between these two???


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Explanation

Examples 1 & 2 tell us that they do differ

from 3 & 4. But do not tell us which

variable in statement 1 & 2 has a

higher value than the other. It does nottell us the DIRECTION of magnitude.

Hence they are known as

NON - DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES.


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Whereas examples 3 & 4 not only tell us

that the variables mentioned therein are

not equal in magnitude but also tell us

which variable is having a highermagnitude . They provide us the direction

of the magnitude .

Hence they are known as

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES.

Lets check our understanding


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Let s check our understanding..

Frame different types of hypotheses forfollowing problems

1. A study of relationship between e-shopping

habits & some demographic variables.

2. A study of relationship between interestrates & the investment habits.

3. A study of effectiveness of sachet & bottlepackaging of shampoo in terms of consumer

preference.

R l ti hi b t


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Relationship between

Hypotheses & Theory

Hypothesis ----- HYPO & THESIS

Hypo = Below or Less than

Thesis = Theory

Hypothesis means a proposition which isat a lower level than a theory.

Hypothesis which are tested & retainedmany times will lead to the formulation of

a theory. Theory which is proven truemany times leads to the formulation of a

law.


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Review of Related Literature

Literature survey is important because it

gives you the work done in the past.

helps you identify the variables studied before.

gives you the research designs previously used.

helps you to formulate the hypotheses.

cautions you about the possible problems in future.

avoids unnecessary repetition.

leads us to sound theoretical or conceptual framework.

helps you to identify research gaps.


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Sources of Literature Survey

Internet

Library ( books, journals, year books,encyclopedia)

Govt. Reports (commissions , Plan & policy

documents, census)

Unpublished research ( Degree level work)

Company documents ( annual reports,budgets, key note addresses , AGM minutes)

Conference proceedings

Other databases


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Related literature helps the researcher

in constructing a Concept Map which

is a schematic representation of therelationship of different variables

involved in the study.

CONCEPT MAP


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CONCEPT MAP

MOTIVATION

AGE

EDU & PROFQUALIFICATION

PERFORMANCE

SKILLSET

CONFIDENCE

MORALE

EXPERIENCE

TRAINING

JOBSATISFACTION

HEALTH


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SAMPLING


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SAMPLING

How would you know if the rice is properly

cooked ?

How would you know that the bunch of grapes

is good just by testing 1 or 2 grapes ?

This is S A M P L I N G in day to day life.

So.What is Sampling according to you ???

M i


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Meaning

A Sample is a part of the population which is studied

in order to make inferences about the wholepopulation.

Research needs the data to be collected from the

concerned people. If you collect the data from all theconcerned people you would be spending a lot on all

the resources human, money, time, energy etc. So

choose only a FEW .

But how to choose these FEW is the main concern ofthe researcher.


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The RIGHT people , objects

The ADEQUATE number

PROPER method of selection

must be followed if you want to make your

research more meaningful & valid.

S T D fi d


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Some Terms Defined

SAMPLING TRAIT: Characteristics used forselection.

POPULATION : Entire group of people or objectsof interest.

ELEMENT : A single member of the population. POPULATION : A list of all the elements in the

FRAME population from which sample isdrawn.

SAMPLE : A subset of the population.

SUBJECT : A single member of the sample.

SAMPLE SIZE : Total no. of subjects in thesample.


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Relation between Sample & Population

SAMPLE POPULATION

Statistics

Mean, S.D.,Variance

Parameters

Mean, S.D.,Variance

Estimate


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Why Sampling ???

To save on resources.

To reduce the errors.

To increase accuracy & precision.

To decrease data obsoleteness.

To avoid wastage of population .(Destructive Sampling .while testing

for quality you consume the entire

population)


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The objective of sampling is to draw accurateinferences about the universe or the population

parameters ( which are unknown ) from the unit

sample statistic ( which is known observed &

measured ) .

This helps the researcher to generalise about

the results .


