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Title:RichardIII:HisLife&Character

Reviewedinthelightofrecentresearch

Author:ClementsR.Markham

ReleaseDate:June17,2011[EBook#36451]

Language:English

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<I>KingRichardIII.FromapictureintheNationalPortraitGallery</I>KingRichardIII.

FromapictureintheNationalPortraitGallery

RICHARDIII:HISLIFE&CHARACTER

REVIEWEDINTHELIGHTOFRECENTRESEARCH

BYSIRCLEMENTSE.MARKHAM,K.C.B.

AUTHOROF'THELIFEOFTHEGREATLORDFAIRFAX'AND

'THEFIGHTINGVERES'

WITHAPORTRAIT

LONDON:SMITH,ELDER,ANDCO.15WATERLOOPLACE.1906

(Allrightsreserved)

PREFACE

There are periods of history when the greatest caution is called for inacceptingstatementsputforwardbyadominantfaction.VeryearlyinmylifeIcametotheconclusionthattheperiodwhichwitnessedthechangeofdynastiesfrom Plantagenet to Tudor was one of these. The caricature of the lastPlantagenetKingwas too grotesque, and too grossly opposed to his characterderivedfromofficial records.Thestorieswereanoutrageoncommon-sense. Istudied the subject at intervals for many years, and in the course of myresearches I found that Imore or less sharedmy doubtswith every author ofreputewhohadstudiedthesubjectforthelastthreecenturies,exceptHumeandLingard.MyownconclusionsarethatRichardIII.mustbeacquittedonall the

counts of the indictment. The presentwork is divided into two parts, the firstnarratingtheeventsofhislifeandtimes,andthesecondexaminingthevariousaccusationsagainsthim.IdidnotcontemplatepublicationbecauseIthoughtthatinthesedaysprejudicesweretoostrongtomakeitpossiblethatafairandcandidhearing should be given to the arguments. But I determined to consult somehistoricalfriends,andIwaspleasedtofindthattoagreatextentIwasmistaken.

Inthefirstplace,Iwroteafullabstractofmyarguments,forpublicationinthe 'Historical Review,' acting under the advice of my old schoolfellow,ProfessorFreeman,towhomIsentitinthefirstinstance.ItsohappenedthatMr.Freeman had given attention to part of the subject. He upset some odiousfabricationsof thechroniclersaffectingthecharacterofMargaretofAnjou,byproving thatshewas inScotlandat the timewhenthebattleofWakefieldwasfought.Freeman seldomwroteon so late aperiodofourhistory, andweowethismodernexcursiontoavisittoMr.MilnesGaskellatThornes.

AfterreadingwhatIsenthim,ProfessorFreemanwroteonAugust13,1890:'Your abstract has setmea-thinking. It is only aRobert ofBellêmewhodoesthat kind of thing. On your main point I will talk to Gardiner and Stubbs.Meanwhile,IhaveshownyourmanuscripttoSidneyOwen,whoreaditandheldit to bewhat lawyerswould callconsiderable.Owenhadbeen at those times,andholdsHenryVII.tobeatleastcapableofit.

'Itwouldbeaself-denyingordinance inGairdner ifheacceptedyourview,for he has gone more straight at that time than anybody else. Gardiner haswrittentohim,andheisalittlefierce,aswastobeexpected,butifyouarelikeme, no man's fierceness will hinder you from dining and sleeping as well asusual.Thematterisatalleventsworthdiscussing.'

Professor York Powell read my manuscript, and wrote: 'I have read themanuscriptandthinkthereissomethingworthlookinginto.Henry'sconducttoTyrrell is exceedingly suspicious.EitherRichard orHenrymight have put theboys to death, but itwould be interesting formany reasons to knowwhich itwas.IamnotconvincedbyMarkham,butIdonotthinkGairdnerhastherightto be cocksure. TheMorton suggestive idea is very ingenious and pretty, andquite probable. It has interested me much to read Markham's letter, for IremembermydifficultiesinthematterandthepointIgotto,thatthegreatmendidnot, for a time, hold thenowvulgate viewof themurder of theprinces. IshouldrejoiceshouldMarkhamlightuponadditionalevidence infavourofhis

thesis, which à priori is by no means unlikely. There is something aboutRichard'scharacter,ability,andreignwhich,I think,attractseveryrealstudentofhistory,andgivesoneafeelingthathehasbeenunfairlydealtwith.'

In 1891, the abstract ofmyworkwas published in the 'HistoricalReview,'and Bishop Creighton, who was then the editor, wrote: 'Thank you for yourpaper,whichIhavereadwithgreatinterest.Itcertainlymakesoutastrongcase.'

Therewere two rejoinders fromMr.Gairdner,which enabledme to recastandimprovepartsofmyworkbythelightofhiscriticism.

Ilostmyadviser,Mr.Freeman,in1892.OneofthelastthingshedidwastowarnmeofanobjectiontakenbyMissEdithThompson,whichenabledmetomeetit.[1]

After careful revision I showed my manuscript to the late Sir ArchibaldMilman,whohadgivencloseattentiontothosetimes.OnDecember27,1897,hewrote: 'It isyourboundenduty to tellyourstoryofRichard III.,giving thedateforeveryfact.Itisonlybystickingtodatesthatyougetattruthincriminalcauses,andthesamemethodmustbefollowedatthebarofhistory.ItwouldbeapleasuretothinkthatthelastPlantagenetwasnotacruelscoundrel.Bygivingdatesandauthoritiesforthem,yourenderagreatservice.Richard'sloyaltyandableadministrationinthenorthseeminconsistentwithsuchferocity.Iwasmuchinterestedinoneofyourfacts,that,accordingtothestoryputforwardbyHenryVII., the bodies of the little princes were taken up from the place of hastyinterment and placed in consecrated ground. But lo! they remained under thestaircase,wheretheywerefoundinCharlesII.'sreign.'

In consequence of Sir A.Milman's letter Imade another close scrutiny ofdatesgivenbyvariousauthorities for thesameeventswith important results. Ialso went very carefully over the ground of the battlefields of Wakefield,Towton,Barnet,Tewkesbury,andBosworth;andIaddedsomechapters to thework.

The correspondence towhich I have referred has ledme to the conclusionthat studentsofhistoryarenot, as Ioncebelieved,unwilling to reconsider thequestionswhichformthesubjectof thepresentwork,whentheyarepresentedfrom new points of view; and that the well-known arguments which weresupposedtosufficeforthedefenceoftheTudorstoriesinthepastareinthese

days insufficient. The numerous points now raised and submitted for thejudgment of students are at all events worth discussing. The present work isaboutascompleteasveryfrequentrevisioncanmakeit.

[1]ShepointedoutthatthetitlesofNorfolkandNottingham,grantedbyEdwardIV.tohissecondsonRichard,weregivenbyRichardIII.toLordsHowardandBerkeley,andthat,therefore,youngRichardmusthavebeendead.Theansweristhatthegrantsto Lords Howard and Berkeley were made on June 28, 1483, before it was evenpretendedthatyoungRichardhadbeenmurdered.

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE..........................v

PARTI

CHAPTERIBIRTHANDCHILDHOOD

DescriptionofFotheringhay...............1PossessionsoftheDukeof

York.Marriage........2,3BirthofRichard...................

..3LetterofEdwardandEdmundtotheirfather.......4ChildrenoftheDukeof

York...............6Richardaprisonerofwaraged7..........

...7RefugeinJohnPaston'schambers.............8

CHAPTERII

DEATHOFRICHARD'SFATHERANDBROTHERATTHEBATTLEOFWAKEFIELD

TheDukeofYorkdeclaredHeir-Apparent.........9TheDukeandhisfamilyunited

atBaynard'sCastle....10MarchtoSandal.....................

11DescriptionofSandalCastleanditsneighbourhood....12,13BattleofWakefield.

DeathoftheDuke.........14,15DeathofEdmund,EarlofRutland.......

......15,16CrueltyandinhumanfollyoftheLancastrians......17Edward's

victoryatMortimer'sCross...........18GeorgeandRichardsenttoHolland

forsafety......18,19

CHAPTERIII

THECROWNINGVICTORYOFTOWTON

DescriptionofEdwardIV.................20EdwardproclaimedKing...

...............21,22Marchtothenorth.Yorkistleaders.........

..23Lancastrianleaders...................24SirAndrewTrollope.

..................25DescriptionofthecountryroundTowton......

...26SurpriseatFerrybridge.................27Chaseanddeathof

Clifford...............28YorkistsmarchtoSaxton............

.....29,30MarshallingoftheLancastrians.............31Battleof

Towton.....................32,33FlightofHenryandhispartisans.

EdwardatYork....34CoronationofEdwardIV..................35

Edward'sgeneroustreatmentofhisfoes.........36ChapelbuiltbyRichardat

Towton............37

CHAPTERIV

THECROWNLOSTANDWON--BATTLEOFBARNET

ReturnofGeorgeandRichardfromHolland........38TheirDukedoms,Earldomsand

Richard'sK.G........38Richardchiefmournerathisfather'sobsequies.....

39MilitarytrainingunderWarwick.............40DescriptionofRichard..

................40TreasonofWarwick..................

..41FlightofEdwardandRichardtoHolland..........42,43Expeditionfitted

outatVeere..............44LandingatRavenspur.............

......45Edward'sbrilliantcampaign...............46,47Richard's

negotiationwithClarence...........48BattleofBarnet...........

..........49,52

CHAPTERV

MARGARETOFANJOUANDHERSONEDWARD

BirthandmarriageofMargaret..............53,54BirthofEdward....

.................55Adventuresinthewars...............

...56,59

HomeatKoeur-la-Petite.................60Edward'sconversationswith

theChiefJustice......61,66AgreementwithWarwick...............

..67DescriptionofyoungEdward...............68

CHAPTERVI

CHAPTERVI

THEBATTLEOFTEWKESBURY

MargaretandEdwardlandatWeymouth...........69AdvancetoBristol.....

...............70KingEdward'splanofcampaign.............

.71Descriptionofthebattlefield.............72MarchofKingEdward's

army...............73BattleofTewkesbury................

...74,75DeathofEdwardofLancasteronthebattlefield.....75Executionof

someleaders................76Pardonoftherest............

........77DeathofHenryVI.....................78Ransomof

Margaret.Herdeath..............79

CHAPTERVII

MARRIEDLIFEANDPUBLICSERVICESOFRICHARDDUKEOFGLOUCESTER

Richard'smarchtoSandwich...............80MarriageofRichardandAnne

Nevill...........81,82RichardwithhisbrotherinFrance..........

..82DescriptionofMiddlehamCastle.............83HomelifeatMiddleham

................82,83,84Publicduties.FrequentvisitstoYork....

.....84WardenoftheMarches.Scottishcampaign........84,86Deathof

EdwardIV.LadyGrey.Children........86,87

CHAPTERVIII

ACCESSIONOFRICHARDIIIConspiracyoftheWoodvilles...............88RichardmadeProtectorbyhisbrother'swill.......89ArrestofRiversandhiscolleagues...........90Queen

Dowagerinsanctuary................91Richardandhismother..................92DisclosureofBishopStillington.............93

AccountofBishopStillington..............94-95FoundationoftheCollege

atAcaster...........96ChildrenofEdwardIV.illegitimate.........

..97Hastings-Woodvilleconspiracy..............98,99Executionof

Riversandhiscolleagues..........99,100Richard'stitletothecrown....

...........101Accession........................102

CHAPTERIX

CONDITIONOFTHEPEOPLE

ResultsoftheLancastrianusurpation..........103EffectsoftheWarsofthe

Roses.............104Nodestructionofthenobility............

..105Scenery.Countrylife..................106Castles......

...................107Huntingandhawking..............

. . . . . 108 The Peerage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Town

residences.....................110MagnificenceoftheCourt....

............111Wealthofmerchants.CityCompanies...........112

Introductionofprinting.................113Caxton'sworks......

................114,115Literarynoblemen................

....115,116Education........................117Bishops.

Clergy.Monasteries.Pilgrimages.......118-119Lawlessness............

...........120Manorhouses.Cultivation................121

Conditionofthepeople.................122-123Prices.........

