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European Centre for Democracy Development

Center for Monitoring and Comparative Analysis of Intercultural Communications

CONTEMPORARYFAR-RIGHTSRightradicalisminEurope:

ideology,socialbasis,prospects

REPORT2018

Athens-London-Berlin-Paris-Moscow-Krakow-Budapest-Kiev-Amsterdam-Roma

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Editor in Chief and Project Head: Dr. Valery Engel, Chairman of the Expert Council of the European Centre for Tolerance,

principal of the Center for Monitoring and Comparative Analysis of Intercultural Communications

Authors: Dr. Valery Engel (general analytics), Dr. Jean-Yves Camus (France), Dr. Anna Castriota (Italy), Dr. Ildikó Barna (Hungary), Bulcsú Hunyadi (Hungary), Dr. Vanja Ljujic (Netherlands), Tika Pranvera

(Greece), Katarzyna du Val (Poland), Dr. Semen Charny (Russia), Dr. Dmitry Stratievsky (Germany), Ruslan Bortnik (Ukraine), Dr. Alex Carter (UK)

Authors thank the Chairman of the European Centre for Tolerance, Mr. Vladimir Sternfeld, for his financial support of the project

CONTEMPORARYFAR-RIGHTSRightradicalisminEurope:ideology,socialbasis,prospects

Report“Contemporaryfar-rights.Right-wingradicalisminEurope:ideology,socialbase,prospects"istheresultoftheworkofaninternationalteamofexpertsfrom10Europeancountries.ThereportanswersthequestionofwhatisthesocialbasisofEuropeanright-wingradicalismandwhataretheobjectiveprerequisitesandpossibledirectionsforitsdevelopment.Inaddition,theauthorsanswerthequestionofwhatstaysbehindtheideologyofmodernradicalism,whatthesourcesoffundingforright-wingradicalorganizationsare,andwhotheirleadersare.Significantpartofinformationisintroducedforthefirsttime.

© European Center for Democracy Development, 2018 © Center for Monitoring and Comparative Analysis of

Intercultural Communications, 2018 © Institute for Ethnic Policy and Inter-Ethnic Relations

Studies, 2018

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IntroductionRadicalism is a commitment to the extreme views and concepts of the social order

associatedwiththepossibilityofitsradicaltransformation.Animportantdistinctivefeatureofradicalismis that theradicalsarestrivingto implementradicalsocio-politicalchangesthatarenotaimedatpreservinganddeveloping,butatdecayingexistingsystems. In thecontextofthepolicyonminorities,onecanspeakofright-wingradicals,includingreligiousradicalactivistsofChristianchurches,left-wingradicalsandreligiousradicals-Islamists.

Right-wing radicalism is a political movement that shares the views ofsupermaсism - the belief that the superiority of some individuals and groups and theinferiorityofothersisaninnateandobjectivereality.Right-wingradicalsoftensupporttheprinciple of segregation: the division of people into national, religious and other groupsconsidered "supreme", and groups considered "inferior". As a rule, the aim of themovementistochangethesocialorderintheinterestsofaparticularsocialgroup,whichthey consider like "the highest". In addition to supermacism right-wing radicalism ischaracterizedbyetatism-thecultofastrongStatethatcontrolsallaspectsofsociety'slifeasthemaintoolofrevolutionarychange.

Thetaskofmodernright-wingradicalsismainlytoincitehatredagainstminoritiesandusethisresourcetoachievesuccessinelections.

Modern European right-wing radicals are united by a common ideological base -Migrantophobia, Islamophobia, phobia towards certain ethnic minorities andEuroscepticism.

1.Thesocialbase:whoandwhyvotesforthem?Inrecentyears,therehavebeenfavorableconditionsfortheactivitiesofright-wing

radicalorganizationsinEurope-themigrationcrisis,thesharpdemographicgrowthinthenumber of ethnic and religious minorities, mainly immigrants from the Third Worldcountries,Europeanintegrationandrelatedrefusalsofelementsofnationalidentity.

At the same time, apowerful socialbaseof right-wing radicalism isbeing formedhere. It was the result ofmany years of globalization and features of liberal capitalism,whichinvolvesthefreemovementofcapitalandlabor.Capitalspreferpoorcountrieswithlowwagesandtaxes.Laborresources-onthecontrary-preferrichcountrieswithhigherlivingstandards.

As a result, in advanced countries a new stratum is formed, i.e. people withprofessional education, mostly white, who either lost their jobs due to the transfer ofproduction abroad, or began to receive lowerwages due to the fact thatmanymigrantworkerscametothecountry,andsuccessfullydumpedonthelabormarket.

These people form a protest electorate, similar to the protest electorate from theAmerican "rust belt" who voted for D. Trump. These masses oppose globalization, theywanttoreturnproductiontotheircountry,reducethenumberoflabormigrantsandgiveprioritytoreceivingsocialbenefitstoforeigners.

Infact,thesepeople,calledlosersbytheliberalelite,madeBrexitpossible.Theyarethenaturalenvironmentforright-wingradicalparties.That’swhythelargestonesaresosuccessful.

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Atthesametime,wecanstatethatvoterswhovoteforright-wingradicalsarenotyet ideological opponents of the parties in the democratic spectrum. They are rather aprotest electorate, frightenedbya sharpchange in the socio-cultural landscape,whoareworriedabouttheirjobs,socialguarantees,etc.Undercertainconditions,theyarereadytovotefor"system"politicians.

Accordingly, extremeright,neo-Nazi ideologyhasnotbeendemarginalized. It stillbelongs to insignificant political minority. According to polls, respondents who haveprejudices against Muslims, migrants, Jews, Sinti and Roma, homosexuals and otherminorities, respondnegatively to questions related to open racism and praisingNazism.Polarizationtakesplacemainlyalongtheline"fororagainstthereceptionofrefugees,"andprejudices against Jews, Roma and sexual minorities are associated not with Naziideologicalviews,butwithingrainedprejudicesofanon-racistnature.

Thus, the socialbaseof right-wing radicals isnothomogenous - a significantparthasrecentlyvotedforthepartiesofthedemocraticspectrum,whichatthisstagearenotready toadopta racistorneo-Nazi ideology.The smallerandasyet absolutelymarginalpartunitesthesupportersofracistandultra-nationalistviews.

2.Otherprerequisitesforright-wingradicalism.Other prerequisites of European radicalism are the peculiarities of the European

constitutional tradition, aswell as the contradictionbetweenvaluesand interests typicalforEuropeansociety.

Thus,oneofthemainfeaturesoftheEuropeanconstitutionaltraditionisthelackofprivilegesforanysocialgroup,includingethnicgroups.Simultaneously,thetitularnationhasnaturalprivileges(intheeducationsystem,culture, themedia,etc.) Inordertoavoidthecontradictionbetweenthepositionoftheethnicmajorityandtheethnicminorityandpreservetheunityofsociety,Europeancountrieshistoricallydenytheexistenceofethnicminorities,forexample,inFranceandGreece(exceptWestThrace),orlimittheirdejureordefactonumbertoanarrowrangeofinsignificantinnumbertraditionalminorities.

Asaconsequence,FranceandGreecedidnotjointheFrameworkConventionfortheProtection of NationalMinorities of the Council of Europe. The official position of thesecountriessaysthatonlyrepresentativesofthetitleethnicgrouplivethere.Frenchlawdoesnotallowevencollectingstatisticaldataontheethnicoriginofitscitizens.Approximatelythe same happens in Greece. Its constitutional tradition equates individual rights ofminorities with religious and ethnic segregation, fromwhich Orthodox Greeks sufferedthroughoutagesofOttomanEmpire.

Many European countries have made reservations when joining the FrameworkConvention on the Protection of the Rights of National Minorities. The countriesdetermined that they treat only indigenous traditional ethnic minorities as nationalminorities. For example, in Germany these are small communities of Danes, Serbs,Friesians, and German gypsies, in the Netherlands - only Friesians, etc. Even thosecountriesthathaveadoptedtheConventionwithoutreservations,defactoconductexactlythesamepolicyinrelationtolargeethniccommunities,aswellasthosethathavedonesowith reservations. So, in Great Britain, acceding to the Conventionwithout reservations,there isone state language (English)and three regionalones -Welsh inWales,Gaelic in

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Scotland and Irish in Northern Ireland. The Arabic language and Hindi spoken by asignificantpartofimmigrantsareoutofthequestion.

First of all, large non-indigenous communities, which do not identify themselveswith anyof the "traditional"minorities, suffer from this practice. They areTurks, Arabs,nativesoftheformerYugoslavia,Pakistanis,Indians,etc.

Suchapolicyhastwoconsequences:1) The state avoids the support of the culture and education of the largest

minorities.2) The integration policy towards minorities assumes only one form - voluntary

culturalassimilation.Thisisquitelogical:iftherearenoethnicminoritiesinthecountry,thennosupport

ispossible.Inprinciple,foralmostacenturyandahalf,therepresentativesofthemajority,as well as the representatives of ethnic minorities felt comfort with such an approach.MinoritiestriedtoassimilateasquicklyaspossibleandtojointheadvantagesofWesterncivilization.

Theproblemarosewhenasignificantpartofimmigrantsbegantorejectvoluntaryassimilation.Thishasbeenhappeningsincetheendofthe20thcentury,whentheprocessofglobalizationcombinedwiththeprocessofnationalandreligiousrevivaloftheIslamicworldhasledtotheemergenceofabroadstratumofmigrantswhoarenotreadytoacceptEuropean standards. This process is especially aggravated during the period of regionalconflicts,whenEuropebecomesaharbourforrefugeesfromwar-torncountries.

Asaresult,accordingtorecentpolls,inFranceabout75%ofMuslimsfeel"moreorless"or"unconditionally"French,andthenrepresentativesoftheirreligion,theirethnicityorcountryofexodus.But25%(andthisisaverylargenumber)donotagreetoadoptthismodel.Forthem, theirethnic,religiousandgeographicalorigin isapriority.TheydonotconsiderthemselvesFrench,althoughformanyofthemFranceisthemotherland,andtheyhaveaFrenchpassport.Thispictureistypicalforothercountries.

Thus, the state has built a rigid integration framework, and all those who canprovisionallybecalledvictimsofglobalizationandinternationalconflictsfoundthemselvesoutsideitinthebeginningof21stcentury.Theydonotwanttochangetheiridentityandprefer to educate their children in the traditions of their ancestors, but for a variety ofreasonstheywereforcedtoleavetheircountryofbirth.Withinstrictintegrationrules,thisgroupchosetoself-isolateandcreateakindofghetto.Andit'snotjustaboutimmigrantsofthefirstgeneration,butalsoaboutlargecompactimmigrantgroupsofthesecondandeventhirdgeneration,leftbythestateinanideologicalandculturalvacuum.

Today it becomes obvious that this vacuum is successfully filled by Islamists andotherradicals.Asaresult,asituationariseswherepeoplewhofindthemselvesoutsidetheframework of the state integration system and automatically fall under the influence ofIslamistsoftentrytoimposetheirwayoflifeonothers.Hencethe"Shariapatrols"andtherequirementtointroduceShariainaseparateareaofLondonorParisappears.Thiscreatesa basis for the growth of xenophobia, mutual hostility, discrimination and thestrengtheningoftheinfluenceofradicalgroups,bothIslamistandright-wingradical.

Ingeneral, the state, insteadofdevelopinga newnationalpolicy that ensures theinterests of all population groups, categorically does not want to abandon the policy of

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assimilation.However,itperiodicallymakesvariouskindsofsymbolicconcessions,suchasthe ban on the installation of Christmas trees, sales of alcohol and pork in areaspredominantlypopulatedbyMuslims,etc.Allthisonlycreatesadditionalconditionsforthe"ghettoization"ofcommunitiesandincreasesintercommunitydisunityandenmity.

In fact, the European idea could solve this long-standing problem. However, EUleadership ismoving towardsa federationand, in the long term, the creationof a singlemultinational state of Europeanswith common European values. This attempt faces theopposition of manymember states of the European Union, whose governments are notreadytosacrificetheirnationaltraditionsandinterests.