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Advantages of Sampling

Smaller no. is handled

Increases accuracy of data

Ensures greater response rate

Easy supervision

Ensures greater co operation from

sample

Helps researcher go systematicallyResources efficiently utilized

Principles of Sampling


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Principles of Sampling

Sampling units must be ---

chosen in a systemic & objective mannerclearly defined & easily identifiable

units must be independent of each other

used throughout the studytrue representative of the population


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Sample Design

Sample design is a systematic plan for

obtaining a sample from the given population.

WHY Sample design?

To ensure precision & objectivity in

sampling .

To reduce sampling error.


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Steps of Sample Design

Finalize parameters of interest

Define type of the universe

Decide the sampling unit or unit of

analysis (house, person, object) Prepare the sampling frame (List)

Decide sample size

Finalise budget

Finalise sampling procedure (type &method)


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Good Sample Design

Truly representative

Smaller sampling error

Unbiased

Within budgetary provisions

Results generalizable


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Possible Errors

1) Sampling Error

(due to sample size)

2) Non Sampling or Systematic Error

(due to incorrect sampling frame, faultysample design)

Types of Sampling


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Types of Sampling

Probability Non-Probability

Every unit of pop. has

equal chance of being

selected.

Highly representative

Researcher decides onthe sample unit

Not representative

Types contd


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Typescontd..

Conditions :

Probability Non-Probability

Complete list is

required

Size of universe mustbe known

Each unit must have

an equal chance of

selection

Desired sample mustbe specified

No list is required

Size of universe may

not be known Each unit may not

have an equal chance

of selection


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Techniques of Sampling

PROBABILITY

Simple Random

Stratified RandomSystematic

Cluster

NON-PROBABILITY

Convenience

Purposive Judgment

Quota

Snowball

Volunteer

Sample Size


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Sample size depends upon the precision of

results expected.Sample should be sufficiently large to conclude

generalizable results.

For this matter we have to take into accountthe level of confidence (0.95 or 0.99).

Different formulae are used depending uponthe

constraints. Commonly used one is.S = n/ 1+n(e)2

Higher the sample size greater is thegeneralizability, but you lose on precision of

sampling.


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Prepare a sampling plan for the research

problem that you have selected.

Explain why you will follow the technique

you have selected.


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RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research Designs


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g

Meaning :

A detailed plan & structure of investigation so

conceived as to find answers to the researchquestions.

A blueprint for the smooth conduct of research.

Henry Manheim --- RD not only anticipates

and specifies the countless decisions

connected with data collection , processing &

analysis but it presents a logical basis for

these decisions.


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Why Research Designs ?

It provides a blueprint.

It limits the boundaries of research.(Delimitations)

It enables the researcher to anticipate thepotential problems & can prepare him totackle the same.

It ensures better co ordination among themembers of the research team.

Manheim feels


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Manheim feels

Goals of RD ---

To amass more & more evidence in support of

given hypo. & eliminate alternative hypo.

To make the study replicable( worth repeating if

the results are significant).

To determine if pilot study is needed.

To associate variables with one another.

To plan appropriate strategy for data collection.

Contents of Research Proposal


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Contents of Research Proposal

Need for study

Review of Related Literature Objectives of the study

Definitions of the terms

Delimitations of the study

Concept Map

Hypotheses

Research Design

Tools & Techniques of data collection

Sampling design

Data collection procedures

Proposed techniques of data analysis

Budget Time schedule

Types of Research Designs


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Types of Research Designs

1) EXPLORATORY--- undertaken to understand the

problem when not much is known about the problem

or not much research evidence is available.

(identification of variables involved).

2) DESCRIPTIVE--- undertaken in order to ascertain &

describe the characteristics of variables involved.

3) EXPLANATORY--- undertaken when relationship

among different variables is to be established.

EXAMPLES


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EXPLORATORY---- Feasibility studies are

exploratory in nature. New areas of research

eg. ethnic culture & its effect on org. , diversity in

org. etc.

Descriptive--- Customer profile, Market trend,

Consumer perception etc.

Explanatory--- Cause & effect relationship is estd.

through these studies. eg. Relationship between

expenditure on advertising & sales

Relationship among three types


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Every subject passes through all the three types of

research. Initially when either nothing or very little isknown ,one goes through the phase of exploration.