.................123

CHAPTERX

REIGNOFRICHARDIII

DescriptionoftheKing.................124Treatmentofhisnephews..

...............125Coronation.......................

.126-127ClaimofBuckingham...................128RoyalProgress..

....................129-130RebellionofBuckingham.........

........131-132

Listoftraitors.....................132-133Parliament......

..................134Reforms.Revenue.Navy..............

. . . 135 Convocation. Agreement with the Queen Dowager . . . . . . 136 Death of the

PrinceofWales.Histomb.........137EdwardEarlofWarwickmadeHeir-Apparent

. . . . . . . . 138 King Richard's popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

ConspiracyofHenryTudor................140TheKingassembledtroopsat

Nottingham.........141ProclamationagainstHenryTudor............

.143PeerageofRichardIII..................143MinistersofRichard

III.................144CommissionersforPeacewithScotland......

....145JudgesandLawOfficers.................145Bishops....

.....................146KnightsoftheGarter...........

.......146KnightsoftheBath...................147

CHAPTERXI

THEBATTLEOFBOSWORTH

TreacheryoftheStanleysexplained...........148,149KingRichard'smilitary

talent..............150EnglishpluckdisplayedbyRichard........

....150LoyalmenflockingtotheKing'sstandard........151Descriptionof

thecountryroundBosworth........152Positionsofthetwoarmies........

.......153KingRichardleadshismentotheencounter.......154Treachery

ofLordStanley................155TheKing'sgallantcharge......

..........155DeathoftheKing..................155-156-157

RichardburiedatLeicester.Memorials.........158CharacterofKingRichard..

..............159Hisgenerosity.Arbitrations..............

160Ableadministration.Buildingoperations........161Literarytastes.Founded

theHeralds'College......162ComparisonofRichardandtheTudors........

...162,163Hismarriedlife.....................164Contemporary

Sovereigns.................165

PARTII

CHAPTERI

THEAUTHORITIES

ThePlantagenetDynasty.................166Characterandpositionof

theaccusers..........167Extravaganceoftheircaricature..........

...167WritersinthepayoftheTudors.............168Thenotorious

pamphletbyMorton.............168-171BernardAndré............

..........171PolydoreVirgil.....................171-172

Rous...........................173Fabyan..........

................174Warkworth......................

. . 175 Continuators of the Croyland Chronicle . . . . . . . . . . 175-178 Official

documents....................179Hall,Grafton,Holinshed,Stow,Buck

...........179Reaction.Modernauthors................181

MissHalsted.......................182UpholdersoftheTudor

stories..............182-183

CHAPTERII

EXAMINATIONOFTHECHARGESAGAINSTRICHARD

Recklessprofusionofabuse...............184Deformity.StatementofRous

andMorton.........185Thetruth......................186

Objectofthecalumny................187Tewkesbury.Thetruthtoldby

allcontemporaries....188-189FablebyFabyan...................

190PolydoreVirgil...................190Subsequentembellishments.

.............190SilenceofMortonandRous..............191-

192HenryVI.Insinuations.................193WarkworthandFabyan..

...............194-195TheCroylandMonk.................

.195PolydoreVirgilcontradicts.............196Allunworthyofcredit..

..............196Evidenceoftheaccounts...............197

Evidenceofacontemporarywriter..........198Thetruth...........

...........199Marriage.RichardandAnnereallyattached.......200

AttackofMissStrickland,aspecimenofthesort

of arguments used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Countess of Warwick. False

statementofRous......201Thetruth......................

202 Death of Clarence. Charge absolutely groundless . . . . . 202 Another specimen of

argument.............203Thetruth.....................

.204

CHAPTERIII

FURTHERCHARGESAGAINSTRICHARDIIISomeaccountofMorton,thechiefaccuser........

205-207Misrepresentationofevents...............208-210CunningmisrepresentationsrespectingHastings......210-212Falsificationofdates..................215-217Theaccession.Thetrueclaim..............218AttemptofHenryVII.todestroytheevidence....219PolydoreVirgil's

version..............220Morton'sversion...................221Fabyan........................222Furtherfalsificationofdates............223Buckingham'streason.Falsereasongivenforhisdiscontent...................223Thetruth.......................224Morton'saccountofconversations..........225,226Secondcoronation.Statementdisproved.........227DeathoftheQueen.SlandersofPolydoreandRous....228ElizabethofYork.Absurdrumourspread.........229Elizabeth'slettertotheDukeofNorfolk......229-230IntriguesofHenry'smother.............231

LordStrange.Thetruth.................232

CHAPTERIV

THEMAINCHARGEAGAINSTRICHARDIII

Restsonthetruthorfalsehoodofpreviouscrimes....233Richard'santecedents...

...............234Nothingtofearfromhisnephews............

.235

Treatmentofothersinthesameposition.........236Hisnephewswereprobably

membersofhishousehold....236Bill,inMarch1485,fortheeldernephew......

..237Conductofthemotherandsister.............238-239Allegedrumours

.....................240-242AssertionoftheFrenchChancellor...

.........242StatementsofFabyan,Rous,Polydore,André.......244Sir

WilliamStanley'sconduct..............244Baselessrumourspromulgatedby

Henry..........245

CHAPTERV

HENRYTUDORINTHEDOCK

DescriptionofHenryVII.................246Hislawlessexecutionsafter

Bosworth..........247Responsibleforthelivesofroyalchildren.......

248Henry'scharacter....................249Necessitytostrengthen

hisposition...........250HisParliamentofoutlaws.Unjustattainders...

...251Loyalmenattainted...................252Silentaboutthe

lateKing'snephews.Weretheymissing?253Ifalive,Henry'smarriagenecessitatedtheir

deaths...254Henry'streatmentofothervictimsinhisway......255Thefateof

theprinces,ifalive,wassealedby

themarriage......................256ImprisonmentoftheQueen

Dowager............257Henryputforwardastory,inPolydoreVirgil....

..258Amoredetailedstory,publishedbyRastellandGrafton260-263Rewardsallegedto

havebeengivenbyRichard

tomurderers......................264,265ConfessionofTyrreland

Dightonfabricated.......267Genesisofthesestories..............

...267SomeaccountofSirJamesTyrrel.............268Henry'sgrantto

JohnGreen................269Tyrreltakenintofavour.Histwopardons.

.......269MurderofthetwoPrinces................269Relations

silenced....................270-271Hushmoneyto'BlackWill'...

.............271RewardtoDighton....................

272RewardsandemploymentsforTyrrel............272Treacherousarrestand

hurriedexecutionofTyrrel....273DightontoresideatCalais...........

....274Thestoryputforwardandgenerallyaccepted.......274

JudicialmurderoftheEarlofWarwick..........275Henry'sremorse......

...............276Elizabethsawthecrueltreatmentofhermotherand

cousin

Herdeath......................277Henry'sdesigntokilltheEarl

ofSuffolk........277Hisdeath.Successfulasthisworldcountssuccess...

278Thingsunexplained....................279,280

CHAPTERVI

MR.GAIRDNER'SRICHARDIII

Mr. Gairdner's view of the alleged crimes . . . . . . . . 281 Views stated in Mr.

Gairdner'spreface..........282Richard'scharacter..............

.....283Richardacquittedofseveralcharges...........285Tudorfables

irreconcileable with Richard's character . . 285 Mr. Gairdner's latest view of the

Tewkesburycharge...286-287OnEdwardIV.'sproceedingsafterTewkesbury.......

289-290HisviewoftheHenryVI.charge.............290Hisrejectionof

theevidenceofthewriterinFleetwood.292AcquitsRichardofresponsibilityforthe

deathof

Clarence........................294-295Positionwithregardto

thetitletothecrown......296BelievesintheDuchessofYorkslander......

...297Hisreasonforthebelief................297Murderofthe

Princes.Storyadmittedtobefull

ofinaccuraciesandimprobabilities..........298Richardcouldnothavebeena

cool,calculatingvillain.298Musthavebeenheadstrongandreckless..........

298Suchamanmighthavecommittedthecrimeona

suddenimpulse.....................299TherisinginKentsupposed

tobethemotive.......299ButthemurdersarestatedtohavebeeninAugust,

therisinginOctober..................299ThusMr.Gairdner'stheory

fails.............299Mr.GairdnersuppliesproofsoftheKing'spopularity

. . 300 Richard was the victim of the perfidy of a few traitors . 300 Mr. Gairdner's

testimonytoRichard'sgoodqualities...300GreatvalueofMr.Gairdner'swork....

........300-301

INDEX...........................303

GENEALOGICALTABLES

SEIZEQUARTIERSOFEDWARDIV.ANDRICHARDIII....tofacepage6

SEIZEQUARTIERSOFANNENEVILL...........""82

MAP

BATTLEOFBOSWORTHFIELD............tofacepage328

[Transcriber'snote:inthesourcebook,themapoftheBattleofBosworth faced page 328. In this ebook, the map has beenmovedtopage152.]

LIFEOFRICHARDIII

PARTI

CHAPTERI

BIRTHANDCHILDHOOD

ThecastleofFotheringhay[1]wasthebirthplaceofourlastPlantagenetking.Thisvenerablepile stoodon thebanksof the riverNen, inNorthamptonshire,amidst'marvellousfaircorngroundandpasture.'Fromitsbattlementstherewasanextensiveview,boundedtothewestwardbytheforestofRockingham,whileon the other side the abbey church of Peterborough and thewoods ofMiltoninterceptedthedistantexpanseoffencountry.OriginallybuiltbyboldSimondeSt.Lizinthetwelfthcentury,thecastlehadfallenintoruinwhenitrevertedtothecrown,andwasgrantedbyEdwardIII.tohissonEdmundofLangley.

Edmund,whowascreatedDukeofYorkbyhisnephewRichardII., rebuiltthe castle and founded a college hard by. Fotheringhay was surrounded by adoublemoatwithdrawbridges, the riverNen servingas theoutermoaton thesouth side, and theMill Brook, flowing between the castle yard and the littlepark, to theeast.Thewallswereofstone,andthegreatgate in thenorthfrontwasadornedwiththearmsofEngland,asdifferencedforEdmundofLangley,impaling the arms of Castille and Leon.[2] The keep, built in the shape of afetterlock,wasonamountinthenorth-westangleofthecastle;andbelowtherewas a great courtyard surroundedby stately buildings, a chapel, and 'very fairlodgings,'asLeland tellsus.Thegreathallwasseventy feet long,withadeeporielwindowatoneend.[3]

HeredweltEdmundthefirstDukeofYork,hissonEdwardthesecondDuke,who fell at Agincourt, and his grandson Richard, the third Duke. Edmundprojected the foundation of a college near the parish church, to consist of amaster,eightclerks,andthirteenchoristers.Hecommencedthechoir,whilehis

son and grandson completed and richly endowed this religious house. ThechurchwasafinespecimenofthePerpendiculararchitectureofthetime,andthecloistershadnumerouswindowsfilledwithstainedglass.

The thirdDuke ofYork resided at Fotheringhay during part of every yearwhen he was in England, with his beautiful wife the Lady Cicely Nevill, the'Rose of Raby,' and their troop of fair children. But he also held vast estateselsewhere.InYorkshirethecastlesofSandalandConisboroughwerepartofhispaternal inheritance. On the Welsh borders he had succeeded to all thepossessionsof theMortimers, includingLudlowandWigmore.ForhismotherwastheheiressofEdmundMortimer,EarlofMarch,andalsoofLionelDukeofClarence,thesecondsurvivingsonofKingEdwardIII.Baynard'sCastle,intheCityofLondon,wastheDuke'stownhouse.

The 'Rose of Raby' bore her husband twelve children, and they came of aright noble English stock. In their veins flowed the blood of Plantagenet andHolland,MortimerandFitzAlan,NevillandPercy,CliffordandAudley.Fiveofthesefairbranchesdiedininfancy.Ann,theeldestofthosewhosurvivedearlychildhood,wasbornatFotheringhayin1439.Thethreenext,Edward,EdmundandElizabeth,firstsawthelightatRouen,whentheirfatherwasmakingalastgallantstandforEnglishdominioninFrance,from1442to1444.Margaretwasborn at Fotheringhay. The Duke and Duchess were ruling in Ireland whenGeorgewasborn atDublinCastle.The three last birthswere atFotheringhay,butoftheseonlyRichard,theeleventhchild,survivedinfancy.