SituationisevenworseinUkraine.Itisnotaboutimmigrants,butaboutirredenta.Irredenta is an accidental diaspora. People feel themselves as nationalminority outsidetheirhistoricalhomelandasaresultofchangesinbordersbutnotofimmigration.Theyareabsolutelynotreadyfortheassimilationthatisimposedonthembytheethnicmajority.

Another precondition for radicalism is the growing contradiction between basicdemocraticvaluesandpolitical interests.Andinsomecircumstances, thestateprefers tosacrifice values in the nameof interests, and in some - on the contrary. The rejectionofvaluesinthenameofpoliticalinterestsinmostcasesleadstodisillusionmentofcitizensintheexisting state systemasa "provider"of thedeclaredprinciplesofdemocracy.Peoplestartlookingformorefairsociety,moreefficient"provider."

Forexample,thebanonwearingwomen'sIslamicgarmentsviolatedtheprincipleofequalityofreligionsandtheprincipleofseparationofchurchandstateinFranceformanyMuslims.ThelawsadoptedintheNetherlands,Franceandinanumberofothercountries,which allows accelerated expatriation ofMuslims suspected in visiting DAESH (ISIL), aswell as other anti-Islamic emergency laws made many Muslims disappointed in suchdemocratic values as the priority and independence of the judiciary, the presumptionofinnocence, etc. The invasion of Iraq and the subsequent anti-terrorist operations ofWesterncountries inNorthAfrica, IraqandSyriawereconsideredbymanyof themasaflagrantviolationofthesovereigntyofIslamicstates,etc.

Partof theMuslimyouthofEuropebelieves that the statedeclaresone thinganddoesanother,inparticularviolatestheirreligiousrights.So,insteadofajusticesocietytheyliveinasocietyofliesanddiscrimination.ThustheyleaveforareascontrolledbyISILorgointo "internal immigration" accepting radical forms of Islam. Part of the indigenouspopulationofEurope,disenchantedwithWesterndemocracy,orconsideringthatsocietyplacestheminanunequalpositionwithimmigrantsorrepresentativesofotherminorities,choosesright-wingradicals.

Itisinterestingthattheprevalenceofinterestsovervalueshasanimpactnotonlyoncitizensofcountrieswherethisprevalencetakesplace,butalsoonresidentsofforeigncountries.Forexample, theanalysisof thepresidentialelections inRussia inMarch2018showed that the devastating defeat of candidates from liberal parties (they scored inaggregatelessthan5%ofthevote)is,amongotherthings,theresultofthedisappointmentofRussianvoterinWesternEuropeanbalancebetweenthedeclaredvaluesandinterests.AndsinceRussianliberalshaveareputationforWesternerswhowantto“makeEuropeoutofRussia”,theybecamethefirstvictimsofsuchatransformation.

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In the late 80's everythingwas different: theRussian voter strongly believed thattheWesternwayoflifewouldguaranteehimthetriumphoftheprinciplesofdemocracy,equalityandjusticedeclared,butviolatedbytheSovietregime.ThenliberalB.Yeltsincametopower.Thepresentdisappointmentinthecapitalismofthe1990swassupplementedbynolessmassivedisappointmentintheWest[1].

Ontheotherhand,therejectionofinterestsinthenameofdemocraticvaluesoftenleadsto thevictoryof the interestsofradical forcesoverthe interestsofpublicsecurity.Forexample,withregardtothefightagainsthatespeech,mostEuropeancountriespreferto give preference to values. It is a question of the priority of the widely understoodprincipleof freedomofspeechoverthesecurity interestsofmembersofminorities,and,ultimately,ofsociety. In thiscase, therequirementsofArticle4of theConventionontheElimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: “all propaganda and all organizationswhicharebasedonideasortheoriesofsuperiorityofoneraceorgroupofpersonsofonecolour or ethnic origin, or which attempt to justify or promote racial hatred anddiscrimination in any form… shall declare illegal and prohibit organizations, and alsoorganized and all other propaganda activities, which promote and incite racialdiscrimination, and shall recognizeparticipation in suchorganizationsoractivitiesasanoffencepunishablebylaw”aresacrificed.

When the Conventionwas signed in 1965, the United Kingdom, France and Italymade reservations to this article. In Italy, the criminal responsibility for the spread ofhatredisconnectedwiththeproofoftheinfluenceoftheaccusedonawideaudiencewiththe "goal of changing her behavior," which is also very difficult to prove. Many othercountriesthatformallyaccededtotheConventionwithoutreservations,infactignoretherequirements of Art. 4. For example, in Ukraine this is due to the need to prove "directintent".

Atthesametime,thegeneraljustificationforrefusingtocriminalizethepropagandaofhatredisadherencetotheprincipleof freedomofspeechandexpression,which is thecornerstone in the basic law ofmost EU countries. As a result, this contradiction turnedintooneofthekeyproblemsofcombatingthespreadofhatred.

3.Whichpartiesareconsideredasright-wingradicalstoday?In accordance with the structure of the social base, there is also a political

differentiation of right-wing radical organizations. The most numerous and influentialgroup consists of populist forces that oppose refugees andmigrants, but try to distancethemselves from direct racist, sexist or other discriminatory appeals against minorities.These forcesarenowwidelyor relativelywidely represented in theparliamentsof Italy(Leagueof theNorth-37.0%andtheMovementofFiveStars -M5S-32.7%inthe2018elections), Poland (Law and Justice Party - PiS - 37, 58%), France (the National Front -13.2%of thevote in the lastparliamentaryelections), theNetherlands (FreedomParty -13.3%),Russia(LiberalDemocraticParty(LDPR)VladimirZhirinovsky-13.14%andtheparty"Rodina"-1.5%)andGermany(AlternativeforGermany-AfG-12.6%).

One should also mention the UK Independence Party (UKIP), which fulfilled itsprogram, achieving victory in the referendum on Brexit. These parties advocate thewithdrawalorrestrictionofparticipationintheEU(exceptforRussia,whichisnotpartof

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theEU),theterminationorrestrictionofimmigration,theimmediatedeportationofillegalimmigrants,strictstatecontroloverMuslimcommunities,etc.

Asmentionedabove, in recentyears thepopularityof thesepartieshas increasedunder the influence of such factors as the migration crisis, the economic problemsassociatedwiththetransferofproductiontopoorcountries,etc.Realizingthis,manyoftheleadersbegantostruggle forpower.Todothis, theyneedtoexpandtheirelectoralbase,includingminorities.SoMarineLePenwasforcedtoradicallychangetheideologyofherparty,making it completely tolerant, for example, to gays and Jews, forwhich she evenexcluded its founder, her father Jean-Marie Le Pen. The same can be said about theFreedomParty inHolland,whose leader copped out anti-Semitism and sexism in publicspeeches.

Approximately in the same vein, Russianmoderate right-wing radical parties aredeveloping.Asarule,theyactundertheslogans"StophumiliatingtheRussians"and"FortheRussian people". In the pre-electionmanifesto of the party in 2016, the Zhirinovsky(LDPR)partyproposedtoexcludearticle282[2](extremism)fromtheCriminalCodeoftheRussianFederation.The“Rodina”PartysupportstherecognitionofRussophobiaasa"statecrime similar to treason", requires recognition of Russians as a "divided nationwith theright of reunification in its natural historical borders of the Russian world", theintroduction of a visa regime "with all states provoking mass migration to Russia" and"ruthlessstruggleagainstanymanifestationsofethniccrime"[3].

As a result, all these European moderate radical parties managed to rally thosefrightened voters who were united by a common sense of "global danger", namely,migrantsandtheircountries'dependenceontheEU.Conditionallytheycanbecalledrightpopulist.

Atthesametime,theyshouldnotbehastilytransferredfromthecategoryof"right-wing radical" to the category of "center-right" ones. Their birthmarks are still there,although they are stubbornly trying to hide them. So the leader of the "Alternative forGermany" Alexander Gauland said during the campaign in the Bundestag that Germany"should be proud of its soldierswho participated in bothworldwars, and peoplemustceasetoreproachtheGermanswiththeSecondWorldWar".[4]Hiscolleague,theleaderofthepartybranchinthefederalstateofThuringia,BjornHecke,calledthemonumenttothevictims of the Holocaust in Berlin "a disgrace to Germany." "We Germans are the onlypeopleintheworldwhoplantedamonumenttoshameintheheartoftheircapital,"Heckesaid at ameetingwith supporters of the party inDresden (the federal state of Saxony),referring to this memorial in Berlin. “Our morale now corresponds to the spirit of acompletely defeated people". The politician also accused the German Chancellor AngelaMerkel of thewrong education of the younger generation,who, in his opinion, does nothaveproperpatriotism.[5]ThisappliesalsotoMarineLePen'sstatementabouttheneedtocloseallmosquesinFrance[6],aswellastoparticipationofactiviststheruling"RightandJustice" party in anti-Semitic actions in Poland, which drew attention of the politicallycorrectEuropeanJewishCongress.[7]

Alsothereareotherright-wingradicalpartiesthatcanbecalledultranationalistsorneo-Nazi.Theyprofessmoreracismandmorefrankethnicnationalism.

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These are the National Democratic Party of Germany (NDP), the organizationPEGIDA in Federal Republic of Germany, the British National Party (BNP) in the UK,CasaPound(CP)anditsstudentassociationBloccoStudentesco,ForzaNuova(FN),BloccoLavoratori Unitario e Ambientalista; LFCA (La Foresta che Avanza), the NationalRevolutionaryGroupMilitia, Lotta Europea andMovimento Sociale per l'Europa in Italy,theorganizationoftheNationalRadicalCampinPoland(ONR),theorganizationMłodzieżWszechpolska, theNationalRevivalofPoland (NOP), the“GoldenDawn”party inGreece,andtheHungarianparty,“Jobbik”(theMovementforaBetterHungary).

ItisalsonecessarytomentionradicalnationalistpartiesinUkraine-therearemorethantenofthem.Themostfamousare“Freedom”party,"RightSector",NationalCorpsandC14.Theircombinedratingismorethan11%.Buttheydonothavechancesforunificationbecauseofthebigambitionsofleadersanddifferentsourcesoffinancing(seebelow)thatare not compatiblewith each other for various reasons. At the same time, unlike otherparties,Ukrainian radical groupshavemilitarygroupsofmore than10 thousandpeople,whichareanintegralpartofthearmedforcesofUkraineortheMinistryofInternalAffairs.

ThesituationinRussiadifferssignificantlyfromtheUkrainianone,sinceright-wingradicalorganizationsandpartiesoftheneo-Nazitypearebarelylefttoday.By2016,alloftheprominentorganizationsofright-wingradicalsandnationalistshavebeenbanned,andtheir leaders have been forced to emigrationor arrested. So, in 2016, A. Belov (Potkin),leader of the largest nationalist project of the 2000s - “Movement Against IllegalImmigration”, and the following "Russians"movement was adjudged. In the end of theyearthesecondco-chairmanofthe"Russian"DmitryDemushkinwasarrested.

AnumberofIslamistgroupswereliquidatedinMoscow,St.Petersburg,andSamara.TheactivityofcertainWahhabicommunities, ideologicallyandorganizationally linkedtothe "Islamic State" and "Hizb ut-Tahrir" (both banned in Russia) was suspended. Manyactivistsofbanned Islamistorganizationswere forced toemigrate.Forexample, inNovyUrengoy,theentireassetofthelocalWahhabimosquewentabroad.

InformationaboutrecentlyarrestedIslamicterrorists in themediashowthat theymostly come from Central Asian countries. So, the recruitment of local residents forterroristorganizationsisbecomingincreasinglyproblematic.

As already indicated, many activists of radical organizations left Russia toparticipate inmilitary operations in Syria and Iraq on the side of terrorists (more than5,000people),andalsotoparticipateinthecivilwarinUkraine(andonbothsidesoftheconflict).