Once the variables are identified then the subject takes

a turn to descriptive studies & tries to get a profile ofdifferent concerned attributes.

After getting a clear description of the variables the

researcher goes to establish the relationship of these

variables. This is culminated by the testing of various

hypotheses which ultimately leads to the formulation of

a theory.


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EXPLO-RATORY

Study

DESCRI-PTIVE

Study

EXPLANA-TORY

Study

PHASEI PHASEII PHASEIII

Relationship ..

Steps of an Exploratory Study


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Steps of an Exploratory Study

1) Identify the problem

2) Gather preliminary info. through interviews

3) Form focus groups

4) Arrive at conclusions

Steps of a Descriptive Study


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Steps o a esc pt e Study

( SURVEY)

1) Identify the problem2) Formulate objectives

3) Review literature

4) Identify variables

5) Draw Concept Map6) Formulate hypotheses (if any)

7) Construct tools

8) Collect data

9) Analyse data ( Descriptive Statistics )10) Test hypotheses (if any)

11) Arrive at conclusion

Steps of an Explanatory Study


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1) Identify the problem

2) Formulate objectives

3) Review Literature

4) Identify variables

5) Draw Concept Map

6) Formulate hypotheses7) Construct tools

8) Conduct experiment ( if any)

9) Collect data

10) Analyse data (Descriptive & Inferential Statistics)11) Test hypotheses

12) Arrive at conclusion

Types of Explanatory Study


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Types of Explanatory Study

Explanatory studies are conducted to arrive at the

nature of relationship among differentvariables.They try to establish cause & effect

relationship between variables.this is done in

two ways.

1) Ex-post facto study

2) Experimental study

a) Field expt.b) Lab expt.


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EXPLANATORY STUDIES


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Explanatory studies are also known as

CAUSAL STUDIES

1) Ex Post Facto Studies

2) Experimental Studies

Types of Explanatory Studies

Ex Post Facto Studies


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Ex Post Facto Studies

It is an empirical enquiry for situations that have

already occurred. Investigator has no control over

the variables in the sense that he is not able to

manipulate them. He can only report what hashappened & establish cause & effect relationship.

eg. Market failure of a product , Sudden rise of a

shares market price ,

Experimental Studies


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p

The purpose of experimental research is to allow theresearcher to control the situation so that CAUSAL

relationship among variables may be evaluated.The

experimenter therefore manipulates a single variable in

the study & holds the remaining variables constant so as

to study the effect of the

INDEPENDENT variable on the DEPENDENT variable.

eg. The effect of varying amount of overtime on output of

the employees.

The independent variable is Variation in overtime &

The dependent variable is Output or performance.


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The researcher , through the theoretical

framework finalizes the variables he is

interested in . He then has to decide the

variables he wishes to control & the

ones he wishes to study as covariates

(moderating variables).

This is reflected in the Concept Map that he

prepares .

INTERPLAY OF VARIABLES


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INDEPENDENT

VARIABLE

DEPENDENT

VARIABLE

MODERATING

VARIABLES

CONTROLVARIABLES INTERVENINGVARIABLES

INTERPLAY OF VARIABLES

Experimental Studies


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Types :

Field Experiments ---- Less control on the

variables therefore higher generalizability.Natural setting.

Laboratory Experiments ---- Tight control on thevariables hence lesser generalizability.

Artificial setting.


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Laboratory

Expts

Field

Expts

Artificial Real

Setting Setting

Essential Components of an Experiment


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1) Groups --- a) Experimental b) Control

2) Treatment to be given

(Expt /Independent variable)

3) Variables --- All types

4) Matching on all the variables except treatment5) Testing of Hypotheses

eg. A study of effect of payment by piece rate system

on the production.

Validity of Experiments


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Types ofValidity :

a) Internal --- Is the expt. an expt. in the real sense of

the term ? i.e. Is the independent variable the only

cause of the changes in the dependent variable?

b) External --- Are the results obtained from the expt.

applicable in the real world ?