RichardPlantagenetwasbornatFotheringhayCastleonOctober2,1452.HeprobablypassedthefirstfiveyearsofhislifetherewithGeorgeandMargaret.Theeldersisters,AnneandElizabeth,weremarried to 'Lancastrian'noblemen,theDukesofExeter andSuffolk,whenRichardwas still in infancy.His elderbrothers, EdwardEarl ofMarch andEdmundEarl ofRutland,were separatedfromhimbyanintervaloftenyears,andlivedwiththeirtutorRichardCroftatLudloworWigmore.So thatRichard's childhoodmust havebeenpassedwithhisbrotherGeorgeandhissisterMargaret,thefutureDuchessofBurgundy.ButbothwereafewyearsolderthanlittleRichard.

We obtain a glimpse of the home life of the two elder boys, Edward andEdmund,fromalettertotheirfatherwhichhasbeenpreserved.[4]

'Righthighandrightmightyprince,our full redoubtedandrightnoble lordandfather.

'Aslowlywithallourheartsaswe,yourtrueandnaturalsonscanormay,werecommendusuntoyournoblegrace,humblybeseechingyournobleandworthyfatherhooddaily togiveusyourheartyblessing; throughwhichwe trustmuchthe rather to increaseandgrow tovirtue,and tospeed thebetter inallmattersandthingsthatweshalluse,occupy,andexercise.

'Righthighandrightmightyprince,ourfullredoubtedlordandfather—

'WethankourblessedLord,notonlyofyourhonourableconductandgoodspeedinallyourmattersandbusiness,ofyourgraciousprevailagainsttheintentandmaliceofyourevilwillers,butalsoof theknowledge that itpleasedyournoblenesstoletusnowlatehaveofthesamebyrelationofSirWalterDevereuxKt.[5] and John Milwater Esq.,[6] and John at Nokes, yeoman of yourhonourable chamber. Also we thank your noble and good fatherhood for ourgreengownsnowlatesentuntoustoourgreatcomfort,beseechingyourgoodlordshiptorememberourporteux,[7]andthatwemighthavesomefinebonnetssent untous by the next suremessenger, for necessity so requireth.Over this,rightnoblelordandfather,pleaseityourhighnesstowitthatwehavechargedyourservant,WilliamSmyth,bearerof these, for todeclareuntoyournobilitycertainthingsonourbehalf,namelyconcerningandtouchingtheodiousruleanddemeaning of Richard Croft and of his brother. Wherefore we beseech yourgracious lordship and full noble fatherhood to hear him in exposition of thesame, and to his relation to give full faith and credence.Right high and rightmighty prince, our full redoubted and right noble lord and father,we beseechAlmightyJesusgiveyouasgoodlifeandlong,withasmuchcontinualperfectprosperity as your princely heart can best desire. Written at your castle ofLudlowonSaturdayinEasterweek.

'yourhumblesons'Edward(EarlofMarch)'Edmund(EarlofRutland).'

Theboysevidentlydidnotliketheirtutor,declaringhimtobetyrannicalanddisagreeable.[8]

CHILDRENOFRICHARD,DUKEOFYORK

1.Anne.BornatFotheringhay,August11,1439.(DuchessofExeter.)

2.Henry.BornatHatfield,February10,1441.(Diedininfancy.)

3.Edward.BornatRouen,[9]April28,1442.(EarlofMarch.King.)

4.Edmund.BornatRouen,May17,1443.(EarlofRutland.)

5.Elizabeth.BornatRouen,April22,1444.(DuchessofSuffolk.)

6. Margaret. Born at Fotheringhay, May 3, 1446. (Duchess of Burgundy.Died1503.)

7.William.BornatFotheringhay,July7,1447.(Diedyoung.)

8.John.BornatNeath,November7,1448.(Diedininfancy.)

9.George.BornatDublin,October21,1449.(DukeofClarence.)

10.Thomas.BornatFotheringhay,1450.(Diedininfancy.)

11. Richard. Born at Fotheringhay, October 2, 1452.[10] (Duke ofGloucester.King.)

12.Ursula.BornatFotheringhay,July20,1455.(Diedininfancy.)

W.WYRCESTER,Annales,460-477.

SEIZEQUARTIERSOFEDWARDIV.ANDRICHARDIII.SEIZEQUARTIERSOFEDWARDIV.ANDRICHARDIII.

Theirfather,theDukeofYork,firstPrinceofthebloodroyal,wasthemostpowerfulandwealthy,aswellasoneoftheablestnoblemeninthekingdom.Hewas moderate and prudent, and was unwillingly driven into resistance to the

misgovernmentofthecorruptfactionwhichmisusedthepowerstheyhadseized,owing to the imbecility ofHenryVI.His original objectwas not to assert hisownundoubtedtitletothethrone,buttoobtainjustandreasonablegovernmentbytheremovalofcorruptandincapableministers.'Afterrepeatedexperienceofbadfaith,andafterfruitlesslyendeavouringtobindHenrybypledges,theDukewasatlengthforcedintoadvancinghisownclaim.'[11]

DisasterfollowedthefirstattemptoftheDukeofYorkatopenresistance.HewasoverpoweredbytheLancastrianforcesatLudlow,inOctober1459,andhisfollowers were scattered. The Duke himself, with his son Edmund, fled toIreland.Hiseldestson,EdwardEarlofMarch,escapedtoCalaiswiththeEarlofWarwick.TheDuchessofYork,andherthreeyoungchildren,Margaret,Georgeand Richard, were taken prisoners atWigmore. They were sent to TunbridgeCastleinthecustodyoftheirmother'ssister,theDuchessofBuckingham,whohadmarriedaLancastrianhusband.

Little Richardwas only seven years of agewhen he became a prisoner ofwar.Thedetentionwasofshortduration.HiseldestbrotherlandedinKentandmarchedtoLondon.Troopsflockedtothestandardofthegallantyouth,andheadvanced northwards against his enemies. TheDuchess ofYork then escapedfromTunbridge,andfoundanasylumforherlittlechildrenat thechambersofJohnPaston,intheTemple.[12]

MeanwhileEdward,EarlofMarch,wonagreatvictoryatNorthampton,andHenryVI.becamehisprisoner.HereturnedtoLondon,butthechildrenhadnotbeentwodaysinJohnPaston'schambersbeforetheirmotherwassummonedtomeet her husband at Hereford, who was returning from Ireland. The childrenwere left with servants. Young Edward, however, while busily engaged inpreparing for thedefenceof thecity, found time tovisithis littlebrothersandsistereveryday.[13]

[1]'Fodringeia'inDomesday.'Fodering'ispartofaforestseparatedfromtherest,forproducinghay.

[2]HemarriedIsabellaofCastilleandLeon.

[3]MaryQueenofScotswastriedandbeheadedinthegreathallofFotheringhay.ButitisuntruethatthecastlewasdestroyedbyJamesI.onthataccount.JamesgrantedittoLordMountjoy, and itwas intact, thoughout of repair,when itwas surveyed in1625.Itbegantobedismantledsoonafterthissurvey;buttheworkofdemolitionwas

very gradual. The college buildings had been desecrated and destroyed by JohnDudley,DukeofNorthumberland,towhomtheyweregrantedbythegovernmentofEdwardVI.Thelastremainsofthecastleweredemolishedinthemiddleofthelastcentury.SeeHistoricNoticesinreferencetoFotheringhay,bytheRev.H.K.Bonney(Oundle,1821).

[4]MS.Cotton,Vesp.,F.iii.,fol.9.PrintedinthefirstseriesofEllis'soriginalletters,i.9,letterv.

[5] This SirWalterDevereux, son ofWalterChancellor of Ireland 1449,when theDukeofYorkwasLordDeputy,wasbornin1432.HemarriedAnne,heiressofLordFerrers of Chartley, andwas summoned to Parliament by that title jure uxoris. SirWalterDevereux,LordFerrersofChartley, fellgloriouslyatBosworth, fighting forhis King, Richard III., the younger brother of his two young friends Edward andEdmund.HewasancestoroftheDevereux,EarlsofEssex.

[6]AfterwardsesquiretoRichardDukeofGloucester.HefellatthebattleofBarnet,fightingbyhisyoungmaster'sside.

[7]Breviary.

[8]RichardCroftofCroftCastle,inHerefordshire,istheodiousrulermentionedbytheyoungprinces.HewasfaithfultoKingEdwardduringtheTewkesburycampaign;buttheboyshadsomeinsightintocharacter.ForCroftappearstohavebeenatime-server.HegotmadeTreasureroftheHouseholdtoHenryTudor,andfoughtforhimatStoke.Topleasehisnewpatronheappearstohavetoldsomestory,disparagingtoEdwardIV.,which,inagarbledform,appearedinHall'sChronicle.

[9]EdwardusquartusRothomaginatus.Rous,p.210.

[10] Rous says that Richard was born on the feast of the eleven thousand virgins,October21.ButthiswasreallyGeorge'sbirthday,in1449.

[11]Gairdner.TheDuke'smother,AnneMortimer,was grand-daughter ofPhilippaCountessofMarch, theonlychildofLionelDukeofClarence,second sonofKingEdward III.HenryVI.was great-grandson of JohnDuke ofLancaster, third son ofEdwardIII.

[12]PastonLetters,i.525.ChristopherHanssontoJohnPaston.

[13]'Andsytheyleftherebothethesunysandthedowztyr,andtheLordofMarchecomytheverydaytosethem.'—PastonLetters.

CHAPTERII

DEATHOFRICHARD'SFATHERANDBROTHERATTHEBATTLE

DEATHOFRICHARD'SFATHERANDBROTHERATTHEBATTLEOFWAKEFIELD

InOctober1460,theDukeandDuchessofYork,withyoungEdmundEarlofRutland, reached London. The Duke's superior right to the crown, asrepresentative of the second son of Edward III.whileHenryVI. only derivedfrom the third son,was recognisedanddeclaredbyActofParliament.But, inconsiderationof the reverence felt forhis fatherandofhisown long tenure, itwas enacted that Henry should retain the throne for life, provided that heacknowledged theDuke as heir-apparent. ThisAct of Settlement received theroyalassentandbecamelaw,allopposingstatutesbeingrepealed.OnNovember9, theDukeofYorkwas solemnlydeclaredHeir-ApparentandLordProtectorduringHenry'slife.

ButQueenMargaretandherpartisansrefusedtobeboundbytheactsoftheKing, her husband, in Parliament. She fled to Scotland, and the LancastriansraisedaformidablearmyinYorkshire.ItisprobablethattheDukeofYorkwasnot fully awareof thenumbersopposed tohim, thoughhemayhave foreseenthattheLancastrianarmywouldbecomelargeriftimewasallowedtoslipaway.Therewasalsosomedangerfromthemachinationsof theTudors[1] inWales.Arrangements to counteract these evils were promptly made. The Dukeassembled a small force to advance northwards and confront the Lancastrianarmy.TheDukeofNorfolk,whowaswarmly attached to theHouseofYork,andtheEarlofWarwickweretoremaininLondonuntilChristmas,andthentofollowwith reinforcements. The young Earl ofMarch advanced to theWelshborders to collect forces, disperse theTudor rising, and then join his father inYorkshire.

OnDecember1,1460, theDukeofYorkwaswithhiswifeandchildrenatBaynard'sCastle for the last time.Hebade farewell tohis lovingDuchessandthechildren;littleRichardwasachildofeight,MargaretandGeorgeafewyearsolder.ThegallantyoungEdmundEarlofRutlandwasnearlyeighteen,wellabletofightbyhisfather'sside,andheaccompaniedtheDuke.OnDecember2,theDukeofYorksetoutwithhisbrother-in-lawtheEarlofSalisburyandtheEarlofRutland.Salisburyhadwithhimhis son,SirThomasNevill, and the force,barely numbering 5,000 men, was led by other experienced captains. ChiefamongthemwasoldSirDavidHall,theDuke'sfaithfulfriendandadviserinallmilitaryaffairs.SirJohnandSirHughMortimer,illegitimatebrothersoftheill-fated Earl of March, rallied to their nephew's standard with many Yorkist

knights, such as Sir Thomas Parr, Sir Edward Bourchier, and Sir JamesPickering.Theforce includedacompanyofLondonersunder thecommandoftheWardenoftheMercers'Company,stoutJohnHarrow.