Finally,weshouldalsomentionthesplitofRussianright-wingradicalorganizationsaftertheconflictinUkraine.Certainpartoftheso-called""truenationalists"supportedtheKievauthorities,andtheother-theseparatists.Forthesamereason,therewasasplitinthe unnatural, but long-term alliance between Russian nationalists and liberals, whicharosein2011duringtheformationoftheanti-Putinopposition.Asaresultofthisalliance,theprocessofdemarginalizationofright-wingradicalswasinitiated,andtheymountedtherostrumoftheso-calledCoordinatingCounciloftheOpposition.

All European ultra-radical neo-Nazi parties hate their ethnic and religiousminorities. Some of them, like the “Golden Dawn”, publicly praise Hitler and the ThirdReich. All of them, except for “Jobbik”, "Golden Dawn" and Ukrainian "Freedom" do not

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raisemorethan3%ofthevotes.So,theyaremarginalintheircountries,asavoterfortheultra-rightisnotyetreadytoacceptaneo-Naziideology.

Separately,itshouldbesaidaboutthecountrieswithstateright-wingradicalpolicy.Thisis,firstofall,Ukraine.Right-wingradicalismoftherulingcoalitionwasfirstexpressedonApril2015,whentheyvotedforthelaw"OnthelegalstatusandrespectforthememoryoffightersforUkrainianindependenceinthe20thcentury".Bythislawtheright-wingandradicalmilitaristorganizationswhichcollaboratedcollectivelyorindividuallywiththeNaziregimeandfoughtagainstthecountriesoftheanti-Hitlercoalitionwereheroized.Amongthese are the Organization for Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), the People's LiberationRevolutionary Organization (NWRO), the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, the UkrainianInsurgent Army of Ataman Taras Borovets (Bulba) "Polesskaya Sich", the UkrainianPeople's Revolutionary Army (UNRA), the Ukrainian National Revolutionary Army,Ukrainian Main Liberation Council (UGVR). Article 6 of this law says that persons whopublicly disregard the fighters for the independence of Ukraine, interfere with theenjoymentoftherightsoffightersforindependence,takeresponsibilityinaccordancewiththe current legislationofUkraine. In addition, the public denial of the "legitimacy of thestruggle for Ukraine's independence in the 20th century" is recognized as an outrageagainst thememory of the fighters for Ukrainian independence in the 20th century, thehumiliationofthedignityoftheUkrainianpeopleandisunlawful.Thus,sinceApril2015the heroization of the Nazi collaborators, which is a manifestation of indirect anti-Semitism, became a part of the state ideology ofUkraine due to the efforts of the rulingparties.

Secondly,theRadaadoptedonSeptember5andthePresidentsignedonSeptember26,2017thelaw“OnEducation”.Bythislawteachinginsecondaryschoolsinanylanguage,except Ukrainian from 2018. Since 2020, this rule will extend to primary school. Thisdecision contradicts Ukraine's international obligations, and also disagrees with thepositionofUNESCO,aswellaswiththeHaguerecommendationsoftheOSCE(1996)ontherightsofnationalminoritiestoeducation.Itleadstotheassimilationofminorities,whichcorresponds to the typical requirements of radicals. Therefore, objectively, the politicalregimeinUkraineismovingintowardrapprochementwithright-wingradicals.

4.IdeologyThe ideologyofmodern right-wing radicals is rathervague and inconcrete. It is a

mixture of political isolationism, protectionism, racism,white nationalism, anti-Semitismandpopulism.As soonas the far right's range iswideenough, fromright-wingpopulistssuch as Le Pen andWilders to neo-Nazis such asNikolaosMichaloliakos, the ideologicalplatformofthismovementisalsowide.Recently,theyhavebeentryingtoassociateitwiththeideologyofalternativeright(alt-right),whichisinterpretedbydifferentideologistsindifferent ways, from the explicit white racism and anti-Semitism of R. Spencer to themoderateright-wingpopulismofS.Bannet.ThisisanAmericanproductthatclaimstobeuniversal,inanycase,forwhattheycallthe"Westernworld."

In general, Alt-Right rejects the Western democratic ideal and dominantconservatism,criticizesmulticulturalismandthethesisoftheneedtoprotecttherightsofminorities.

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ThefounderofthetheoryofAlt-RightwastheAmericanRichardSpencer,presidentoftheInstituteofNationalPolicy.Heusedtoworkinthejournals“AmericanConservative”and “Taki'sMagazine”. In 2010, he coined the term "Alternative Right" and created thewebsiteAlternativeRight.com,whichheediteduntil2012.WebsitehasrootsinAmericanonlinemagazinesofaright-radicalandracistkind,suchas4chanand8chan.Theresourceactually became the spokesman of the ideology of white nationalism. No one can saywhetherthisisasocialmovementorsimplyawebsite.Thesiteincludesalargesectionofblogswhereuserswithracistviewspublishtheirmaterialsanonymously.Inthisregard,in2016 the journal “Columbia Journalism Review” wrote: "Because of the nebulosity ofanonymousonlinecommunities,nooneissurewhoisalt-rightandwhatmotivatesthem.Itisalsounclearwhoaretruebelievers in theirideals,andwhoare justclevertrespasserstryingtorufflefeathers."[8]

Nevertheless,thesitebecamethespokesmanfortheideologicalviewsoftheultra-rightandneo-NazisnotonlyintheUSbutalsoinWesternEurope.Alittleearlier,in2005,AmericanconservativecommentatorAndrewBreitbartcreatedanothersiteBreitbart.som,betterknownasBreitbartNews.Infact,itwastheaggregatorofAmericannews.Also,theresource’ specialized in extreme right-wing comments, and its founder positioned it asultra-conservativeandpro-Israeli.

LaterStephenBannon,aformermilitaryman,investmentbankerandpublicfigurewho became Executive Chairman of Breitbart Com, joined the site. It was he whopositionedthesiteasthe"HuffingtonPost"fortheright,drawingparallelswiththepopularconservativepublication.AfterthedeathofE.Breitbartin2012,Bannonbecametheheadof the online resource. In 2016, he announced the website as a platform for the alt-right[9]with no objection from R. Spencer. Under his leadership, the site modified thenationalistagendatomeettheneedsoftheso-called"anti-establishment",refusingexplicitmanifestationsofracialhatred.Bannonalwaysdeniedhavingracistviews.Alittlelaterhewillsay:"“IfyoulookattheidentitymovementsoverthereinEurope,Ithinkalotof[them]arereally‘Polishidentity’or‘Germanidentity,’notracialidentity.It’smoreidentitytowardanation-stateortheirpeopleasanation.”[10]

Atthesametime,thetermalt-rightreceivedanewcontentandbegantobeviewedas an ideology that defends " traditional identity", " Western values" etc.BreitbartNewsfocused on speeches against multiculturalism, free immigration and free trade,especiallywithMexicoandChina.

Starting in 2011, the site began to attract significant investment funds, whichallowed to finance theultra-rightmovements inEurope.Forexample, in2017 itbecameknownthatthenewxenophobicorganizationintheNetherlands"Erkenbrand"isnotjustinspired, but also funded by Breitbart.сom. Experts do not exclude that many otherorganizationsoftheright-populisttypegetthesamehelp.Nevertheless,thetotalamountofinvestmentintheresourceremainsunclear.Onekeyprivatesponsorsisknown.Thisisaconservativeactivist,theCEOofoneofthehedgefunds-RenaissanceTechnologiesLLC-RobertMercer. InMarch 2017 Newsweekmagazine reported that only in 2011,Mercerinvested at least 11 million dollars in the resource[11]. The site also actively attractedadvertisers.

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In fact, this web resource has become an ideological platform for right-wingpopulists around theworld.According toastudyconductedby thePewGlobalResearchCenterin2014,3%ofrespondentsregularlyusedthenewsfromBreitbart,and79%ofthesite'saudiencereportedthattheywereright-centristaccordingtotheirbeliefs.

OnAugust17,2016BannonwasappointedasexecutivedirectorofthepresidentialcampaignofDonaldTrump.OnNovember13,2016,afterwinningthepresidentialelection,D.Trumpappointedhimchiefstrategistandhissenioradviser.Inthispositionheworkedfor7months.Infact,BannonwascalledtotheadministrationoftheAmericanpresidenttoenforce his ideological guidelines, although publicly Trump distanced himself from alt-right.

However, in the first halfof 2017 the site lost up to 90%of all advertisers. SinceNovember2016,thenumberofvisitorshasdecreasedby53%,whichisaboutdoublerateoffallingattendanceofothermajornewssitesaftertheelection.Reducedattendancealsocoincideswith boycotts aimed atpreventing advertisers fromdisplaying adson the site.Theboycottwasmainlyorganizedby theanonymousonlinegroup “SleepingGiants”.OnJune5,2017theyannouncedthat2,200organizationshadcommittedthemselvestostopadvertisingonBreitbartandsimilarsitesthatsupportTrump.

Thus, two varieties of Alternative Right are ideological platforms for right-wingpopulismofmoderateright-wingradicalssuchasTrump,LePen,Farage,etc.,ontheonehand, andultra-rightnationalists andneo-Nazis, on theother.Nowweare talkingabout"networkideology",notrelatedtothe"leader"cultureandcentralizedleadership,butthecaseoffinancingtheDutch"Erkenbrand"allowsustosaythatthemanagementofatleastone of the platforms, namely Breitbart.сom, does not preclude such a development ofevents.However,anumberofexpertssuggestthattheBreitbartplatformisonlyascreenthatotherforcesusetofundright-wingradicals.

Speaking about the ideology of right-wing radicals,we cannot fail tomention theroleoftheCatholicChurch.DespitethefranklytolerantpositionofPopeFrancis,aratherpowerfuloppositionhas formedwithintheCatholicChurch. Itactively interactswiththefarright,offeringthemultra-Catholicismasanewandcertainlymorepowerfulideologicalbase.

This happens almost in all countries of the conditionalWest, from Italy, where awell-organized ultra-right Catholic opposition was formed inside the church, to Poland,wheretherepresentativesoftheCatholicChurchareoneofthemainconsultantsofthePiSlaw-populist government onmigrants,Muslims and refugees. Even in the United States,thereisawholegroupofopposingCatholicpriestsandactivistswhoconsistentlyopposetheleadershipoftheVaticanandthePopepersonally(forexample,theChurchMilitantsite-https://www.ncronline.org).

In fact, we can say today that in the Vatican there is an ultra-Catholicmovementagainst Pope Francis I on the issue ofminorities and, above all,migrants. These circlesrejectthePope'secumenism,itsopennesstootherreligions,thecriticismofanti-Semitismand anti-Islamism in Catholic circles. There are also contradictions on theological anddoctrinalissues.TherehappenconflictsontheotherissuesrelatedtoforeignpolicysuchasreligiousfreedominChina,towhichthePopeactivelyestablishesrelationsandattitudeto

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theRussianleaderVladimirPutin,whomVaticanultra-conservativesseeasanexampleoftraditionalChristianleaderopposingtohisWesterncolleagues[12].

Confrontationescalatedafter thepublicationofarecent(April8,2016) encyclical“Amoris Laetitia” (“Joy of love”), where he calls to accept immigrants, and to welcomediversity. In opposition to this encyclical, there were 80 senior representatives of theCatholic clergy, 45of themsent official letterswithobjections to the Pope. This seemedimpossiblesometimeago.

Cardinal Raymond LeoBurke, patron of the Order of the Knights of the Order ofMalta canbementionedamong themostactive criticsof thePope.He is a leaderof theconservativewing of the Vatican. In addition to purely theological disputes, he takes anuncompromisingstancetowardsimmigrationandopennesstootherreligions,especiallytoJudaismandIslam.CardinalBurkehasrepeatedlyandpubliclycriticizedthePopeFrancisinrespectofthatencyclical[13].