Factors affecting Internal Validity


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g y

History

Maturation

Testing ( effect of pre test on post test )

Instrumentation ( change in the observedcriteria at the pre & post test )

Selection bias

Statistical regression

Mortality

Factors affecting External Validity


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g y

Interaction of treatment & selection

Higher the internal validity, lesser will be the

external validity

Various Effects in Experiments


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p

Hawthorn Effect

Halo Effect

Experimenter Effect

Pygmalion Effect

Guinea Pig Effect

Contamination Effects

Types Of Experimental Designs


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yp p g

1) Pre Experimental ( Least control )

2) Quasi Experimental ( Moderate control )

3) True Experimental ( Tight control )

( Randomized Sampling ) indicated by R

Some Designs


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1) Single Shot Study

X O

2) Single Group Design

O 1 X O 2

3) Two Group DesignO1 X O2 Experimental Group

O3 O4 Control Group

4) Time Series

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6


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Assignment


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g

Find out examples of experimental research

in your area of interest.


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TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

OF RESEARCH

Qualities of a Good Tool


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VALIDITY

RELIABILITY

OBJECTIVITY

USABILITY ADEQUACY

DISCRIMINATING POWER

Points to consider while

P i T l


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Preparing a Tool

1) Objectives

2) Operational definitions

3) Sequence of items (general to specific;

simple to difficult/complex; logical)

4) Ease of Scoring & Coding

Points for Discussion


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1) Description of the tool

2) Merits

3) Limitations

4) How to overcome the limitations

5) How to use the tool

Tools & Techniques


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1) Questionnaire 1) Observation2) Schedule 2) Interview

3) Checklist 3) Sociometric

4) Rating scale 4) Projective

TOOLS TECHNIQUES


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Applications of Data

Analysis Techniques

Data Analysis


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y

1) Why ?

2) How ?

3) Some important considerations beforeanalysis ------

a) Type of data

b) Objectives

c) Hypotheses


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Consideration 1

Types of Data ( Scales )

a) Nominal

b) Ordinal

c) Interval

d) Ratio


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Consideration 2

Objectives

What are we trying to find out ?

In order to achieve this, what kind of

information is required ?

Which tools are giving this information ?


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Descriptive Analysis


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I) Measures of Central Tendency---

Mean, Median, Mode

II) Measures of Variability/Dispersion---

Range, Average deviation, Quartile

deviation, Standard deviation

III) Measures of Correlation---

IV) Normal distribution---

Inferential Statistics


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Types of Inferential Statistics

PARAMETRICNON

PARAMETRIC

Parametric Statistics


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Essential conditions of usage -----

1) The data is in the interval or ratio scale.

2) Both the groups have equal variance.

3) The trait/variable is normally distributed.

4) The sample is randomized.

Non - parametric Statistics


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No such conditions as parametric statistics.

But when the data is ---

1) in either nominal or ordinal scale ,

2) small in size ,

3) not randomly selected ,

4) homogeneity of variance cannot be

established &

5) variable is not normally distributed in the

population ( skewed )

Researcher should go for non-parametric statistics.

Certain Terms defined ---


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1) Levels of Significance

2) Degrees of Freedom

3) Critical Value

4) Tails of a Test

5) Area of Rejection


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Tails of a Test


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ForNull hypotheses two tailed test is applied.

ForNon--directional hypotheses two tailed test

is applied.

ForDirectional hypotheses one tailed test is

applied.

Can you tell WHY ?????

Statistical Significance

What is the significance of SIGNIFICANCE?


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What is the significance of SIGNIFICANCE?

Levels of Significance---

1) 0.05 & 2) 0.01

Levels of Confidence---

1) 95 % & 2) 99 %

When to use the terms---Significance & Confidence

Types of Errors


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Type I Error is committed when TRUE NULL

hypothesis is REJECTED. ( alpha )

[Innocent is unjustly convicted or punished]

Type II Error is committed when NULL

hypothesis is RETAINED, when it is not TRUE.

( Beta )

[Unjust acquittal of a guilty person]

Steps of Testing Hypotheses


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1) Frame the hypothesis.

2) Choose the appropriate statistical test.

3) Decide the level of significance.

4) Calculate value.