TheDukeofYorkadvancedbyeasymarches,forhedidnotreachhiscastleofSandal,aboutamilesouthofWakefield,untilChristmasEve.HerehehaltedwhileasummonswassentouttoassemblehisYorkshiretenantsandadherents.ItissaidthatLordNevill,akinsmanoftheDuchessofYork,cametoSandalasafriendoftheDuke,andinducedhimtograntacommissiontoraisemen;andthatwhenhehadraisedabout8,000,hetreacherouslybroughtthemtoswelltheranksoftheLancastrianarmy.[2]

At this time the Duke's eldest son Edward was at Shrewsbury. The poorDuchessandheryoungchildrenanxiouslywaitedfornewsatBaynard'sCastle.Henry VI., with the Duke of Norfolk and the Earl ofWarwick, observed thefestival of Christmas in the palace of the Bishop of London, in St. Paul'sChurchyard. Afterwards the King went to enjoy a few days' hunting atGreenwich and Eltham. Queen Margaret and her son were in Scotland. TheLancastrianleaderswereassembledwithagreatarmyatPomfret.

Edward III. had granted Sandal and Conisborough Castles to his sonEdmund, the Duke's grandfather. The Duke himself had frequently resided atSandal,sometimeswithhiswifeandfamily.Thecastlestoodonagrassyknoll,steepononeside,withagentleslopetothesouth.Itisalittlelessthanamilefrom the bridge which spans the river Calder at the town of Wakefield, theinterveningspaceslopinggentlyfromSandal.Itwasthenpartlywooded.Lelandtellsus thebridgewasof stone,withninearches,and that ithadon it 'a rightgoodlychapelofourLady.'Itledtothemarketplacewhencetwostreets,calledNorgate andWrengate,[3] formed communicationswith gates on the northernside of the town. The houses were then nearly all of timber, but there was ahandsome parish church consecrated in 1322,with a tower and spire 228 feethigh.FromthebridgeoneroadwentsouthbySandaltoBarnsleyandSheffield;anotherbranchedofftotheeastward,anddividedagainintotwo,oneleadingtoDoncaster, the other toPomfret.To thewestward the riverCalder flanked thefields between Sandal and Wakefield Bridge. Near the castle is the finecruciformchurchofSandalMagna,wheretherewasachantrybelongingtothecastle.

TherearescarcelyanyremainsofSandalCastle,whichwasrazedbyorderof

theLongParliamentin1648.Butfortunatelyadrawingwasmadein1560andpreservedintheofficeoftheDuchyofLancaster.Itisengravedinthe'VetustaMonumenta.'Aloftydonjon,withflankingroundtowers,stoodonthevergeofthesteepdescenttothenorth-east,andtwosmallersquaretowers,connectedbyawall,formedthewesternface.Theprincipalgate,protectedbyabarbican,wasinthecentreofthesouthernface;andonthissidetheenceinteconsistedmerelyof awallwithout towers.An arcade or cloister led from the gate to themainentrance of the donjon, and the roofs of various buildings appear above theparapetofthesouthernwall.Onthenorth-westernsideoftheinnercourtyardaflightofsteps led toacoveredarchwayopeningonasemicircularstonepulpitsupported by a single pillar. The castle was surrounded by a moat, and thegrounditcoveredwasaboutfortyyardssquare.Wegatherthesedetailsfromthedrawing.Theexistingruinsconsistofpartofthegatehouse,threearchesofthearcade leading to thekeep,bitsofwallon thewest side, and thegreatmoundcoveringtheruinsofthekeep.

SandalCastlewas built on a natural hill of sandstone, and in those days itmust have presented an imposing appearance fromWakefieldBridge,with itsloftytowersrisingoverthetrees.Therewereextensiveviewsineverydirectionfromthecastlewalls.NorthwardisWakefieldandtherichvalleyoftheCalder.To the west were the woods stretching away until the view is bounded byWoolleyEdge.ThewoodsandlakeofChevetaretothesouth,andawideextentofcountrywasvisibletotheeast,withNostellPrioryandWaltonManorhiddenamongthetrees.But,althoughSandalcommandedextensiveviews,yet,owingto thewooded character of the country, an enemymight approachwithout hisforcebeingfullyknowntothegarrison.

TheDukeofYorkkepthisChristmasinSandalCastle,withhissonEdmundEarlofRutland,hisbrother-in-lawtheEarlofSalisbury,oldSirDavidHallhistrustymilitaryadviser,manyothercaptains,and5,000men.SirDavidknewthattheenemywasnearinoverwhelmingnumbers.Heanticipatedasiegeuntilreliefcouldcomefromthesouth,andhe,therefore,sentoutforagingpartiestobringinsupplies.

TheLancastrianchiefsatPomfretreceivednewsofthearrivaloftheDukeatSandalonChristmasDay.Theywereengagedforthreedaysincollectingtheirforces.On the 30th they began theirmarch from Pomfret, a distance of eightmiles.LordClifford,withhisYorkshirefriends,ledthevan,soastobecometheright wing in forming the battle, resting on the river Calder. The Dukes of

SomersetandExeterandEarlsofDevonandNorthumberlandwereinthecentre.Therear,whichwouldformthe leftwing inwheeling into line,wasunder thecommand of the Earl of Wiltshire. Sir Andrew Trollope was the principalmilitaryadviserandchiefofthestaff.

OnthelastdayoftheyearthedivisionunderLordCliffordcameinsightofthetowersofSandal,andattackedaforagingpartywhichappearstohavebeenreturningfromWakefield.Thiswasseenfromthecastle.TheDukedeterminedtocometo therescuewithhiswholeforce.HeprobablybelievedthatCliffordwas considerably in advance of the main body of the enemy. Sir David Hallthoughtotherwise, and strongly represented thedangerof running sucha risk.But the chivalrous Duke spurned the idea of leaving his foraging party to bedestroyedwithoutmakinganeffortattheirrescue.

The Lancastrians under Clifford were between the castle and WakefieldBridge,andthegreatgatefacedtothesouth.Itwas,therefore,necessaryfortheYorkistforce,barely5,000strong,tomarchoutwiththeirbackstotheenemy,andtodeployroundthecastlehill,beforeforminglinetoattack.Thiswasdone,andabrilliantchargewasmadeonthefieldbetweenSandalandWakefield—aBalaclava charge.TheDukehimself, rightfulheir to the throne, andhis trustybrother-in-law, theEarlofSalisbury, led this forlornhope.Near themwas thegallantyoungPrinceEdmundintheflowerofhisage,abouttofleshhismaidensword.There,too,wasoldDavidHall,knowingthatallwaslost,butresolvedtofight for his beloved master to the end. Success must have attended on therecklessbraverywhichHalldeplored,ifClifford'sforce,aboutequalinnumbers,hadbeenunsupported.ButthemainbodyoftheLancastriansarrivedduringthethickof thefightwithoverwhelmingnumbers,while their leftwing,under theEarlofWiltshire,cutofftheretreattothecastle.Therewasnothingleftbuttodiebravely.TheDukeofYorkfell,fightingtothelast.Camdensaysthattherewasasmallspacehedgedroundenclosingastonecross,onthespotwheretheDuke fell. His faithful knights fell around him. Among themwere his unclesJohn and Hugh Mortimer, Sir David Hall the tried and trusty councillor, hiswife's nephew Sir Thomas Nevill, Sir Edward Bourchier, Sir EustaceWentworth,SirJamesPickering,SirJohnGedding,SirThomasHarington,SirHugh Hastings, Captains Fitzjames, Baume, Digby and Ratford. Two gallantbrothers,WilliamandThomasParr,foughtsteadilybesidetheirmaster.Williamwasslain,butThomasescaped,survivingtobethegrandsireofQueenCatherineParr. Sir Walter Lymbricke, Sir Ralph Stanley, Captain Hanson and JohnHarrow,theloyalmercerofLondon,werewoundedandtakenprisoners.

When all hope was gone young Prince Edmund, with a few followers,perhapswith theHarryLovedeynewhose servicewas 'right agreeable' to himandhisbrotherinthehappydaysoftheirchildhood,foughthiswaythroughtheencirclingfoeandreachedWakefieldBridge.Buttheywerecloselypursuedbysome of Clifford's men, perhaps by Clifford himself. Leland tells us that theprince 'was overtaken a little above the bars beyond the bridge, going up aclyming ground'; that is in the street leading up to themarket place from thebridge.Heandhisfewfollowersturnedatbay,andwemaybesurethatyoungEdmundPlantagenetdidnotdiebeforehisenemieshadbeenmadetopaydearlyforhislife.[4]

NoquarterwasgiventothedefeatedsoldiersbytheLancastrians,2,000wereslaughteredinthefieldorduringtheflight,andtheprisonerswereallkilled.TheEarlofSalisburyescapedfromthebattle,butwastakenprisonerthesamenightbyaservantofSirAndrewTrollopeandconveyedtoPomfret,wherehewasputtodeath.

The Lancastrian leaders took counsel after the battle, and decided on theperpetrationofaninhumanpieceoffolly.ThebodiesoftheDukeofYorkandoftheEarlsofRutlandandSalisburywereburiedatPomfret.Buttheirheadswereordered to be stuck on the gates of York. The Duke's head was placed uponMicklegateBar,with a paper crown on it byway of insult. The heads of theEarlsofSalisburyandRutland,ofSirThomasNevill,SirEdwardBourchier,SirThomasHarington,SirWilliamParr,SirJamesPickeringandJohnHarrowwerealsoorderedtobestuckonthedifferentgatesofYork.

AssoonasQueenMargaretreceivedthenewsinScotland,shecametoYorkandjoinedthevictoriousarmy.ItwasresolvedtomarchdirecttoLondon,andthe northern soldierswere bribed by permission to pillage thewhole country.This theydidforfifteenmilesoneithersideof their track;attackingchurches,taking awayvessels, books andvestments, and even the sacramental pyx aftershaking out the eucharist, and killing the priests who resisted. Reaching St.Albanstheycontinuedtheworkofpillage,anddefeatedthetroopssentoutfromLondontoopposethem.TheyevenrecoveredthepersonofHenryVI.Butheretheir successes ended.The gates ofLondonwere closed, provisions ran short,andtheLancastrianmaraudersretreatedintoYorkshire.[5]

When the dreadful news of the battle of Wakefield reached London, theDuchess ofYorkwas plunged into grief at the loss of her noble husband and

gallantyoungson,andshewasterrifiedforthesafetyofherchildren.Thetwolittleboys,GeorgeandRichard,wereputonboardavessel intheThamesandsent to Holland. There, under the protection of Philip the Good, Duke ofBurgundy,theywereestablishedatUtrechtwithsuitabletutors.TheDuchessofYork,withherlittledaughterMargaret,remainedinLondonawaitingevents.

The age of Edward Earl ofMarchwas then only eighteen years and eightmonths.HewasatShrewsburywhentheterribleblowfelluponhim.Itspurredhim into resolute action.Hehad collected agood force,withwhichhe turnedupontheTudorsandcrushedthematMortimer'sCross.Therewasaparhelionwhen the victory was decided. Edward adopted the sun in splendour as hisspecial cognizance. He then advanced to London by rapid marches, and wasproclaimedkingasEdwardIV.

RichardwasthushurriedawaytoHolland.Hewasbuteightyearsoldwhenhe saw his father and brother Edmund mount their horses at the gate ofBaynard'sCastle;andwhenthesadnewscamethattheywereslain,andthathewouldseethemnomore.InafteryearsRichardtookpartinthepiousactofthechildren of the Duke of York. They re-endowed the beautiful chapel onWakefieldBridge,whichwasbuiltinthereignofEdwardIII.,[6]anddedicatedittothememoryoftheirbrotherEdmund.