There are alsomore radical ultra-Catholic circles, themost active is the ‘LepantoFoundation”("FondazioneLepanto").TheFoundationdoesnotrecognizetheresultsoftheelection of Pope Francis I and therefore refuses obedience to him. On the issue ofimmigration,religiousminoritiesandotherreligions,itstaysonultra-radicalposition[14].

Ultra-Catholic radicalism is alsoactivelyusing the Internet.Anumberofwebsitesand blogs that are Catholic in form but right-radical in content, are actively using thelanguage of hatred towards minorities and other religions. Some examples of thesetraditional Catholic associations are: www.sodalitium.it; www.magisterium.biz;Www.osservatorioanti-pagano.it;www.intermultipliesunavox.it;https://www.traditio.it;https://www.holywar.org. The latter - HolyWar is one of particular concern. This is atransnationalresourceassociatedwithsimilarradicalCatholicgroups(andwebresources)incountriessuchasGreatBritain,Germany,Italy,Spain,Poland,FranceandSweden.Thesitepositions itself asamouthpieceof supportersof anewcrusade for thepurityof theChristianfaith,itsmaterialsarecharacterizedbymanifestationsofanti-Semitism,includingdenialoftheHolocaust,andalsoopenlyanti-Islamicandracistcontent.

Inaddition, there isalargesectionofcommentsonthewebsite,aswellasonthevast majority of the same resources. There you can read many Islamophobic andhomophobicmessagesfromreaders.Thereisalmostnodifferencewithneo-Nazisites.Theonlydifferenceis,perhaps,inmorepronouncedanti-Semitismandinalarmingappealstothe"holywar"ofChristiansagainst immigrants,homosexuals, JewsandMuslims.All thisindicatesanactiveprocessofradicalizationofalreadyexistingultra-Catholicmovements.

SeparatelyitisnecessarytosayabouttheideologicalbaseoftheUkrainianradicals.ItdifferssignificantlyfromthegeneralradicalideologyoftheWest.InUkraine,thereisnomigrant problem (with the exception of forced migrants from the South-East of thecountry, the negative attitude towards them grows every year), there is no Muslimproblem,butthereisaproblemofcreatingaUkrainiannation.Thisisarealprobleminacountrywheremorethan40%ofthepopulationassociatesthemselveswithothernations,andRussianisthelanguageofeverydaycommunicationformorethan60%ofresidents.

ThetheoryofUkrainianintegralnationalismbecameanideologicalbasisofmodernUkrainian nationalism, like 100 years ago. The author of this theory was the Ukrainiannationalist Dmitry Dontsov (end of 19th - beg. of 20th century), although the universal

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theory of integral nationalism was formulated before him by the French philosophersCharlesMorrasandMauriceBarres.Theyopposedittotheprinciplesofhumanliberalismandfocusedonilliberal,totalitariannatureofnationalism:allcitizensmustobeythesamenormsandrulesandshareacommonenthusiasm,andallpersonallibertiesmustsubmittothe idea of nationalism. At the same time, integral nationalists refuse to cooperatewithothernations.

DontsovtriedtoapplytheseprinciplesonUkrainiansoil.HeopposedtheUkrainiannation - "svidomy" (conscious) - to the Ukrainian people. He declared Ukraine'sindependencenottheonlyendinitself.AccordingtoDontsov,themaingoalisthecreationof a European Ukrainian nation by cleansing the Ukrainian people. Ideas of friendshipbetweennations,or,especially,offederalismorautonomy,bothwithinPolandandwithinRussiapopularinthelate19th-early20thcenturieswerediscarded.

DontsovcalledfortheorientationtotheEuropean(WestEuropean)valuesof"racialhygiene" popular in the 19th century, advocated the struggle and resistance to imperialRussian nationalism and the chauvinism of Poland, against the domination of otherpeople's ideas and ideals. Justifying his views, Dontsov advanced theories about theexistenceoftwoworlds("Latin-Germanic"and"Moscow-Asiatic"),whichareconstantlyatodds with each other. The border of these "worlds" runs along the Eastern part of theethnic boundaries of Ukraine and Belarus. Thus Dontsov justified the need to orientUkrainianforeignpolicytowardsEurope.Also,Dontsovfullysharedthegeneralprovisionsofthenationalisttheoryofstatism,advocatingastrongindependentUkrainianstate.

InthecontextoftheRussian-Ukrainianpoliticalconflictassociatedwiththeeventsof 2014, the theory of Ukrainian integral nationalism acquires special significance.AccordingtomodernUkrainiannationalists,includingentirepoliticaleliteofthecountry,it ispossible "to createaUkrainian"withinRussian-Ukrainian contradictiononly inoneway.Namelybydevelopmentof"Ukrainian"andUkrainianculture,especiallyineducation,mediaandpublicserviceattheexpenseof"Russianness"andRussianculture,widespreadinthecentralandEasternpartofUkraine.

Thecarriersofthispolicywere,firstofall,immigrantsfromWesternUkraine,whichuntil1939hadneverbeenpartof theRussianEmpireor theUSSR.Fromtheirmidst theleaders of the Ukrainian national radicals emerged. They form the ideology of theseorganizations, basing on Russophobia, on the one hand, and the glorification of theUkrainiancollaboratorsoftheSecondWorldWar,ontheother.

5.LeadersSociologicalportraitsof leadersof large right-wing radicalorganizationsarequite

different. In the West, they are often former activists of parties in the politicalestablishment,thenbrokewithhimanddecidedtolinktheirfatewiththeultra-right.

Forexample,oneoftheleadersoftheGermanpartyAfGAlexanderGaulandwasalong-termmemberof theCDU. In the70sheworked in theparliamentary factionof theCDU/CSU. In 1987, after the victory of the CDU in the land elections in Hesse, Gaulandbecametheheadof theapparatusof thePrimeMinisterof theLandWalterValmann.Hewas known as the participant of several scandals, in particular, related to attempts toillegallyremove "inconvenient"high-rankingofficialswith thereplacementof"theirown

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people."Hewas alsoone of the founders of the so-called "Berlin community" inside theCDU,anextremelyconservativegroupofChristiandemocrats.In2013helefttheCDU.

Another well-known AfG politician,Hans Joachim Berg, deputy chairman of thefactionintheBerlinlandparliamentandoneofthe"graycardinals"oftheparty,wasapartoftheCDUfor30years,anadvisertoanumberofministersatthelandandfederallevels.

SomeAfGdeputieshavechangedtheirmembershipcardsseveraltimesinthepast.Forexample,AndreasGalau,deputyoftheParliamentofBrandenburg,wasamemberoftheCDU,"Republicans"andtheFDP.WiththepartymembershipoftheLiberalDemocrats,heworkedintheCityHallofBerlin.

GeertWilders, leader of the right-wing “Freedom”Party in theNetherlands,waselectedtothemunicipalcouncilofUtrecht,thefourthlargestcityintheNetherlands[15],in1997,butthenbrokewiththeparty.

PaulNuttall,thecurrentleaderoftheUKIPtooktheplaceofretiredN.Farage.HewaspreviouslyamemberoftheConservativePartyandateacherattheschool.HejoinedUKIPin2004afterafailedperformanceasacandidatefromtheConservativePartyinthelocal elections inLiverpool.Nuttall isknownasapoliticianwhoadvocatedabanon thepublicwearingofIslamicclothingcoveringtheface[16],andalsoopposedLaborists'planstocombat homophobic bullying in schools, describing this step as "politically correctnonsense.[17]"

Atthesametime,thereisadefinitepercentageofpeopleworkingintheprofessionsamong ultra-right deputies. For example, the deputy chairman of the Alternative forGermany fraction in the Berlin Land Parliament,Carsten Woldeit, worked as an automechanic, thenserved intheBundeswehrundercontractasanordinarysoldier.Anotherdeputy chairman of the faction, fromMecklenburg-Western Pomerania,Holger Arpepe,workedasacompositorintheprintinghouseofthelocalnewspaperbeforebecomingthedeputy.

Thereareexceptions,forexample,thecharismaticfounderofthe5-starMovementinItalyisBeppeGrillo.Grillo(68y.o.)wasacomedianwhoenteredpoliticsin2009withGiampieroCasalegio,thefounderofMovimento5Stelle.TheBritishnewspaper"Spectator"in2013calledhim"thenewItalianMussolini"[18].

Another popular leader of the Italian right-wing populists isMatteo Salvini, whohaseverychancetobecomeprimeministerafterparliamentaryelectionsin2018.MatteoSalviniisayoungleader(44y.o.)ofthepopularultranationalistItalianpartyLegaNord.In2013,hereplacedthefounderofLN,UmbertoBossi,andsincethenhewastheleaderoftheparty. His political credo is to limit migration and exit the European Union. He openlyexpresseshisadmirationfortheRussianleaderV.PutinandUSPresidentD.Trump.

Healsosuccessfully launchedthepartyprojectat thenational level,giventhatLNhasalwaysbeenactiveintheNorthofthecountry.Asaleader,hemadethepartyclosetoother relatedRight populist and nationalist parties, such as the French national front ofMarine Le Pen, the British Independence Party, etc. His personality shapes the party'spolitics and ideology,which is becomingmore andmore xenophobicwith a strong anti-liberaldemagogy,orientationtotheso-calledanti-establishmentandEuroscepticism.

ThemostvividrepresentativeofthemoderatepartofEuropeanright-wingradicalsisMrs.MarineLePen (born5August1968),who isservingasPresidentof theNational

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Front(NF)inFrancesince2011.SheisthedaughterofNFfounderJean-MarieLePenandmodelPierrettLalan.Attheheadoftheparty,Marinedidmuchtochangetheimageoftheparty,demonstrativelypushingrepresentativesofthegaycommunitytoleadershippostsandexpellinghermoreradicalfatherfromtheparty.

During the campaign for the presidency of France in 2017, she lost to EmmanuelMacron,gaining,nevertheless,33.9%ofthevotes.ItisarecordforcandidatesfromtheNF.SheisamemberoftheNationalAssemblyofFrance(thereareeightdeputiesofNFintheFrenchParliament).Beforethat,from2014,shewasamemberoftheEuropeanParliament,whereherpartyisrepresentedby23members.

LePenisopposedtoglobalization,whichsheblamesforvariousnegativeeconomictrends,andopposesEuropeanUnionsupranationalismandfederalism,insteadfavouringalooselyconfederate'EuropeoftheNations'.ShehascalledforFrancetoleavetheEurozoneforareferendumonFranceleavingtheEU.ShehasbeenavocalopponentoftheTreatyofLisbon,and opposes EUmembership forTurkeyandUkraine.Le Pen has pledged to takeFrance out ofNATOand the USsphere of influence.She proposes the replacement oftheWorldTradeOrganizationandtheabolitionoftheInternationalMonetaryFund.

Le Pen and the NF believe thatmulticulturalismhas failed,and argue for the "de-Islamisation"ofFrenchsociety.Shehascalledforamoratoriumonlegalimmigration.Shewould repeal lawsallowing illegal immigrants tobecome legal residents,andhasarguedthatbenefitsprovidedtoimmigrantsbereducedtoremoveincentivesfornewimmigrants.

On foreign policy, Le Pen supports the establishment of aprivilegedpartnershipwith Russia,and believes thatUkraine has been "subjugated" by theUnitedStates.SheisstronglycriticalofNATOpolicyintheregion,EasternEuropeananti-Russiansentiment,and threats of economic sanctions. She supported the results of the RussianreferendumandtheannexingCrimeain2014.

TheNFhaddifficultiesfindingfundingbecauseoftheoppositionofFrenchbankstoherpoliticalplatform.This led to theNationalFrontborrowing€9million from theFirstCzech-RussianbankinMoscowin2014.

InGreeceand intheEastofEurope,right-wingradicalleaders,asarule,areeithernewcomers to politics, people from the bottom, who came there for opportunistic orideologicalreasons,oractiveparticipantsoftheright-wingradicalmovementinthepast.