5) Refer to the appropriate table & get the critical value.

6) Compare both the values & decide about the

significance of your results.

Some Major Statistical Tests


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1) Chi square test

2) t test

3) Z test

4) F test

Chi Square Test


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Non-parametric test , used when the data is in

the nominal scale or grouped in the nominal

categories.

eg. YES NO

35 68

D

o the people differ significantly in their opinion?

Chi Square Test


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Favourable Unfavourable

Men 53 37

Women 64 46

Do men & women differ significantly in their

opinions?

Z Test & t - Test


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Parametric tests are used when you want tocompare sample statistics of two groups.

Comparison of means, s.d., percentages of TWO groups.

Z test is used when the sample size is large (> 30 ) &

t test is used when the sample size is small (30 or < 30)

F Test ( ANOVA)


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Parametric test. When more than two groups

are to be compared F Test is applied.

ONE independent variable ONE WAY

ANOVA

TWO independent variables TWO WAY

ANOVA


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RESEARCH

PROPOSAL & REPORT


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What ?


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It is a detailed research design.

An activity that incorporates decisionsmade during early research planning

phases including the management research question hierarchy & exploration.

It is a work plan which tells us what, why,

how, where , when & to whom it will bedone.

It is a road map , showing clearly the

location from which the journey begins the


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location from which the journey begins, the

destination to be reached & the method ofgetting there.

A well prepared proposal includes

potential problems that may beencountered along the way & methods for

avoiding or working around them, as the

road map indicates alternate routes for a

detour.

Why ?


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1) For the sponsor---to decide the budget, to judge

the worthwhile ness of the research,

to assess the capability & sincerity of the

researcher, it displays the discipline of the

researcher, a document for the discussion.

2) For the researcher---to plan & review the steps,helps to asses various ways of attacking the

problem, to identify & remove flaws, if any ,

through discussion, to monitor progress, it puts

constraints on time & budget( researcher has towork within prescribed limits).

How ?


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CONTENTS..

Executive summary (mgmt. dilemma, mgmt.questions, research questions, objectives,

benefits of research)

Problem statement (need of research, its

significance)Research Objectives

Literature review

Variables--- their types & operational definitions

HypothesesResearch design ( type of research, tools, sampling

plan , data collection plan or procedure)

Contd ..

Proposed data analysis ( simple charts & dummy


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Proposed data analysis ( simple charts & dummy

tables) with the rationale for each technique to be

used

Nature & form of results ( connecting objectives &

analysis) with the format of results to be provided.

i.e. recommendations, action plans, strategic plans

etc.Budget

Time schedule

Facilities required

Project management ( organized plan of action)

Bibliography

Appendices


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RESEARCH REPORT

What & Why ?


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WHAT-----Written document of the stagesof research with findings &recommendations

WHY ----- Enables the manager to weigh thefacts arguments presented therein &implement the acceptable recommendationswith a view to close the gap between thepresent & the desired state. It is a documentcontaining research plan put into action.

Parts of Research Report


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i) Preliminary Section

ii) Main Body

iii) End Section

Preliminary Section

) ( S f


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i) The Title Page ( Title , Sponsor of the study,

month & year of submission)ii) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

iii) Acknowledgement

iv) Certificate, if any ( required for degree work

or Govt. projects)

v) Table of Contents

vi) List of Tables

vii) List of Graphs

viii) List of Figures/ diagrams

ix) List of abbreviations

x) Glossary

Main Body

) I t d ti ( N d f h P bl


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a) Introduction ( Need of research, Problem

identification, Objectives, Variables,Operational definitions, Hypotheses,Research

paradigm , Delimitations)

b) Research Design ( Type of study, Tools,

Sampling design, Data collection & Analysis)c) Final section ( Conclusions, Recommendations

& Limitations, Researchers insights for

further studies)

End Section

i) Bibliography/ References( must be


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i) Bibliography/ References( must be

presented in APA format.)[books, journals, reports, unpublished

documents, web sites with date of access]

ii) Appendices

iii) Research Team

iv) Time Schedule

RM All Lectures FT

Documents

Transcript of RM All Lectures FT