[1]OwenTudor,aWelshsquire,hadthreesonsbyCatharine,thewidowofHenryV.;Edmund and Jasper created by Henry VI. Earls of Richmond and Pembroke, andOwenamonkatWestminster.Theywerehalf-brothersofHenryVI.

[2]Stow'sChronicle,p.412.

[3]AnabbreviationofWarenne-gate.TheEarlsofWarenneandSurreywereLordsofWakefieldformorethantwocenturies.

[4]OfallthebaselessfabricationsoftheTudorchroniclers,Hall'sstoryofthedeathofEdmundEarlofRutlandisthemostabsurd.Hallsaysthattheprincewasscarcelytwelve years of age, that his tutor and schoolmaster, namedRobertApsall, secretlyconveyed the little boy out of the field, that they were espied and taken by LordClifford, that the child knelt on his knees demandingmercy; that the schoolmastermadeaspeech;thatCliffordgaveatruculentreply;andthatCliffordthenstruckthechildtotheheartwithadagger.

This fable rests on there being a child. If there was no child nothing of the sorthappened.

ThecontemporaryevidenceissimplythatafterthebattleLordCliffordkilledtheEarlofRutlandonornearWakefieldBridge.WilliamofWorcestersays:—'etinfugiendopostcampumsuperpontemapudWakefeldeDominusdeClyffordeocciditDominumEdmondumcomitemdeRutlande, filiumDucisEborum.'WilliamofWorcester alsogives the birthdays of all the children of the Duke of York. Edmund was born atRouen on May 17, 1443. He was in his eighteenth year, and not a child. It wasGeorge,bornonOctober21,1449,inIreland,whowasinhistwelfthyearwhenthebattle ofWakefieldwas fought; but hewas left inLondonwith hismother, as anychild of that age was sure to have been. Even if the Duke had brought a child toSandal,hewouldhavebeenleft inthecastle,nottakenintothethickofadesperatebattle. Edmund was old enough to accompany his father, and doubtless acquittedhimself manfully. These facts also relieve the gallant Clifford's name from a vilecalumny. Holinshed and Shakespeare follow Hall, and all later historians havecontinuedtorepeattheabsurdstorywithouttakingthetroubletoascertainRutland'sageatthetimeofthebattleofWakefield.

[5]TheweightofauthorityisdecisivelyagainsttheDukeofYorkhavingbeentakenprisoner,andinfavourofhishavingbeenkilledinthebattle.WilliamofWorcestersays: 'Ubi occubuerunt in campo Dux Eborum, Thomas Nevill,' &c. The Croylandchronicler,Fabyan,PolydoreVirgil,Hall,andStowconcur.Hallsays, 'He,manfullyfighting,withinhalfanhourwasslainanddead.'ButWhethamstedestates that theDuke was taken prisoner and grossly insulted: that he was set upon an ant-hill, acrownofwovengrasswasputonhishead, and that the soldiersbowed theirheadsbeforehim,sayinginderision: 'Hail,Kingwithoutakingdom!'Whethamstedeadds,'nonaliterquamJudæicoramDomino.'ButthisJohnBostockofWhethamstedewasAbbot of St. Albans, and violently prejudiced against the Lancastrians for theirmarauding and pillaging in his neighbourhood. It is generally stated that QueenMargaret took part in the barbarities of her adherents. Stow, for instance, says thatLordCliffordcutofftheDuke'shead,putapapercrownonit,stuckitonapole,andpresented it to theQueen,who 'was not lying far from the field.'But there is clearproof that the Queen was actually in Scotland when the battle of Wakefield wasfought. William of Worcester says: 'Dicto bello finito Regina Margareta venit abScotiaEboraco.'ThisisconfirmedbytheCroylandchronicler,whosays,'Inpartibusborealibusmorabatur.'Margarethadnothing todowith theLancastrianbarbarities,exceptthatsheallowedtheheadstoremainonthegatesofYork.Shewasforcedtotoleratethedeedsofhersavageadherents.

[6]SeeTheChapelofEdwardIII.onWakefieldBridge,byN.Scatcherd(1843).

CHAPTERIII

THECROWNINGVICTORYOFTOWTON

When the Lancastrians, after their success at St. Albans, had failed beforeLondon,theyretreatednorthwardswiththepersonofHenryVI.,andproceededto collect forces in Yorkshire for one more great effort, making theirheadquartersinthecityofYork.MeanwhiletheyoungEarlofMarch,afterhisvictoryatMortimer'sCrossonFebruary2,1461,advancedtoLondonwithhisWelshandbordertenantry.HewasjoinedontheroadbytheEarlofWarwick,whoseincapacityasamilitarycommanderhadbeenthecauseofthedisasteratSt.Albansonthe17thofthesamemonth.

Edward was only in his nineteenth year when he entered London andsucceededtohisfather'srights,andtothedutyofavengingthecowardlyinsultsheaped upon that father's body. He found his mother, the widowed Duchess,withhislittlesisterMargaret,atBaynard'sCastle.

Edwardwastallandeminentlyhandsome,withafaircomplexionandflaxenhair, 'thegoodliestpersonage,' saysComines, 'thatevermineeyesbeheld.'Hiscapacity for command, his fortitude, and prudencewere far beyond his years,andhehadalreadyacquiredexperienceintwopitchedbattles.

Onhis arrival inLondonEdward called together a greatCouncil ofLords,spiritual and temporal, and declared to them his title to the Crown. Theassembled Lords determined that, as KingHenry had, contrary to the solemnagreement made with the Duke of York and the Parliament which met inOctober1460,violatedhisword,andashewasuseless to theCommonwealth,heshouldbedeprivedofallsovereignty.EdwardwaselectedandacknowledgedasKing.

ThatnighttheyoungKingwasoncemoreathomewithhismotherandsister;but itwas amelancholy home-coming. Twomonths before, thewhole familywasunitedatBaynard'sCastle,nowthefatherwasslainandhisheadfixedonMicklegateBaratYork.Thebelovedbrother,Edward'scompanionfromearliestinfancy, alsodead; the twoyoungerbrothers sent abroad for safety; his uncle,Salisbury,killed,withSirDavidHall,thetrustedfriendofthefamily,andmanymore.Yetafeelingofpridemusthavemingledwiththebereavedmother'sgriefasshegazedonthesuperbyoungwarriorwhowasthelasthopeandpropofherhouse.

Next day the citizens of London assembled at their muster in St. John'sFields,justoutsidethecity,wheretheywerereviewedbyLordFauconberg,the

King'suncle,anexperiencedwarriorwhohadseenmuchserviceinFrance.AsSirWilliamNevill,hewasatthesiegeofOrleans,andsince1429hehadbeensummonedtoParliamentjureuxoris,forhehadmarriedJoan,theheiressofthelastBaronFauconberg.As soon as he had completed themuster, his nephew,GeorgeNevill,BishopofExeter,madeaspeechtothepeople.HeexplainedtothemhowKingHenryhadbrokentheagreementsolemnlymadewiththeDukeof York only four short months before; he demanded of them whether theywouldhavea forswornkingany longer to ruleover them;andhecalleduponthem to serve andobey theEarlofMarchas their earthly sovereign lord.Themultitudecried'Yea!Yea!'withgreatshoutsandclappingofhands.'Iwasthere,'saysWilliamofWorcester,'Iheardthem,andIreturnedwiththemintothecity.'

On the sameevening theLords andCommonswent toBaynard'sCastle toreportwhathadtakenplacetoyoungEdward,andhewaspersuadedtoassumethe kingly office by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Exeter.Nextday,beingMarch4,herodetoSt.Paul'sasKingEdwardIV.andmadeanoffering.AfterTeDeumhewasconveyed toWestminster,wherehesat in theHallwhilehistitlewasdeclaredtothepeopleassonandheirofRichard,Dukeof York, and by authority of Parliament. Henry VI. was deposed quod nonstetisset pacto, neque paruisset senatûs consulti decreto. Edward then enteredtheAbbeyunderacanopyinsolemnprocession,andreceivedhomagefromthelords,returningbywatertoLondon,wherehewaslodgedintheBishop'spalace.Onthe5thhewasproclaimedKingthroughthecityasEdwardIV;buttherewastobenocoronationuntilhewasvictoriousoverhisenemies.

Notimewaslost.OnSaturday,March7,theEarlofWarwickleftLondonforthe north, with what Fabyan calls 'a great puissance of people.' Four daysafterwardstheKing'sinfantryfollowed,consistingofborderersfromtheWelshmarches,Kentishmen, andLondoners.OnFriday,March 13,Edward himselfrodethroughBishopsgatewithagreatbodyofmen,andattendedbymanylordsandknights.SincethedeathofSirDavidHall,Edward'suncleFauconbergwasthemostableandexperiencedgeneralontheYorkistside,andhewasnowtheKing'schiefadviser.ApowerfuladherentwasJohnMowbray,DukeofNorfolk,whoissofrequentlymentionedinthe'PastonLetters.'RepresentativeofThomasde Brotherton, the youngest son of Edward I., the Duke had vast wealth andgreat influence in the eastern counties, but he was in failing health. Sir JohnRatcliffe, K.G., called Lord Fitzwalter jure uxoris, Sir Henry Ratcliffe, LordScropeofBolton,SirWalterBlount,Sir JohnWenlock,Sir JohnDynham,SirRogerWolferstone,WilliamHastings,RobertHomeofKent,theKing'scousins

HumphryandJohnStafford,weretheprincipalcaptains.

Themarchesweremadeinaleisurelywaytogivetimeforfollowerstojoinfromvariousdirections,anditwasafortnightbeforeEdwardformedajunctionwith theEarlofWarwick,andmusteredhisarmybetweenPomfretCastleandFerrybridge, about forty thousand strong. Reinforcements had flocked to himduring the march, especially in Nottinghamshire. Sir John Ratcliffe, with ayoungillegitimatesonoftheEarlofSalisbury,wasstationedwithasmallforceatFerrybridge,toguardthepassageoftheriverAire.

Meanwhile, thenobleswhohad rallied round theproudMargaretofAnjouwerecollectingtheirstrengthatYork.TheDukeofSomerset,althoughhewasonly inhis twenty-fourthyear,was thechiefcommander in theQueen'sarmy.Thesonofherfavourite,whohadbeenslaininthefirstbattleofSt.Albans,andthe head of a powerful connection, Margaret placed great reliance on theprowess and influence of the young Duke. His first cousin was ThomasCourtenay, Earl of Devonshire, a lad of twenty, who came to York with theFulfords, Fortescues, and other west-country squires. His sister Eleanor wasmarried toJamesButler,EarlofOrmondeandWiltshire,K.G.,amorematurenobleman who had reached his fortieth year, but who was more noted forrunningawaythanforfighting.Hisbrother,SirJohnButler,accompaniedhim.Next to Somerset the most influential leader was Henry Percy, Earl ofNorthumberland,whowasalso inhis fortiethyear.His familyhad fought andbled in the Lancastrian cause. His father was slain at St. Albans, his brother,LordEgremont,atNorthampton.Anotherbrother,SirRichardPercy,nowrodeby theEarl's side at the head of a numerous body of retainers. LordClifford,LordDacreofGillesland,LordFitzHugh,andSirJohnNevillcamewithagreatmusterofWestRidingandWestmorelandyeomen;whileLordWellesandSirWilliam Talboys rallied the Lincolnshire yeomen round their standards. LordRoos,SirRalphEure,andSirJohnBigotofMusgraveCastle, joinedthearmywith their Yorkshire tenantry; and the Duke of Exeter, Lord Hungerford, andLordBeaumontswelledthethrongwiththeirlevies.

Norwerelawyersandchurchmenwantingtopropthefallingcause.SirJohnFortescue,theLordChiefJustice,wasatYork,forhebelievedtheparliamentarytitleofKingHenrytobegood,andwouldnotdeserthiminhisneed.Theretoo,in attendance on poor Henry, was Dr. Morton, the parson of Bloxworth andMaster in Chancery—a treble-dyed traitor and falsifier of history, whoafterwards flourished like a green bay tree, and died Cardinal Archbishop of

Canterburyattheageofninety.