Forexample,NikosMichaloliakos(bornin1957)cametotheparty"GoldenDawn"intheearly1980s.Hewasalreadyactiveontheextremelyright-wingspectrumofGreekpolitics after the fall of the junta.His past is vague. A group of researcherswhopublishmaterialsontheXYZCONTAGIONblog foundevidencethathis fatherhadclosetieswiththosewhohelpedtheNazisinGreeceduringWorldWarII.ThisexplainsthefamiliarityofNikosMichaloliakoswithnationalisticandneo-Naziideologyfromanearlyage.

Hewasaccusedofterroristactsinthelate1970s,buthewasfoundnotguiltyduringthetrial.Michaloliakosledthepartywhenitwasontheedgeofthepoliticalscene,havingextremelylowpopularityduringthenormalizationofGreekdemocracy.

The 1990s the party radicalized openly. Low results in the elections werecompensated by attacks on students-democrats and left-wing activists. In foreign policy,the party officially supports Milosevic's policy in the former Yugoslavia. In this verydifficult situation, Michaloliakos was undoubtedly the leader. Gradually, he became the

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personificationof theultra-rightpoliticaldirection inGreece,and in2010hewaselectedforthefirsttimeasamemberoftheAthensCityCouncil.Realsuccesscametothepartyin2012,whenitformedthethirdlargestfactioninthecountry'sparliament.

Until 2013, the party, received solid state support and successfully combinedmethodsofparliamentarystrugglewithpublicpopulistactions,suchasthedistributionofEaster gifts to "ethnically pure Greeks" and violent actions. In September 2013,Michaloliakoswasdeprivedofparliamentaryimmunityandarrestedonchargesofcreatingacriminalorganization.HewasreleasedonlyinJuly2015.Thetrialwasstartedin2017.

His wife, Eleni Zaroulia (born in 1961) is also a member of parliament from the"Golden Dawn", although officially the party does not support the political activity ofwomeninfavorofamoretraditionalwayoflife.Despitethis,shebecamethefirstwomanrepresentedbythepartyasamemberofParliament in the last fourelections.Her fatherownedrealestate,includingthehotel,whichsheinherited.Thisgavehertheopportunityto quite employment, which also led to strong criticism from former members of theGoldenDawn.Theirdaughter,UraniaMichaloliakos,alsoparticipates in theactivitiesoftheparty.

Another leaderand founderof thepartyChristosPappas(born in1962) remainsoneofthemostzealoussupportersofNaziideology[19].Beforebecomingelecteddeputyofparliament,hewasashopkeeper,andthenarepresentativeoftheworld-famousfurniturecompany in the city of Ioannina. Before that, he tried to launch the bookstore "GoldenDawn" in the Kipseli area in Athens, where the organization had its first offices[20]. HisfatherwasamilitaryofficerintheGreekarmy,faithfultoleaderofthejuntaofthe"BlackColonels"GeorgiosPapadopoulos.Thatexplainshisconnectionswithnationalist ideologyandhiscommon"routes"withNikosMichaloliakos.

IliasKasidiaris(bornin1980)isknownasoneofthemostdynamicandpromisingmembersof theparty.Hewasborn intoawealthy family in theprovinceofMani in theSouthPeloponnese-aterritorywithalargenationalistic"background".Itisknownthathistwo ancestors on the paternal and maternal line cooperated with the occupationadministration during the SecondWorldWar[21]. In 2004, he joined the “Golden Dawn”party.Hehasastylizedswastikastattoowithapartylogoonhisarm.Heparticipatedinaseriesofillegalattacksontheleftandmigrants.Activeparticipantintheprotestsagainstthe construction of a mosque in Athens. Member of Parliament since 2012. Like otherdeputiesfromtheparty"GoldenDawn",deniestheHolocaust.

OnSeptember28,2013hewasdeprivedofimmunityandarrestedalongwithotherpartyleadersonchargesofbelongingtoacriminalorganization.Theindictmentincludedmurder, extortion and participation in the disappearance of up to 100 migrants. OnOctober2,2013,IliasKasidiariswasreleasedonbailof50,000euros.

However,on July10,2014,hewastaken into custodyonchargesofpossessionofweaponsagain.OnJuly1,2015,Kasidiariswasreleasedfromcustodyafter the judgesofthe Court of Appeal found that the "legal weight" of the crime was not sufficient fordetention,buthewasbannedfromvisitinghisparty'soffices.Atthesametime,hestillsitsinparliament.Since2017,heisaccusedinthetrialofthe"GoldenDawn".

IoannisLagosis theoldestmemberof the"GoldenDawn"party,amemberof theGreekparliamentsince2012.Hebecamefamousduetohisinvolvementinthemurderof

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anti-fascist Pavlos Fyssas in 2013, which was the last reason to start mass repressionsagainsttheparty.Heisalsoknownasoneofthefoundersofagroupoffootballfans-neo-Nazis[22].Hewasdeclaredbytheparty"amartyr-innocentvictim"andhadbecomeakindofsymbolofthestrugglefora"justcause".Popularamongneo-NaziyouthinGreece.

LeaderoftheUkrainianparty"Freedom"OlegTyagnibokwasbornin1968inLviv.Heisadoctor.O.TyagnibokisknownforhavingbecomeoneofthefoundersoftheSocial-NationalistPartyofUkraine(thenamehasaveryunambiguousreferencetotheNSDAP)in1991,fromwhich"Freedom"wasformed.

Dmitry Yaroshwas born in 1971 in the Dnepropetrovsk region. In 2001 hegraduated fromDrohobych Pedagogical University. Since 1994 hewas the leader of theparamilitaryorganization"Trizub"namedafterS.Bandera.Theorganizationwas initiallyformedasacombatgroup.In2013,itbecamethebasisforthe"RightSector".InOctober2014hebecameadeputy.

Thecurrentleaderofthe"RightSector"AndreiTarasenkowasbornin1982intheDnepropetrovskregion.CloselyandpersonallyassociatedwithD.Yarosh.

The leaderof the "NationalCorps"AndreiBiletskywasborn in1979 inKharkov.He graduated from Kharkov National University, History Dep. Has the nickname "WhiteLeader". In 2000, he headed the Kharkov branch of the "Trizub", cooperated with the"Freedom"party,whenitwascalledtheSocial-NationalParty,andwithUNA-UNSO.From2011 to 2014 hewasdetained for robbery. InMarch 2014 hewas released and headed"RightSector"(East),andlater-theregiment"Azov".InOctober2014hebecameadeputyofUkraine.

AfairlywiderangeofyoungleadersareofferedbytheHungarianultra-right.GáborBarcsa-Turneris the key figure of theHungarian extreme right scene.He

has been the co-chairman of the Hatvannégy Vármegye Mozgalom (HVIM, Sixty-FourCountiesYouthMovement)[23]since2014,thefounderofSzentKoronaRádió(SaintCrownRadio),thefar-rightnewsportalandradiochannel,andFarkasok(Wolves),aparamilitaryorganizationthatiscloselyassociatedwithHVIMandorganizesmilitarytrainings.Hewasalsoakey figureofextremeright-wingdemonstrations in2006, tookpart ineveryeventandparticipatedineverydemonstrationuntil2010.Heconsidersthatthesetimesarethebestperiodofhislife.

László Toroczkaiis one of the most famous, influential and active right-wingpoliticians, organizers and activists in Hungary. He has been Mayor of Ásotthalom, amunicipality on the Serbian-Hungarian border in Southern Hungary since 2013. He hasbeen the vice-president of the party “Jobbik” since 2016.László Toroczkaiwas born in1978inSzeged,acountycenterintheSouthofHungary,20kilometersfromÁsotthalom,wherehenowlives.Hecomesfromaconservativemiddle-classfamily.HegraduatedfromagoodCatholicschool,andthenstudiedcommunicationsatauniversityinhishometown.Marriedwithasecondmarriage;hiswifeisfromMoldavia,theyhavethreechildren.ThepoliticalcareerofToroczkaibeganinthemid-1990s.In1998,hewasalocalcandidatefortheright-wingHungarianTruthandLifeParty(MIÉP).Inthesameyear,hisfatherbecamechairmanofthelocalbranchofthispartyinSzeged.Hewasalsotheeditorofanumberofextremely right-wing publications, including periodicals. Received a reputation as a

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specialist in the formation of various kinds of ultra-right organizations and socialmovements.

In 2001, he founded the Hatvannégy Vármegye Mozgalom (HVIM, Sixty-FourCounties Youth Movement), which has since been one of the most important far-rightradicalorganizations.ToroczkaiwasthechairmanofHVIMuntil2014.HealsofoundedtheBetyársereg (Army of Outlaws), which today is considered the most dangerousparamilitaryorganization.In2006,Toroczkaiwasoneoftheorganizersofextremeright-wing demonstrations and rallies, including anti-Romani activities, responsible for theattack on the public television building.He has been a close friend of GyorgyBudahazy,another landmarkfigureof theHungarianextremerightwing,whowasthe leaderof theterrorist organization Magyarok Nyilai (Arrows of Hungarians). He was repeatedlyconvictedofcrimesagainsttherighttofreedomofassemblyandtheillegaluseofforce.Forhis extremist and revisionist activities, Toroczkai was banned from entering Canada,Romania,Serbia,andSlovakia.

Zsolt Tyitityánis awell-known figure in the extreme right subculture. He is theleaderoftheextremistgroup“Betyársereg”(ArmyofOutlaws).HeplaysakeyroleinthereorganizationoftheextremerightwinginHungaryafter“Jobbik's”attempttobecomeamore moderate people's party.Tyitityánwas born in 1978. He was a member of theMagyarNemzetiArcvonal(HungarianNationalFront),whichwasoneofthefirstneo-NazigroupsinHungary,formedin1989.Hewasalsoamemberoftheorganization“BloodandHonor”inHungary.

In 2008, Toroczkai founded the "Army of Outlaws". Later Tyitityán became itsleader,whoearlierservedaprisonsentenceforcausingseriousbodilyharmwitharacistmotive.The“ArmyofOutlaws"isanopenlyracistandanti-Semiticorganizationthatdoesnot acceptRoma or Jews asmembers andwhosemembers believe inwhite supremacy.AccordingtoMr.Tyitityán’scharacterization, thisorganization isasportsorganizationoffriendswhotakecareoftheirphysicalwell-beingandareseriousaboutphysicalactivity.Infact,the"ArmyofOutlaws"isnotonlyaright-wingradicalorganization,butfunctionsasanarbitrarysecurityforcewhoseservicesmightbepurchaseduponrequestinanysettlementinwhich inhabitantsarenotsatisfiedwithpublicsecurityTheOutlawsorganizemarchesthroughsettlements,mainlytointimidatethelocalRomacommunity.

Tyitityán is also known for his extremist and cruel views, which he has neverconcealed. During several demonstrations, he even called for future violence againstvariousminoritygroups,whichhe considers inevitable in the "racialwar".He constantlyusestheneo-Nazi languageofhatred,repeatedlystatedthathe isproudtobeaNazi.Hedescribeshimselfas"apersonwitharacialconsciousnesswhobelieves inautocracyandthehierarchyofraces."

GáborVonaisoneofthefounders,andsince2006hehasbeentheChairmanoftheextremeright-wingparty“Jobbik”.Thankstohim,thepartybecameoneofthekeyplayersoftheHungarianpoliticalscene.Vonawasbornin1978.Hisancestorsweresmallholdersonbothsides.Heoriginateshis anti-communistviewsandhis love for the land fromhisbackground. He often turns to his family history, telling that his grandfather died inTransylvaniaduringtheSecondWorldWar,fightingagainsttheRedArmy.

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Vonastudiedhistoryandpsychology in theEötvösLorándUniversityinBudapest.While studying, he participated in the activities of the Student Union of the University,which at that time was a political incubator for many extreme right-wingers. Aftergraduation,heworkedasahistoryteacherforashorttime,butsoonturnedtopolitics.In2001, he became an active member of the ruling party “Fidesz”, but in 2003 he left it,joiningtheyoungandunknownparty“Jobbik”,becomingdeputychairmanoftheparty.

In2006,hebecametheChairmanof“Jobbik”,andsincethenhehasledtheparty.In2007, he founded the radical nationalist Magyar Gárda Mozgalom (HungarianGuardMovement) and became its first leader. The “Hungarian Guard” served as theparamilitarywing of “Jobbik” until its dissolution in 2008. Hewas a candidate fromhispartyforthepostofPrimeMinisterbothin2010andin2014.In2010,when“Jobbik”firstgotintoparliament,Vonaalsobecametheleaderofhispartyfaction.

He describes himself as a national radical, guided by law and order. At the sametime,heinitiatedthetransformationof“Jobbik”fromaradical,extremelyright-wingpartyinto a modern conservative people's party. However, these attempts so far have adeclarative nature and are sabotaged on the ground. Many are skeptical about Jobbik’schange of its image. So the Jewish community rejected Vona's congratulations on theHanukkah holiday, which he sent in December 2016, which triggered a stream of anti-Semiticrhetoricfromhisside.

György Gyula Zagyva, former skinhead, is a leading figure in the Hungarianextremerightscene.Heisco-chairofHVIMandtheheadofthepublicworksprogramandan"integrationexpert"(meaningtheintegrationofGypsies)inthelocalgovernmentofthecityofTiszavasvári inEasternHungary. Since2010, themayorof the townhasbeen therepresentative of the party “Jobbik”. Zagyva was born in 1976 into a family havingnationalistic,far-rightviews.Accordingtohisacquaintancesandfriends,hiscommitmentto nationalism, revisionism and extreme right ideas comes from his parents andgrandparents.Hewasamemberofvarioussmallright-wingorganizations,andafter thatjoinedtheHungarianTruthandLifeParty(MIÉP)in1999,butsoonleftandjoinedHVIMin2002.Hewas the leader of HVIM from2006 to 2010, until he became aMP of “Jobbik”withoutbeingamemberoftheparty.LeavingtheNationalAssemblyin2014,hereturnedtotheleadershipofHVIM.In2014,hewasfoundguiltyofthreateningjournalistsatultra-rightevent.HewasrepeatedlybannedfromenteringSerbiaandRomaniaforhisneo-Naziviews.

6.Financing.Theright-wingpartieshaveavarietyofsourcesoffunding.Thefirstsourceisstate

funding. All right-wing parliamentary parties, except for the “Golden Dawn”, enjoy statesupporttoday.However,althoughtheGreekparliamentdoesnotfinancethisparty,somemembersofthe“GoldenDawn”stillreceivefunding.

Sometimes the funding is quite sufficient. So, according to the one-page officialfinancialreportoftheHungarianparty“Jobbik”,in201682.7%oftherevenuescamefromthe state, 16.1% accounted for private contributions and donations, 0.6% accounted formembershipfees,andonly0.6%accountedforothersources[24].

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According to the LDPR consolidated financial report for 2016, themain source ofmoney for the partywas state funding: of 1.354 billion rubles (about 20million euros)receivedbytheLiberalDemocraticParty,843millionrubleswasallocatedbythestate.Of368millionrublesofprivatedonations,348millionwasdonatedby12legalentities, therest-byindividuals.7.4millionwasgeneratedbytheLDPR'sincomefromentrepreneurialactivity, 3 million from civil law transactions, and 120 million from other revenues.Membershipfeesamountedtoonly0.03%oftheLDPRincome[25].

In most countries, state aid to parliamentary parties exists and is seen as anecessary tool for maintaining a healthy democracy. For example, in the UK there is aspecialfundtosupportalloppositionparties(Labor,LiberalDemocrats,SNP,etc.).In2016,theUnitedKingdomIndependenceParty(UKIP)received89,869poundsfromthisfund.

However, as for theHungarianultra-right, anexpertpointof viewcontradicts theofficialdataof“Jobbik”.Thus,TransparencyInternationalHungary(TI-H)arguesthatthe"financial management of the party is not transparent enough", since the party spendsmuchmorethantheofficiallydeclared[26].

It is also interesting that in 2014-2016 the European right-wing radical partiesreceived2.3millioneurofromtheEUbudget[27],whichcompletelycontradictstotheEU'sstatements on the suspension of funding for anti-democratic parties. However, only in2016,600'000eurowasallocatedtothe“APF-AllianceforPeaceandFreedom”,wherethe“Golden Dawn” is a prominentmember[28]. In addition, the Alliance includes the Italianright-wingradical“ForzaNuova”,ledbyRobertoFiore,andthe“BritishNationalParty”ofNickGriffin. The EuropeanParliament assures that fundingwas suspended in 2017, butexperts believe that it continues on other budget lines and in relation to otherorganizationsthatarealsoassociatedwithright-wingEuropeanparties.

WesternmediaareactivelypromotingtheideaoffinancingtheEuropeanfar-rightsbyRussian state structures, butRussian authorities categoricallydeny that. In 2016, theBritishdailynewspaper“TheTelegraph”publishedarticlebasedondatabyUSintelligenceservice. The article says that Vladimir Putinmay financeseveral ultra-right andultranationalist parties in Europe. According to a British newspaper, an Americanintelligence investigation of Russian funding of European ultranationalist parties provesthat ultimately Russian money "will contribute to the success of these parties in theelections,whatwillweakenthestructureofNATOandtheEUandhelplifttheEUsanctionsagainstRussia."[29]Nevertheless,noproof isgiven inthearticle. It isonlyknownthat theFrench party “NationalFront” did receive a loan of 2million euro in oneof theRussianbanks.

Greekmediaarealsotryingtofinda"Russiantrace"infinancingthe"GoldenDawn".Theytrytojustifythissayingthatfinancingneo-NazipartiesisausualpracticeforRussianauthorities[30].

According to Greece mass media, direct contacts between the Kremlin and the"Golden Dawn" began through the mediation of the leader of Russian nationalists, thechairman of the Liberal Democratic Party V. Zhirinovsky and philosopher A. Dugin.Zhirinovsky knew Michaloliakos since 1996. The philosopher of the radical nationalistviews Aleksandr Dugin,met the emissaries ofMichaloliakos - hiswife Eleni Zarulia andArtemide Matheopoulos, who was also a family member of Michaloliakos, in 2012 .

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According to the Greekmedia, Dugin, who supposedly has similar views to the “GoldenDawn”,isasecretadvisertoV.Putin,what,however,isnotprovedbyRussianexperts.

Greek media are confident that the financing of the “Golden Dawn” by Russia ismediatedby theRussianparliamentarian (“UnitedRussia”) andbillionaireAndrei Skoch.He is a member of the Committee on CIS Affairs and relations with compatriots. It isbelievedthatheispersonallyacquaintedwithRussianPresidentVladimirPutinandisanintermediarybetweenGazprom,whichis"charged"tofinancethe"GoldenDawn"andtheGreekshipowners,whoaretransferringmoneytoright-wingradicalsinreality.

According to journalists, Skoch also has friendly relations with Michaloliakos’brother and lawyer, TakisMichalolias,who changed his surname in 1980.However, theonly“proves”arethephotographsofA.SkochwithTakisandbusinessmenwhosponsorthe“GoldenDawn”.

However, Greek journalists consider this an almost indisputable fact, since, fromtheirpointofview, theKremlin is interested inthe“GoldenDawn”,becauseof itsopenlyanti-Americanstance.RussianauthoritiesalsoseektouseitforpressuretotheEUstatesandsupportinEuropeanParliament[31].

There are rumors that the “Jobbik” party in Hungary was also created with themoneyofRussianspecialservices.However,thisisalsobasedonassumptionswithweakevidence base. In particular, the assumption that “Jobbik” receivedmoney from Russiansourcesisbasedonthefactthatoneoftheleadersoftheparty,amemberoftheEuropeanParliamentandthepresidentof therightAllianceofEuropeanNationalMovements,BélaKovács,alongwithhisRussianwifeSvetlanaIstozina,wasaccusedofspyingforRussiabytheHungarian government. Itwas alleged that itwasKovácswho financed the party in2005,whenitwasstillayoungnon-parliamentarygroupofultra-radicals[32].

However, no direct evidence of this was presented. The party itself categoricallydeniestheexistenceofanyforeignfunding.

Onewayoranother,butsinceearly2016,theUShasexpresseditsconcernsaboutpossible contactsbetween representativesof theRussiangovernmentandbusinesswithleadersofright-wingextremistorganizationsinEuropeandannouncedaninvestigation.

In truth, that theaboveepisodes,aswellasanumberofothersrelatedtochargeswithoutevidence,areverypainfullyperceivedbyRussiansociety.Inthe90's,ithavebeenpersuadedthattheWestguardsoverdemocraticfreedoms,inparticulartheruleoflawandits constituent part - the presumption of innocence. Numerous unproven accusations ofcrimes based on the opinion of the media orWestern politicians, in which the Russianleadership is credited with the motives taken for evidence, have led to totaldisappointmentintheWestofRussianvotersinrecentyears,which,asalreadyindicated,reflectsthegrowingsupportofV.Putin.

Anothersourceoffundingforright-wingradicalsisprivatedonationsfromlocalorforeignbusinessmen.Forexample,“GoldenDawn”isfinancedbybusinessmenassociatedwiththeshipyardandshipowners.TheUkrainianbusinessmanI.Kolomoiskyfinancesthe"Right Sector" and "Azov", while the Ukrainian "Freedom" is supported financially by aconglomerateofWesternUkrainianbusinessmen.

It is known that Aaron Banks, a British financier, who often assists right-wingradical organizations, provides the main financial support for the United Kingdom

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IndependenceParty.Heannuallydonatesmorethan1millionpounds.Inaddition,UKIP'smajor donors in 2016 were: Financial Financial Service, a London-based managing andfinancial consulting company donated £ 359,000; Techtest Ltd, a company that developsand manufactures transmitters donated £ 100,000; Patrick Barbour, Chairman of theBarbour Index plc and Microgen plc, as well as an activist of the Taxpayers Alliancedonated£100,000;CoBarclay,thesonofbillionaireDailyTelegraph-ownerSirFrederickBarclaydonated£180,000[33].

Interestingly,thealmostnon-existentBritishNationalParty(BNP)receivedseverallargesums.Sothepartyreceivedmorethan£382,000underthewillsofDennisStanleyRadmor,JohnChristopherLintillandBarbaraSwift[34].

Accordingtothewidelyheldstatement,theparty“Jobbik”inHungaryissupportedbyLajosSimicska,formercloseallyofPrimeMinisterViktorOrbánandchiefbusinessmanofthe“Fidesz”Party.Heiscalled"thekeyoligarchoftheregime".However,in2014therestartedastrugglebetweenPrimeMinisterOrbánandSimicska,causedprobablybybrokenpromises of the parties. Simicska turned away from “Fidesz” and publicly supported“Jobbik”severaltimes.Nevertheless,in2016,therewerenosignsthathewascontinuingtofundright-wingradicals.

However, experts believe that private donors of the ultra-right are mostlybusinessmenofmediumandsmallbusinesseswhoaretryingtoprovidethemselveswithcoverincaseofaconflictwiththeauthoritiesorpreparingtoenterpolitics.Probably,thereare other reasons. According to the data published by the American Institute ofGeostrategicAnalysisStratfor, the“GoldenDawn”receivesdonations fromethnicGreeksliving abroad - in theUS, Canada, Australia andGermany. The amounts vary from smalldonations to large ones. In particular, Australian businessman of Greek origin KostasMeikris,knownforhisright-wingbeliefsmakesgenerousdonations.

At the same time, as reported by the Greek site tvxs.gr, the “Golden Dawn” ispartiallyfinancedbyRussiancitizensofGreekoriginwhohavemovedtoGreeceorlive"fortwohouses",aswellasRussianswhohavereceiveda"residencepermitinreturnforthepurchaseofrealestate"inGreece[35].Thewebsitedoesnotprovidefiguresandnames,butstressesthatthisphenomenonhasbecomewidespreadin2013-14.