Sofarasexperienceandmilitarytrainingwereconcerned,therelianceoftheLancastrianswasonLordWelles,LordHungerford,andSirAndrewTrollope.LionelLordWelles,nowinhisfifty-fifthyear,hadseenmuchserviceinFrance,andhadfilledtheimportantpostsofLieutenantinIrelandandCaptainofCalais.LordHungerfordhadservedunderthegreatTalbot,andwaspresentatthefatalbattleofChastillon,wherehewastakenprisoner.Atthattime,duringhisfather'slife,hewasknownasLordMolines,inrightofhiswife.TrollopewasaveteranoftheFrenchwars,andseemstohavebeenlookedtoastheofficerwhowouldmarshal the army and select positions.He had been a trustedYorkist captain,andwaslongincommandoftheCalaisgarrison.ButwhenthetworivalarmieswereconfrontednearLudlow,inOctober1459,hehadsecretlydesertedwithalarge part of the best soldiers fromCalais and gone over toQueenMargaret.Thishadgivenheratemporarytriumph;andTrollopehadsincebeenhermosttrustedmilitaryadviser.

TheforcecollectedatYorknumbered60,000;andthelargestbodiesofmenthathaveevertriedconclusionsonEnglishgroundwerethusgatheredtogetherbetweenYorkandPomfret.

Adistanceoftwenty-fivemilesseparatedthetowersofPomfretCastle,underwhose shadows young Edward was marshalling his avenging army, fromMicklegateBar,overwhichtheheadofhisbelovedfatherwaswitheringinthechillinggalesof thatbittermonthofMarch1461.Nineof thosemilescoveredthe distance fromYork to Tadcaster on the riverWharfe, and the rest of thedistance, from the Wharfe to the Aire, was the scene of the momentouscampaign.

The tract of country between theWharfe and theAire is a portion of thatmagnesian limestone formation which extends in a narrow zone acrossYorkshire.ItiscrossedbytheprincipalstreamsflowingtotheHumber,theUre,the Nidd, the Wharfe, the Aire, the Went, and the Don; and they all formpicturesque gorges, with overhanging limestone cliffs and crags, before theyenter thegreatalluvialplainofYork.Thishilly limestone region,between theWharfeand theAire,wasonceagreat forestofelmtrees. Itwas theElmetofremote times.When the forestwascleared thename remained,and thepeoplecalled the limestone country 'Elmet lands.' The little river Cock rises onBramham Moor, flows through this limestone country in a winding course

amongtheundulatinghills,andfalls intotheWharfebelowTadcaster.PassingthevillageofBarwick-in-Elmet, itwinds along the skirtsof 'BeccaBanks,' sofamousforrarewildflowers,flowsunderthebridgeatAberford,andwestwardto Lead Hall, a farmhouse in a great meadow about half a mile short of thevillage of Saxton. Thence it takes a northerly course to its junction with theWharfe. Here the winding little brook has hills on either side, covered withwoods,withTowtonontherightbank,andHazlewood, theancientseatof theVavasours, to the left. It passes through extensive willow garths, and by thevillageofStutton,entering theWharfe,nearTadcaster,afteracourseofabouttenmiles.

AtpresenttheroadfromYorktoPomfretturnssouthattheendofTadcasterStreet, and goes direct to Towton and Sherburn, passing the lodge gate atGrimston. But in those days it continued along the left bank of the Cock tobeyondStutton,crossedthelittlebrookbyRenshawWood,andledupagentleslope to the hamlet of Towton. By this route the Lancastrian army advancedfromTadcaster, andencampedon the fieldsbetweenTowtonandSaxton.Themain road leads direct fromTowton toSherburn, leavingSaxton on the right,and Scarthingwell, with its mere and heronry, on the left. From Sherburn toFerrybridgethedistanceissixmilesduesouth.ThedistancefromFerrybridge,bySherburnandSaxton,tothebattlefieldofTowtonisninemiles.

OnMarch26,1461,thegreatarmyoftheLancastrianswasencampedroundthehamletofTowton.KingEdward'sheadquarterswereatPomfret,andhehadan advanced post to defend the passage of the river Aire in his front, atFerrybridge,under thecommandof the titularLordFitzwalter, anexperiencedveteran of theFrenchwars.The object of theLancastrian leader in advancingacross theWharfewas tooppose thepassageofEdward's armyover the riverAire at Ferrybridge. The deposed King and Queen, with Lord Roos and Dr.Morton, awaited the event at York. But the Lancastrians were too late. LordCliffordandSirJohnNevill,however,didpressforwardinadvance,inhopesofsurprising the outlying post of Yorkists at Ferrybridge. In this they weresuccessful.Theguardatthebridgewastakencompletelybysurprisebeforethedawn ofMarch 28, and slaughtered by Lord Clifford's men. Lord Fitzwalter,hearingthenoise,thoughtitwasmerelyadisturbanceamonghisownsoldiers.Hejumpedoutofbed,randownwithabattle-axeinhishand,andwasslainashecameintothestreet.ThebraveyoungbastardofSalisburyfellwithhim.

This unexpected onslaught caused a panic in theYorkist camp,whichwas

increased by the conduct of the excitable Earl ofWarwick. He lost his head,gallopeduptotheKing'stent,dismountedandkilledhishorse,cryingout, 'Lethimflythatwill,forsurelybythiscrossIwilltarrywithhimwhowilltarrywithme, fall back fall edge!'[1] The conduct of youngEdwardwas very different.Perfectlycoolandcollected,hisfirmnessrestoredorderamongthesoldiers.Hesoonsawthattheattackhadbeenmadebyasmallforcewhichwouldasrapidlyretreat.He,therefore,gavepromptorderstohisuncle,LordFauconberg,tocrosstheriverAireatCastleford,aboutthreemilestotheleft,withtroopsledbySirWalterBlountandRobertHomeofKent.Hisobjectwastointercepttheretreatof Lord Clifford. This judicious order was ably carried out by the veterangeneral. Fauconberg overtook the enemy, and a complete rout of theLancastriansfollowed.ThechasewascontinuedthroughSherburntoalittledellorvalleycalledDittingdale,[2]betweenScarthingwell andTowton.Here therewas a rally, close to the outposts of themain army of the Lancastrians. LordClifford,while takingoffhisgorget,owing to itshavingchafedhisneck,wasstruckbyanarrowandkilled.Sir JohnNevillwas also slain, and therewasagreatslaughteramongtheflyingtroops.TheYorkistpursuersfellbackontheirsupportswithoutseriousloss.

LordCliffordwasonly inhis twenty-sixthyear.His fatherwas slainat thefirst battle of St. Albans, and he had naturally joined the same cause withenthusiasm. But, as has already been pointed out, the story of his havingassassinatedadefencelesslittleboyonWakefieldBridgeisafiction.Thereisnoreason to believe that Clifford was such a base caitiff. He was evidently anactiveandenterprisingleader.Itisthetraditionofthefamilythathewasburied,with a heap of undistinguished dead, on the battlefield. Sir John Nevill, ayoungerbrotherofthesecondEarlofWestmoreland,andfatherofthethirdEarl,wasprobablyburiedwithinSaxtonChurch.[3]Thelossofthesetwogallantandinfluentialyoungleaders,whosescatteredfugitivesbroughtinthenewsonthatFridaynight,musthavecastagloomovertheLancastrianarmy.

KingEdwardnow resolved to advancewithhiswhole force andattack theenemywherehewasencamped.Hebelievedthatthemainbodycouldnothavebeen very far distant when Lord Clifford was detached tomake the attack atFerrybridge.ThevandivisionoftheYorkistarmy,ledbyLordFauconbergandSirWalterBlount,wasalreadyacross the riverAire,andordersweregiven tothemtomarchnorthwardsbySherburnandSaxton.TheKinghimself,withtheEarl ofWarwick, was to follow at the head of the main body. The Duke ofNorfolkshouldhaveledthevan,buthewastakenill,anditwasarrangedthathe

shouldremainbehindatPomfret,withSirJohnWenlockandSirJohnDynham,and follow next daywith the rear division and any reinforcements thatmighthavearrived.[4]

DuringMarch28,theEveofPalmSunday,theYorkistarmywasmarchingnorthwards in twodivisions. Itmust havebeen late in the afternoonwhen thedivision of Lord Fauconberg passed through Sherburn-in-Elmet, a long streetwiththeoldNormanchurchonanisolatedhilltothewestward.TwomilesmorebroughthimtoSaxtonlateintheevening.Saxtonwasasmallvillage,withthemanorhouseoftheHungates,andaveryoldchurchofNormantimes.Thenceasteepascentleadsnorthwardtothebattlefield.TotheeastisthehighroadfromYork to Pomfret, passing over elevated ground. To the west is a ravine withsidesslopingdownto thevalleyof theCock.Thelatterbrookisseenwindingthroughthegreenvalley,withroadsoneitherside.Northwards therewashighundulatingground,andthehamletofTowtonistwomilesnorthofSaxton.

On the ground between Towton and Saxton the Lancastrian army wasencamped.Thecentre,ledbytheEarlofNorthumberlandandSirRichardPercy,withLordWellesandSirAndrewTrollope,wasformedacrosstheroadleadingup fromSaxton.To theeast, forming theLancastrian left,LordDacre andhisbrother-in-lawLordFitzHughwereencampedonsomelandcalled'NorthAcres.'Tothewest,formingtherightwing,weretheEarlsofDevonshireandWiltshire,and Lords Hungerford and Beaumont. The Dukes of Somerset and ExetercommandedareserveatTowtonvillage.

WhenLordFauconbergarrivedatSaxtonheascertained thepositionof theenemyandsentintelligencetotheKing.EdwardhadprobablyreachedSherburnbythattime,andheatoncepushedforwardtotheneighbourhoodofSaxton.ThewholeYorkistforcenumbered48,640men,includingthereserves,whichwerestillatPomfretundertheDukeofNorfolk.

PalmSundaydawnedand found thehostofyoungEdward facing the longarray of Lancastrians. It was bitterly cold. The advance up the hillside fromSaxton villagewasmade between eight and nine o'clock in the forenoon, andwhen thehostile forces came in sight therewas agreat shouting.At the sametime snow began to fall. Thewindwas northerly in the earlymorning, but itveeredround,becamefresher,andbynineo'clockitwasdrivingthesnowfullintothefacesoftheLancastriantroops.Thetwoarmies,justbeforetheyclosed,wereseparatedbyanundulatingdepressionwhichmarkstheexactposition.

LordFauconbergcausedeveryarcherunderhisstandardtoshootoneflightof arrows and then halt. The enemy felt the volley, but could not judge ofdistancesonaccountof theblindingsnow.Theirarrows fell short.Assoonasthequiversoftheenemywerenearlyempty,LordFauconberggavetheorderforhisarcherstoadvance,shootingastheycameon,andtheynotonlyshotofftheirown arrows, but gathered those of the enemy and sent many of them backwhencetheycame.ThentheEarlofNorthumberlandorderedhismentoclose,and the battle became a fierce hand-to-hand combat all along the line. Forseveralhoursthedesperateconflictcontinued,ebbingandflowingwithdoubtfulresult, the snow still falling. King Edward was everywhere, exhorting andencouraging the men, leading them on when they wavered, and helping thewounded out of the fray. The struggle was obstinate and long doubtful.Menwere falling fastonboth sides.LordScropeofBoltonwas severelywounded.Robert Home, the valiant captain of Kent, who came fromAppledore on theRother,felldead.

MessengershadbeensentinhothastetohurryuptheDukeofNorfolkwiththereserves.Hearrivedataboutnoon.WithhistrustylieutenantsWenlockandDynham,heledhismenuptheroadfromSherburn,keepingwelltotheeastofSaxton,andailingupontheLancastrianleftflankat'NorthAcres.'

Thiswastheturningpointofthebattle.TheLancastriansweredisheartenedatthearrivaloffreshfoes.Thefightingcontinueduntillateintheafternoon,andthe slaughter was prodigious, but gradually the Lancastrian left wing wasdoubled up on the centre; the confusion increased, and there was a completerout.LordDacrehadfallenearly in theday.Hewaskilledbyaboywhoshothim from a 'bur' tree,[5]when he had unclasped his helmet to drink a cup ofwine.Theladthusavengedhisfather'sdeath,whohadbeenslainbythenorthernbaron. LordCaere's friends, Sir John and Sir ThomasCrakenthorpe, from thebanks of the Eden, fell with him. The Earl of Northumberland, Sir RichardPercy,LordWelles,andSirAndrewTrollopewereslaininthethickofthefight,with many more. The retreat to the eastward being cut off by the Duke ofNorfolk, the defeated army fled down the steep slopes into the valley of theCockcloselypursued.