Itisknownthatcertainright-wingradicalgroupsinEurope,forexampletheDutch“Erkenbrand”, are financed by the ultra-right from the US[36]. There is an opinion thatfunding isactuallycarriedoutbyUS intelligenceagencieswhich iscreatingsomekindofalternativetoWilder'sFreedomPartyorganization.

Anothersourceoffundingforright-wingradicalsistheirownbusiness.Anumberofright-wingradicalpartiesarequitesuccessfulinsellingtheirsymbols,books,etc.InGreece,the“GoldenDawn”holdsawholenetworkofbookstoresandpartyattributesstores,andalsoprovidessecurityservices,bothtobusinessesandindividuals.

In Russia, right-wing radicals are also sponsored by small and medium-sizedentrepreneurs, for example,middle-class businessmanDenisNikitin,who opened a verysuccessful clothes business for the ultra-right “White Rex”. “White Rex” supports right-wing radicals convicted of hate crimes, sponsors the organization ofmixedmartial artstournamentsandalsopromotesright-wingideology[37].

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Editor-in-chief of the popular Russian nationalistic Internet media “Sputnik &Pogrom”, Egor Prosvirnin gave some ideas of how ultra-right sights are funded in hisinterview to"TheVillage”magazine in July2017.He said that themain sourceof "S&P"fundingwas a paid subscription ("Wanna beRussian - pay, nomoney - live Soviet" -hesaid),about10%theygotfromadvertising(sincethemagazinehasabout750visitors,itisinteresting for advertisers). In addition, some entrepreneurs paid salaries to someemployeesofthemedia[38].

Strong-armservicestobusinessareprovidedbyright-wingradicals inUkraine. Inaddition, they provide "services" for conductingmass actions in the interests of certainpolitical forces. So, a small action without fights and provocations, numbering up to 50people,costsupto100thousandUAH($4’000).Ifwetalkaboutlarge-scaleactionswithfights,thepriceincreasesseveraltimes.VideopublishedontheInternetcostsabout$500,aspeakershoutingappeals-$100,guardingthemeeting-500UAHperperson.Totalpriceforthemeetingisabout$10’000[39].

According to records,Ukrainian right-wing radical groupsreceivemoney fromtheleadersofthepoliticalestablishment.Thus,accordingtotheDonetskjournalistandactivistof"EuroMaidan"ArtemFurmanyuk,the"NationalCorps"workunderthefullcontroloftheMinisterofInternalAffairsofUkraineArsenAvakov,andthe“Azov”regimentisa"privatearmy" of the leaders of the “People's Front” party. By this the organizations live quitecomfortably. In return, for example, the "National Corps" ensures the security ofenterprisesboth in theDonbassand inotherregionsof thecountry,providessecurityofthefinancialandeconomicactivitiesofthegroupoftheMinisterofInternalAffairs,etc.[40]

Smaller,especiallyunregisteredgroupsusecrowdfunding,orpublicfunding,usuallythrough"electronicwallets".Moneycanberaisedtohelparrestedactivists,toholdvariousmassactions,etc.

For example, in Russia,right-wing radicals often raise funds to help the so-called"prisoners ofwar" - arrested and convicted for hate crimes againstnationalists, and theorganizationofmassactions.Overthepast fewyears,nationalistshaveconductedpublicevents in the framework of crowdfunding campaigns, such as the "Solidarity Day withPoliticalPrisonersNationalists"celebratedsince July25,2009.Anumberofprojectsandindividualswerefundraisingthen.Wearetalkingaboutmoderatesums,quitefeasiblefornationalist-minded representatives of themiddle class. For example, a group that raisedfunds to help "prisoners", had sent 62 transfers of 1’000 to 5’000 rubles ($ 15-85) in2016.[41]

Besidesparticipation inpublicactions,radicalsearnmoneyby"protectionracket"oflegalandillegalbusinesses,suchascasinos,brothels,drugdealing,etc.Inaddition,right-wing radicals receive income from smuggling, kidnapping, enterprise protection, forcesupportofbusinessprocesses,etc.[42][43]

Here again, Greek "Golden Dawn" is the first in the list. It receives money fromprostitutionandothercriminalbusinessesandlaunderingthemthroughachainofbakeryand confectionery stores in Greece.[44]The network of "folk bakeries" gives the "GoldenDawn" additional political dividends: they create jobs for Greeks. Individual journalistsconducted a private investigation and found out that in this "business" the Greek ultra-rightcloselycooperatewithRussianmafiacircles,whichtheydonotname.

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This business is also popular among Ukrainian radicals, first of all, the "Rightsector". Among the particularly bright episodes of the "earnings", one can name theblockade of the Crimea, when the radicals took money for passing the trucks to thepeninsula.[45]“Protectionracket"ofbusinessbyrepresentativesofotherradicalgroups isalsoverywidespread.

7.RelationswiththeauthoritiesAll monitoring states rhetorically express a negative attitude towards right-wing

radicals.Atthesametime,manyofthemusethesepartiesintheirpoliticalinterests,whichobjectivelyleadstothegrowthofright-wingradicalsinthesociety.

Practically in every country there are divisions of special services, which controlradicals.Let’slooktoItaly,whichhasgreatexperienceinthisarea.

Formally, the Italian special services are subordinated to the Prime Minister,assisted by the inter-ministerial committee for the security of the Republic. Themanagement is carried out through the so-called "Office of Delegation", an institutionalbodythatactsasaninteriminstancebetweenthePrimeMinisterandtheIntelligenceUnit.Adelegationmaybeheadedbyasecretaryofstateoraministerinnocharge,whocannotfulfillotherduties.

The Office of Delegation is directed by the Italian intelligence system, called the"InformationSecuritySystemof theRepublic"andconsistsofanumberofunits,someofwhicharedesignedtocombatextremism.

Inturn,theMinisteroftheInteriorhastwomainstructures:theCrisisGroup(Law133/2002) and the Counter-Terrorism StrategicAnalysis Committee (Law06/05/2006).Thelattercontrolsthenationalandinternalterroristthreat,aswellascoordinatesnationalinvestigations against radical Muslims in order to prevent radicalization and causescontributing to terrorism. This structure also monitors activities regarding possibletransfers of funds for international terrorism or organizations and constantly monitorsactivities on the Internet. This structure is based on the strategy of "repression for thepurposeofprevention",whichmeansthatpoliceactivitiesandmonitoringofthecountry'sterritoryarecarriedouttogetherwiththepolicyofcooperationwithMuslimcommunities.

In addition, since 2001, theMinistry of Economic Affairs has a Financial SecurityCommitteetopreventterroristsfromenteringthemainfinancialsystemofItaly.

Italianpoliceforceshaveaspecialdepartment(DIGOS),whichdealswith"politicalcrimes",aswellasanotherdepartment(DIA),whichdealswithorganizedcrime.Inrecentyears,whenjihadismhasbecomeanongoingproblemandthereareindisputablefactsofcooperation between radical and mafia structures, these two departments activelycooperatewitheachothertobetterprotectthecountryfrompossibleattacks.

Nevertheless,thissystemworkspoorly,withallthesystemiccontradictionsexistingin European countries (see section 2). This is facilitated by themigration crisis and thedeepeningof economicproblems. Italian secret services in2016officially testified to thegrowth in the number of right-wing radical neo-Nazi organizations, primarily at theexpense of young people. Recruiting is carried outmainly through social networks andotherInternetresources.[46]Atthesametime,thenumberofhatecrimesisgrowing.With

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rare exceptions, in 2016 it grew in all European countries.[47]The average growth was20%.

At the same time, the authorities often use radical organizations to achieve theirinternal and foreign policy goals. So, in Italy, despite the open system of interaction ofmafiaandIslamiststructuresforthetransferofweaponstoSyriaandIraq,theauthoritiesare actually limited to cosmetic measures and do not block the established channel ofcontraband. The connection between Islamists and Italian criminal clans has long beenknowntobothItalianandAmericanspecialservices.Inparticular,accordingtoWikiLeaks,as early as 2008, FBI officials inNaples reported that "the criminal interaction betweenItalian organized crime and Islamic extremist groups provides potential terrorists withaccess to financingand logistics from the sideof criminalorganizationswithestablishedroutesofsmuggling..."[48]

For the transit of weapons and militants, the Islamists have conspired with themafiaclansofItaly,whichbought,forexample,armsforthemintheformerYugoslaviaorAfrica,transferringittotheportsofItaly,andthentotheMiddleEast.In2016,Italiananti-mafia services carried out threemajor seizures, duringwhich they confiscatedweaponsarsenals, including Kalashnikov assault rifles, bulletproof vests and hundreds ofammunitionthatwerereadyforsaletoIslamists.Theyevenfoundaprice-listforavarietyof weapons with prices ranging from 250 to 3'000 euros,printed in Arabic, French andItalian[49].

Sharingweapons for drugs is alsowidespread. Italy's former national prosecutoragainst themafia,PierluigiVigna,warned in2004that Italian intelligenceagencies"haveevidence that Camorra groups are involved in the exchange of weapons for drugs withIslamistterroristgroups".[50]However,thissystemofinteractioncontinuedtooperateuntilrecenttime.

Statestructuresand,ingeneral,therulingpoliticaleliteuseultra-radicalsnotonlyfor Italy. In Poland, the ultra-conservative party “Law and Justice” (PiS), which was inpower,activelyusedin2016smallultra-radicalpartiestoinjectanti-immigrantandanti-Islamichysteria.

This conclusion was reached by the Polish left-wing party “RAZEM” (Together),which conducted its investigation, to find sources of funding and political support for anumberofhigh-profileeventsofPolishright-wingradicals.Byannouncing"zerotolerance"to the cooperation of the ruling party with right-wing organizations, Razem created aspecial website www.zero-tolerancji.pl, where they published 239 facts of cooperationbetweenPiSandright-wingradicals.

HerearesomeexamplesreportedbyRazem:• February 2016 - an event organized by the National Radical Camp,

sponsoredbythePresidentofPoland,AndrzejDuda[51];• March,2016-aneventdedicatedtoAntonioSalazarwasorganizedby

theNationalRadicalCampandthelocalPiSunitinPiaseczno[52];• October/November2016-Inordertocombattheincitementofhate,

Facebook banned the following accounts: Mars Niepolegloski (March ofIndependence), RukhNarodovy (NationalMovement),National Radical Camp andMłodzieżWszechpolska(All-Polishyouth)[53];

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• November 2016 - The conference "Crisis in Europe: Challenges andOpportunities" was held in the Polish Parliament. The event was organized byMłodzieżWszechpolska and was attended by delegations of nationalists from 11countries (i.e. Forza Nuova from Italy, Nordisk Ungdom from Sweden, etc.); Theconference was supported by deputies from the ruling party:AdamAndruszkiewicz,SylwesterChruszczandRobertWinnicki[54].Finally,thethirdformofinteractionbetweentherulingpartiesandtheright-wing

radicalsistheattemptsoftheestablishment'spartiesto"play"ontheirfield.Thisiscausedbygrowingpopularityofright-wingradicalideasamongvotersandthefearsoftherulingcircles to lose their popularity. This was most clearly manifested in the UK during theBrexit campaign period. The ruling Conservative party played on the field of right-wingradicalsfromthe“IndependenceParty”andlostthisgame.

However, in other cases, these processes ended well for the ruling parties. Theymanagedtoattractradicalvoterstotheirsideandpushright-wingradicalpartiestotheirside.In2016wecouldseethisinHungary,Ukraine,PolandandtheNetherlands.

So,itfollowsthattherulingEuropeanelitesdonotyetconsiderright-wingradicalsas a serious threat to democratic values,which requires, at least, to distance from thesegrowingpoliticalforces.

8.ConclusionSo, modern right-wing radicals can be conditionally divided into two categories:

moderateradicalswhooperatewithinthelawandlimittheirpoliticalambitionstostoptheinfluxofmigrantsandtheIslamizationoftheircountries;andultranationalistgroupsthatcombine legaland illegalactions,resort to forceactionsagainst theiropponents,andputforward discriminatory demands not only for refugees, but also for members of otherminorities,includingethnicandracialones.

InmodernEurope,thereareobjectiveprerequisitesforthepopularityandgrowthoftheinfluenceofright-wingradicalparties.Theseincludetheformationofasocialbaseoftheeducatedpartofsocietythathassufferedfromtheeffectsofglobalization;presenceoffeatures of the European constitutional tradition leading to the refusal to recognize notonly the rights,butalso theveryexistenceof ethnicminorities; thepresenceof growingcontradictionsbetweendemocraticvaluesandthepoliticalinterestsoftherulingelites.

All this contributes to the growth of the influence and popularity of right-wingradicals.However,atthisstagewecansaythatthebulkofvotersinthesepartiesarenotneo-Naziorracist.Theyarepeople,frightenedbythemigratorycrisisandthecompetitionofmigrantsinthelabormarketandsocialservices.Undercertaincircumstances,theycanreturntopreviousdemocraticpreferences.

Until now, the rulingEuropean elitesdo not see the depthof the risks associatedwithradicalorganizations.Thisisindicatedbyattemptstousethemtosolvetheirinternalandforeignpolicyproblems,attemptstoprovidethemwithfinancialandpoliticalsupport,usetheideologyofright-wingradicalstoattractvoters,etc.Asaresult,weobserveadriftto the right in the policies of European countries,which leads to the formation of right-wing radical and even neo-Nazi parties in the ruling coalitions, in the adoption of anincreasinglyradicalagendaleadingtotherestrictionofhumanrightsandtheinfringementofdemocracy.

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ThesituationbegantochangepartiallyafterasensationalvoteonBrexit.Afterthat,Europeanofficials,aswellasofficialsofinternationalorganizations,begantoshowobviousconcern about the right-wing radical parties of the EU countries. The reason for this istrivial - the European structures are concerned that the growing influence of right-wingradicals in society, and especially their entry into power,will lead to the emergence notonlyofBritain,butalsoofanumberofothercountriesfromtheEuropeanUnion.

At the same time, they are absolutely indifferent to those countries where right-wingradicalsdonotdeclareawithdrawalfromtheallianceintheirprograms(forexample,theBaltic states). So far, there is a complete lackof interest in right-wingradicals in thecountriesoftheformerUSSR,sincethesecountriesarenotincludedintheEUatall.

Meanwhile,theinfluenceandpopularityofnationalistsinEuropecontinuestogrow,andnothingindicatesthatthisprocesswillobjectivelycometoought.

In these circumstances, there is a riskof further radicalizationof thevoter.Whentheproposalsofmoderatenationalistswill seem insufficient to solvevitalproblemsandpeople's eyes will turn to today's marginal parties of neo-Nazi and racist persuasion,radicalization will become off-scale. Then the extreme right ideology will bedemarginalized,since thenumberof its supporterswill growmuch faster thannow,andnationalradicalswillmeetquitedifferentperspectivesrelatedtorealclaimstopower.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………….p.31. Thesocialbase:whoandwhyvotesforthem?…………………………………………………p.32. Otherprerequisitesforright-wingradicalism…………………………………………………..p.43. Whichpartiesareconsideredasright-wingradicalstoday?……………………………..p.74. Ideology……………………………………………………………………………………………………….p.105. Leaders…………………………………………………………………………………………………………p.14.6. Financing………………………………………………………………………………………………………p.207. Relationswithauthorities……………………………………………………………………………...p.25

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………p.27

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LISTOFSOURCES[1]https://www.rubaltic.ru/blogpost/19032018-margarita-simonyan-zapadu-my-bolshe-ne-khotim-zhit-kak-vy-let-pyatdesyat-khoteli-a-bolshe-ne-khotim/[2]https://ldpr.ru/party/election/[3]СборникПолитическиепартиивРоссийскойФедерации.Выпуск5.2016год.—С.152-153.[4]http://www.bbc.com/russian/features-41291545[5]http://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/3952772[6]https://www.spectator.co.uk/2017/05/is-marine-le-pen-really-far-right/[7]http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Antisemitism-in-Poland-being-normalized-European-Jewish-group-warns503992[8]http://www.cjr.org/analysis/alt_right_media_clinton_trump.php[9] http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2016/08/stephen-bannon-donald-trump-alt-right-breitbart-news[10]Ibid.[11]http://www.newsweek.com/2016/12/02/robert-mercer-trump-donor-bannon-pac523366.html&usg=ALkJrhhY7gtmlC7lb93ob4g6mYVQ01FxGQ[12]http://www.newsweek.com/2016/12/02/robert-mercer-trump-donor-bannon-pac523366.html&usg=ALkJrhhY7gtmlC7lb93ob4g6mYVQ01FxGQ[13]https://www.chatolicworldreport.com/…/cardinal-burke-no-i-am-not-saying-that-pope-francis-is-in-heresy/[14]https:www.lastampa.it/2016/10/16/italia/cronache/quei-cattolici-controfrancesco-che-adorano-putin-lZpbcql1ilelZDnUxx1Epo/pagin.html. Authors: Giacomo Galeazzi andAndreaTornielli.[15]Kalkhoven, L., & Broen, L. (2011). De beeldspraak van GeertWilders, een TsunamioverNederland?.Tijdschriftvoorcommunicatiewetenschap,39(4),5.[16]http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/5006580.Radio_4_s_Any_Questions_at_Burnley_raises_burka_issue/[17]http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2015/02/06/ukip-deputy-leader-labours-plans-to-tackle-homophobia-arenonsense/[18]https://www.corriere.it/politica/17_gennaio_12/sono-partito-feudale-volevano-fare-i-modesti-adesso-lotta-anti-euro-salvini-2a34cc1c-d839-11e6-9dfa-46bea8378d9f.shtml.

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[19]https://xyzcontagion.wordpress.com/2015/01/29/epaggelma-dravida-mix[20]http://www.nonpapernews.gr/download-now/2012-08-14-15-41-31/item/7133-to-alithino-plires-viografiko-tou-xristou-pappa-synidrytis-tisx-a-apolytos-empistos-koumparos-kai-nonos-ton-mixaloliakon-ametanoitos-thavmastis-tou-xitler-pezodromiakos-koinovouleftikos-ekprosoposxydaios-ourovolos-stin-eksothyra-mega[21]https://xyzcontagion.wordpress.com/tag/%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%C E%BF%CF%82-%CE%B6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82[22]http://www.tovima.gr/politics/article/?aid=531349[23]These are the territories lost by Hungary as a result of the signing of the Trianonpeacefultreatyof1920-author’snote[24]‘A Jobbik Magyarországért Mozgalom 2016. évi Pénzügyi Beszámolója a PártokMűködéséről és Gazdálkodásról Szóló Törvény Szerint [Financial Report 2016 by theMovement for a BetterHungary, asRequired by theBill on theOperation and FinancialManagement of Parties]’, május2017,https://jobbik.hu/sites/default/files/cikkcsatolmany/Jobbik_2016-os_beszamolo.pdf[25]https://russiangate.com/obshchestvo/podayte-na-politiku/,http://st.golosinfo.org/2016/08/Doklad-finansovaya-deyatelnostpoliticheskih-partii-nakanune-vyborov-deputatov-GD-FS-RF.pdf,СводныйфинансовыйотчетЛДПРза2016г.[26]Transparency International Hungaryt), ‘Elections, Party- and Campaign Financing’,Transparency.hu, accessed 10 August2017,https://transparency.hu/en/kozszektor/valasztasok-partes-kampanyfinanszirozas/.[27]https://jailgoldendawn.com/2016/04/22/%CE%B7-%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE-%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7-%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF-%CF%84%CE%B7-%CF%87%CF%81%CF%85/[28]http://expo.se/2016/over-two-million-euros-in-eu-subsidies-granted-to-fascists_7074.html[29]https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/12103602/America-to-investigate-Russian-meddling-inEU.html.[30]http://tvxs.gr/news/egrapsan-eipan/i-xrimatodotisi-tis-xrysis-aygis-apo-akrodeksioys-sti-rosia-ellines-kai-rosoys-e[31]Ibid.[32]AttilaJuhászetal., ‘“IAmEurasian”-TheKremlinConnectionsoftheHungarianFar-Right’ (Political Capital, 2015), http://www.politicalcapital.hu/wp-content/uploads/PC_SDI_Boll_study_IamEurasian.pdf.[33]http://search.electoralcommission.org.uk/English/Search/Donations[34]Ibid.[35]http://tvxs.gr/news/egrapsan-eipan/i-xrimatodotisi-tis-xrysis-aygis-apo-akrodeksioys-sti-rosia-ellines-kai-rosoyse

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[36]https://www.tweedekamer.nl/kamerstukken/brieven_regering/detail?id=2017Z04565&did=2017D09381[37]http://4mma.ru/news/kratkiy_kurs_istorii_mma_v_rossii/,https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2229286,http://sportssmi.ru/2017/03/15/kak-fashizirovalsya-mir-smeshannyh-edin.html[38]http://www.the-village.ru/village/people/city-news/274514-prosvirnin[39]http://vesti-ukr.com/strana/248059-100-tysjach-i-ty-separatist-radikaly-poshli-vojnoj-na-mahaziny[40]http://sled.net.ua/node/35522[41]http://rus-vopros.livejournal.com/6505854.html,http://andreychernuhin.livejournal.com/646590.html,http://andreychernuhin.livejournal.com/545653.html,http://andreychernuhin.livejournal.com/683484.html.[42]https://strana.ua/articles/analysis/45546-ot-pozhertvovanij-do-reketa-ili-chem-zanimayutsya-lyudi-v-balaklavah-pod-kryshejsilovikov.htm[43]http://nv.ua/publications/pravyj-sektor-poterjal-dmitrija-jarosha-i-pogrjaz-v-skandalah-i-rekete-94608.html[44]http://tvxs.gr/news/egrapsan-eipan/i-xrimatodotisi-tis-xrysis-aygis-apo-akrodeksioys-sti-rosia-ellines-kai-rosoyse[45]http://politobzor.net/show-65466-pravyy-sektor-reket-pod-blagorodnym-predlogom.html[46]https://www.osservatorioantisemitismo.it/articoli/destra-radicale-a-roma/.[47]http://www.ru.civic-nation.org/obshcheevropeyskiy-doklad/[48]https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08NAPLES38_a.html&usg=ALkJrhiQ9Y7DMOws9qubpGiqG3m7CKQ-8g[49]http://www.ilmattino.it/napoli/cronaca/kalashnikov_fucili_arsenali_di_camorra_scoperti_napoli_armi_destinate_agli_uomini_clan1499627.html&usg=ALkJrhiMPXBAg9RBq4BntkmMKoGM0A_Nfw[50]http://www.thedailybeast.com/the-mafia-runs-guns-for-isis-in-europe[51]Andrzej Duda patronem wydarzenia organizowanego przez ONR, 28 lutego 2016,http://zerotolerancji.pl/2016/02/andrzej-duda-patronem-wydarzenia-organizowanego-przez-onr/[52]ONR i PiS zapraszają na film o Salazarze, 18 marca 2016, http://zero-tolerancji.pl/2016/03/onr-pis-zapraszajafilm-o-salazarze/[53] Ministrowie w obronie profili narodowców, 3 listopada 2016, http://zero-tolerancji.pl/2016/11/ministrowieobronie-profili-narodowcow/[54] Nacjonaliści z Europy mile widziani w Sejmie, 12 listopada 2016, http://zero-tolerancji.pl/2016/11/nacjonaliscieuropy-mile-widziani-w-sejmie/; KonferencjaMłodzieżyWszechpolskiej zudziałemeuropejskichorganizacjinarodowychwSejmieRP,http://mw.org.pl/2016/11/konferencja-mlodziezy-wszechpolskiej-udzialemeuropejskich-organizacji-narodowych-sejmie-rp/