The well-mounted noblemen, Somerset and Exeter, Devonshire andWiltshire, Beaumont, Hungerford, and FitzHugh, with many knights, effectedtheir escape.But the footmenwere cut down by hundreds in the pursuit. Thelittle Cock beck is not very wide, but it is deep, and many fugitives were

drownedin it.Thecountrypeopledeclaredthat thepursuerscrossedthebrookon dead bodies, and that the river Wharfe was coloured with blood. TheCroylandmonk relates that thebloodof the slain lay cakedwith snow,whichthencoveredtheground,andthatafterwards,whenthesnowmelted,thebloodflowedalong thefurrowsandditchesforadistanceof twoor threemiles.Thechasecontinuedallnightandpartofnextday.

Fully 10,000 were stated to have been wounded or made prisoners, andPolydoreVirgilsaysthatsomewerecuredandsomedied.Thisdisposesofthestatement of Hall, which is adopted by modern writers, that no quarter wasgiven.Edwardalwaysgavequartertothemenandjuniorofficersofadefeatedarmy.

ThefugitivenoblesonlyhadtimetoridethroughYork,callinguponHenryandMargaret,withtheirchild,tomountandrideashardastheirhorseswouldcarry them. Away they went out of Bootham, and through the dark forest ofGaltres,totakerefugeinScotland.

KingEdwardadvancedtoYorkonMonday,March30,1461,wherehewasreceived with great solemnity by the mayor and commons of the city, inprocession.TheyobtainedgracethroughtheintercessionofLordsMontaguandBerners.Theheads of theDukeofYork, theEarl ofRutland, and theEarl ofSalisburywereremovedfromthegatesofYork,andplacedwith thebodiesatPomfret, preparatory to the subsequentmagnificent obsequies at FotheringhayandBisham.

Only four executions took place at York, of the Earl of Devonshire, SirBaldwin Fulford, Sir William Talboys, and Sir William Hill. The Earl ofWiltshirewascapturedbyWilliamSalkeldatCockermouth.ForthisprominentactorinthebarbarousdeedsafterWakefieldfighttherecouldbenoforgiveness.HewasbeheadedatNewcastleonMay1.

TheEarlofNorthumberland,afirstcousinofKingEdward,wasburiedinthenorthchoirofSt.DenischurchatYork,probablywithhisbrotherSirRichardPercy. The body of Lord Welles was taken to Methley, and buried in theWatertonChapel.LordDacrewasburied,withhishorse,inSaxtonchurchyard,onthenorthsideofthechurch,wherethereisamonumenttohismemory.Theundistinguisheddeadwereatfirstburiedinfivegreatpitsonthebattlefield,andinseparategravesinthevalley.Itwasatraditionthatredandwhiterosesgrewandflourishedonthebattlefield,anditistruethattherearemanyrosebushesinthemeadows. Leland tells us thatMasterHungate of Saxton caused the deadbodies tobebroughtfromthepitsonthebattlefield,andburiedinconsecratedground,inatrenchrunningthewholelengthofSaxtonchurchyard.

KingEdwardkepthisEasteratYork,whichfellthatyearonApril5.Hethen

advanced as far as Durham, whence he returned southwards, leaving thepacificationofthenorthtotheEarlofWarwickandhisbrotherLordMontagu.EarlyinJuneEdwardwasatthemanorofSheen,andonthe26thofthatmonthhe came from Sheen to the Tower of London. On the 27th he created thirtyKnights of the Bath, and on Sunday the 28th he was solemnly crowned inWestminsterAbbeybyCardinalBourchier,ArchbishopofCanterbury.

The King liberally rewarded his supporters. The Duke of Norfolk died inNovember 1461, and was buried before the high altar at Thetford. But LordFauconbergwascreatedEarlofKentandLordHighAdmiral.Hediedin1463.SirWalterBlountwas createdLordMountjoy and aKnight of theGarter.SirJohn Dynham, a valued adherent, was created Lord Dynham; and Sir JohnWenlock, already a Knight of the Garter, was created Lord Wenlock. ManyYorkists were knighted, either on the field or afterwards at the coronation.YoungWilliamHastings,theKing'smostfaithfulfollower,wasknightedonthefield,andcreatedLordHastings, inJuly1461.AmongtheKnightsoftheBathwerethegentlemenofNottinghamshirewhohadjoinedtheKingonthemarchnorthward,SirRobertClifton,SirNicholasByron,andSirRobertandSirJohnMarkham.

EdwardIV.was'aKingwho,withmanyfaults,wasmosthonourablyanxiousfromthefirsttodojusticeeventothemeanestofhissubjects.'[6]Afterthefirstheat of battle had passed he was placable and forgiving. He had strong andjustifiable cause for resentment against his opponents at Towton. In thewhiteheatofhis indignation,with thesightofhis father'sheadoverMicklegateBarfreshinhisrecollection,hestayedhisavenginghandafterfourexecutions.Thebill of attainder passed by his first Parliament included 150 names, butmanywere afterwards granted full pardons, and all who submitted received backportionsoftheirestates.TheDukeofSomersetmadehispeace,andwastakeninto favour. The son of the Earl of Northumberland was restored to all hisfather's honours. The brother of the Earl ofWiltshire, though he was also atTowton,wasrestoredtoallhisestates,wastakenintofavour,andsucceededassixthEarlofOrmond.SimilarforgivenesswasextendedtotheCourtenays,andtothebrotherofLordDacre.AlthoughLordHungerfordcontinuedinrebellion,Edward IV. treatedhiswife andyoungchildrenwithkindness andgenerosity,makinganampleprovisionforthemoutoftheirfather'sforfeitedlands.ThesonofLordWelleswastakenintofavour,andhadagrantofallhisfather'sforfeitedproperty.LordFitzHughwasforgivenandemployedinpositionsofimportance.Mr.ThoroldRogerssays:—'Ientirelydiscreditthestoriestoldofthetyrannyand

suspiciousnessofEdwardIV.Heneverrefusedapetitionforpardon.'[7]

All historians unite in the statement that the old nobility of England wasnearlyannihilatedby thebattles andexecutionsduring theWarsof theRoses.But facts areopposed to this theory.Scarcely a singlepeeragebecameextinctowingtotheWarsoftheRoses.[8]

ThebattlesofWakefieldandTowtonmadeadeepimpressiononthemindofPrinceRichard,althoughhewasbuteightyearsold.Thefateofhisfatherandbrother in a battlewhich drove him into exile, and then the crowning victoryfollowingsorapidly,couldnotfailtodoso.InlateryearsheerectedamemorialchapelatTowton,whereprayersweretobeofferedupforthesoulsofthefallen.ItwasstandinginLeland'stime,butthereisnownovestigeofthispiousworkofKingRichardIII.[9]

[1]Mr. Green, in hisHistory of the English People, places the time ofWarwick'skillinghishorse'atonecriticalmoment'duringthebattleofTowton.Buttheevidencethat this act of folly was perpetrated owing to the panic after the surprise atFerrybridgeisquiteconclusive.

[2]Hall hasDintingdale,Habington spells itDindingdale, Baker hasDandingdale.Thereisnosuchplaceonthemaps.ButWhitaker,inhisHistoryofCraven,saysthatthe Rev. F.Wilkinson, Vicar of Bordsey, discovered the almost forgotten name ofDittingdale,asthatofadellorsmallvalleyinScarthingwellPark.

[3]Lelandsays that theEarlofWestmorelandwaskilled,andburiedwithinSaxtonChurch.HallalsoincludestheEarlofWestmorelandamongtheslain.TheymistookhimforSirJohnNevill.TheEarlhimselfdidnotdieuntil1485.SharonTurnerandlaterwritersrepeattheblunder.TheEarlofWestmorelandwasnotinthebattle.

[4]Mr.Greensaysthat'theDukeofNorfolkcamewithafreshforcefromtheeasterncounties.'TheDukecame fromPomfret, having leftLondonwith theKing.SharonTurnersays:'Weowetheremarkablefactofthebattlebeginningatfouro'clockintheafternoonandcontinuingthroughthenight,andofNorfolk'scomingupthenextclayatnoontoHearne'sfragment.'ThisfragmentwastranscribedbyHearnefromanoldmanuscript,butnotolderthanHall'sChronicle.ThestatementthatthebattlebeganatfouronSaturdayafternoonandwentonthroughthenight,notonlycontradictsHallandStow,butisalsoimpossible.Edward'sarmycouldnothavegotoverthegroundintime to begin the battle at four in the afternoon. Possibly the mistake of theanonymous writer of Hearne's fragment arose from having been told that LordFauconbergcameinsightoftheLancastrianarmyattwilight.ItwasnotthetwilightofSaturdayafternoon,butofPalmSundaymorning,asHallexplains.

[5]LoidisandElmete,p.156.Dr.Whitakersaysthattheword'bur'isverydistinctin

Glover'smanuscript.Itmeansanaldertree,fromtheoldNorse'bur'or'baurr.'

[6]Gairdner.IntroductiontothePastonLetters,ii.p.xii.

[7]WorkandWages,ii.316.

[8]TheDukeofExeterwasseparatedfromhiswife,andhadnochildren.TheDukeofSomerset,whowasbeheaded,hadsixdaughters,andanotherwasunmarried.Butthe House of Somerset was perpetuated in that of Beaufort. A few new peeragesbecame extinct because their recipients did not marry, such as Egremont andWenlock. But Lord Egremont was a Percy, and the family of Percy continued toflourish.NomorepeeragesbecameextinctowingtotheWarsoftheRosesthanwouldhavedonesoinatimeofprofoundpeace.

[9]There is awarrant for40l. tobegiven forbuilding thechapel atTowton,datedNovember28,1483(Harl.MSS.,No.413).InJuly1488,anindulgenceoffortydayswas granted ad speciosam capellam in villa de Toughton (per Saxton) de novo afundamentis sumptuose et nobiliter erectam, super quodam loco seu fondo ubicorporaprocerumetmagnatumacaliorumhominummultitudinecopiosainquodambello incampiscircumjacentibus inito interfectorumsepeliuntur. InDecember1502another indulgence of forty days was granted. The exact site of the chapel is thegardenbehindMr.Kendall'shouse.

CHAPTERIV

THECROWNLOSTANDWON—BATTLEOFBARNET

The young princes, George and Richard, were in Holland for about sixmonths,undertheprotectionoftheDukeofBurgundy.TheyresidedatUtrecht.ThenthenewscameofEdward'saccession,andthecrowningvictoryofTowton.The two boys were brought home again, and were soon under their mother'simmediatecare,withtheirsisterMargaret.

Immediatelyafterthecoronation,GeorgewascreatedDukeofClarence;andRichardDukeofGloucester,EarlofCarlisle, andEarlofRichmond,[1] a titlewhichhadmerged in the crownafter the attainder ofEdmundTudor.Richardwas created a Knight of theGarter in 1465. In February 1466 his sword andhelmetwereplacedinSt.George'sChapel,andhetookpossessionofhisstallinthefollowingApril.Hisstallplateisnowintheninthstallonthesouthsideofthechoir,inSt.George'sChapelatWindsor.ThearmsareFranceandEngland

quarterly,with a silver label of threepoints, each erminewith a cantongules.The crest is a crowned leopardgold, on a capof estate,with a label as in thearms,roundhisneck.Thehelmisbarredasusedinthemêlée,theonlyoneontheearlyplates,therestallbeingtiltinghelms.

The first public appearance of young Richard was on the occasion of hisfather'ssolemnobsequies.TheDukeofYork'sbody,andthatofhissonEdmundEarl of Rutland, had to be conveyed from Pomfret to Fotheringhay, and theDukeofGloucester,theninhisfourteenthyear,wasappointedbytheKingtobechiefmourner.OnJuly22,1466,thebodiesofRichardDukeofYork,andofhisson,EdmundEarlofRutland,weretakenfromtheirtemporaryrestingplaceatPomfret,andplaced inachariotcoveredwithblackvelvet, richlyembroideredwithclothofgold.AtthefeetoftheDukestoodthefigureofanangelclothedinwhite,bearingacrownofgold,tosignifythatofrighthewasaking.Thechariotwasdrawnbyfourhorsestrappedtotheground.Everyhorsecarriedaman,andupon the foremost rode Sir John Skipwith, who bore the Duke's bannerdisplayed.Bishopsandabbots,intheirrobes,wenttwoorthreemilesinfront,toprepare the churches for the reception of the bodies.'[2] The boy Duke ofGloucester followed next after the chariot, accompanied by noblemen andheralds.InthisordertheyleftPomfretandrestedthatnightatDoncaster.Thencethey proceeded by easy stages to Blythe, Tuxford, Newark, Grantham, andStamford. On Monday, July 27, the procession arrived at Fotheringhay. Thebodieswerecarriedintothechurchbyservantsofthedeceased,andreceivedbytheKingandhisCourtindeepmourning.

Edward IV. built a magnificent shrine in the choir, over the tombs of hisfather and brother, and completed the works of the college, including thecloister.[3]

There is reason to believe that the youngDuke ofGloucester received hisknightlytrainingintheuseofarmsfromtheageoffourteen,inthehouseholdofhis cousin theEarl ofWarwick. There are payments to theEarl for costs andexpensesincurredbyhimonaccountofRichard,theKing'sbrother.HerehewasthecompanionofFrancisLovelandRobertPercy,forbothofwhomheformedafriendshipwhichendedonlywithdeath.HeretoohewastheplayfellowofhiscousinAnneNevill,andanattachmentwasprobablythenformedbetweenthem,whichwasdestinedtobearfruitinafteryears.WefindRichardandAnnesittingtogetherattheinstallationfeastofheruncletheArchbishopofYorkin1467.

Richardwasshortinstature,withadelicatefragileframe,therightshoulderbeingslightlyhigherthantheleft.Buthehadbeeninuredtowarlikeexercises,andwas fond of hunting and allmanly sports.He had light brown hair and avery handsome face, full of energy and decision, yet with a gentle and evenmelancholyexpressionwhenthefeatureswereatrest.[4]

WhileRichardwas receiving a knightly education in the north, his brotherEdwardwasconductinghisownandthecountry'saffairsrecklesslyandwithoutwisdom.ThesecretmarriageceremonyhewentthroughwiththewidowofLordGrey ofGroby, and her subsequent coronation, had estranged the nobles, andtheirdisgustwas increasedby thepromotionandenrichmentofherWoodvillerelations. The Earl of Warwick, the cousin and formerly the supporter ofEdward, became the chief among the malcontents. He married his daughterIsabellatotheDukeofClarence,withouttheKing'sconsentorknowledge,andafterwards fostered and encouraged disturbances and insurrections. At last hewenttoFrancewithClarence,andmadeanagreementwithMargaretofAnjoutorestoreHenryVI.tothethrone.FinallyhereturnedtoEngland,withtheDukeofClarence,asanopenenemyofKingEdward.Troops rapidly flocked tohisstandard,andthecountrywaslostandwonasifbymagic.

WarwickhadusedallhisartsofpersuasiontoinducetheyoungerbrothersoftheKingtobefalsetotheirallegiance.WithClarencehesucceeded;butRichardneverwavered for amoment.His loyalty tohisbrotherwasnot tobe shaken.There is somethingvery touching in theunalterableaffectionbetweenEdwardandRichard. InEdward, from the timewhenheused tovisit his little brotherevery day in Paston's chambers, to the hour of his death, there was a lovingprotectionandasolicitudeforthelad'swelfarewhichwasshowninmanyways.OnthepartofRichardtherewasloyaltyandzealforhiselderbrother'sserviceaswellaswarmaffection.Hismottowas

'LOYAULTÉMELIE.'[5](Loyaltybindethme.)

FromthemomentthatWarwickbecameatraitor,Richardwasconstantlybyhisbrother's side, sharing his long marches,[6] his dangers and hardships. WhenWarwick landed and proclaimed the restoration of Henry VI., King Edwardsummoned his forces to assemble at Doncaster, particularly relying on theMarquisMontagu,Warwick's brother, inwhose loyaltyhe implicitlybelieved.Edward related to thehistorianComines the events immediatelyprecedinghis

flightfromthekingdom.Hewasinafortifiedhousewithhisfriends,towhichtheonlyaccesswasabridge,andthetroopswerequarteredinthevillagesnear.SuddenlynewsarrivedthatMontaguandotherswereridingamonghissoldiersshoutingforHenry.Edwardhastilyputonhisarmourandsentabodyoffaithfuladherentstodefendthebridge.Therewasnothingleftbutflight.Accompaniedby his brotherRichard and a few loyal friends theKing galloped off, leavingLordHastingstogaintimebydefendingthebridge.HastingsmadesometermsforhisfollowerswithMontagu,andthenfollowedhismaster.ReachingLynn,inNorfolk, the fugitives found two Dutch vessels on the point of sailing. Theyimmediately went on board without other clothes than leurs habillemens deguerre.[7] The brothers were accompanied in their flight by Lords Hastings,Rivers,andSaye,anda fewfaithfulknights.NarrowlyescapingcapturebyanEasterlingship,theylandednearAlkmaarinNorthHolland.Agownlinedwithmartens was the only thing of value wherewith King Edward could pay hispassage; and he was saved from capture by the Easterlings through theinterventionof theSieurLouisdeBruges,LordofGruthuus,whoreceivedthefugitives with generous hospitality and conducted them to The Hague. KingEdwardandhishostwerebrotherKnightsof theGoldenFleece,anobligationwhichthelordofGruthuusmostfullyrecognised.HegaveuphisgreathouseatBruges for theuseof theexiledprinces,who resided thereduring theensuingwinter, and he also lent them his château of Oostcamp. From Bruges, KingEdwardandhisbrotherproceeded to thecourtof theDukeofBurgundyatSt.Pol, to seek for aid in recovering the crown of England. Charles the Boldpubliclydeclinedtointerfere,andtheLancastrianDukeofSomersethurriedtoLondon with the good news. But Charles had been married, in 1468, to thePrincessMargaret of York, who was devotedly attached to her brothers. SheopenedacorrespondencewiththeDukeofClarenceinEngland,toinducehimto return to his allegiance. Through her influence, the aid which had beenwithheldpubliclywasgiveninsecret.Shesmoothedalldifficulties,andenabledherbrotherstoundertaketheirromanticenterprise.ForEdwardwasresolvedtorecoverhiscrown,andRichard,fromthistime,washisefficientlieutenant.

Richard's services in Flanders, and especially in fitting out the expedition,securedforhimthefullconfidenceofhisbrother.Theshipshadtobeequippedverysecretlyandwithgreatcare.TheDuchessMargarethadprocuredagrantof15,000 florins, andpermission toget ready four shipsofFlandersand thirteenhiredEasterlings[8]whichweretobeatEdward'sserviceuntilheshouldlandinEngland, and for fifteen days afterwards.Thenext stepwas the selection of aseaportwheretheexpeditioncouldbequietlyfittedout.TheLordofGruthuus

againprovedafriendinneed.HehadmarriedMargaret,thesisterofHenryvanBorselle, Lord of the island of Walcheren. The traditions of the family ofBorsellewereadverse to theHouseofLancaster, forFrancisvanBorsellewasthelover,andeventuallythehusband,ofthatunfortunateJacobaofHollandwhowastreatedsoshamefullybyHumphreyDukeofGloucester.TheexcellentportsofVeereandFlushingwere,therefore,placedatEdward'sdisposal.

The expeditionwas fitted out in the port ofVeere, under the protection ofHenry van Borselle. Besides the King and young Richard, Lords Hastings,Rivers,andSayeweretheprincipalleaders.Theexpeditionaryforceconsistedof900men, in addition to the crews of the ships.A select body of 300Flemishgunners,armedwithhand-guns,formedpartofthelittlearmy;andthisisnearlythefirsttimethatthesenewweaponsarementionedinEnglishwarfare.Themencarried slow matches, and are called 'smoky gunners' by Fabyan. RichardactivelyhelpedinthepreparationofthisdaringlittleexpeditionatVeere;forbythistimetheKinghadlearnedtoappreciatehisbrother'sremarkableabilityandfitnessforcommand.

BytheendofFebruary1471,theshipswereready.TheywerebroughtdowntheChannelfromVeeretoFlushingandthetroopswereembarked.ButtheyhadtowaitninedaysinFlushingRoadsforafairwind,anditwasnotuntilMonday,March11,thatthegallantadventurerssailedfortheNorfolkcoast.Edwardwasin one shipwithLordHastings,while his brother had a separate command inanothervessel,eachbeing followedbya squadronof transports. It isprobablethattheexiledKingshapedacourseforthecoastofNorfolkinthehopethattheinfluenceoftheDuke,whowasfaithfultohiscause,wouldensurehimacordialreception. But he was disappointed. Two knights, named Sir RobertChamberlainandSirGilbertDebenham,wentonshoreatCromerandfoundthecountry occupied by Warwick's adherents. Edward, therefore, steered forYorkshire,andencounteredagaleofwindwhich lasted fromMarch12 to14,scattering his little squadron. When Edward and Hastings anchored offRavenspur,[9]on theHoldernesscoast,noothervesselwas insight.TheKinglandedandburnthisship,resolvedtoregainhiscrownorperishintheattempt.

Edwardstoodonthatdrearywasteofsandwith500followers.Thelook-outwas black indeed. He had seen nothing of the other ships since they wereseparatedbythegaleoffCromer.Hesentscoutstotheadjacentvillages,butnotamanventured to joinhis standard.While hesitatingwhat shouldbe thenextstep,horsemenappearedoverthebrowofarisingground.Theadventurersstood

to their arms, but a fewminutes turned anxiety into joy. The youngDuke ofGloucester was seen to be at the head of a little force of 300 men. He hadeffected a landing at a point about fourmiles fromRavenspur, and hurried tojoinhisbrother.SoonafterwardsLordRivers,whohad reached the shoreat aplacecalledPole,fourteenmilesaway,madehisappearance.Thuswasthelittleforce once more united. They marched to Beverley and thence to York, butalthough armedmenwere seen, no one eithermolested themor came to theirassistance.Thereappearstohavebeennoill-willamongthepeople,butfearofthepoweroftheEarlofWarwickandabeliefthatEdward'scausewashopeless.

The authorities of York did not dare to receive Edward as King. It wasthought advisable that, at this stage, he should only claim his hereditarydukedom.[10] This deceived no one, but it would enable the mayor andaldermenofYork todefend their conduct in theeventofEdward'soverthrow.Theyreceivedhimintotheirtown,gavehimsupplies,andnextdayhemarchedsouthwardstoTadcaster.

The campaign by which Edward regained the crown was one of the mostbrilliantthathaseverbeenconductedbyanEnglishgeneral.ItelicitedproofsofconsummatemilitaryskillfromtheYorkistprinces,anddisplaysofvalourandpresence of mind in action which were never surpassed by any of their race.EdwardIV.isentitledtoanequalplaceasamilitarycommanderwithEdwardIII.orHenryV.Hisstrategyandresourceweresuperior to thoseofeither.Henever lost a battle, though he never declined a combat. In three shortmonthsfromthetimethathelandedwithahandfulofmenonthecoastofHolderness,he had outwitted and out-manoeuvred his opponents, had won two pitchedbattles,andhadrecoveredhiscrown.Richarddeservesscarcely lesscredit.Hewas only eighteen, yet he contributed largely to the success of the campaign,while in battle his brother entrusted the young princewith important separatecommands.

Edward's little bandof adventurerswasopposedby thewhole resourcesofEnglandinthehandsoftheEarlofWarwick.TheEarlhimselfwaspostedwithastrongforceatCoventry.HisbrotherMontaguoccupiedanadvancedpositionatPomfrettointercepttheinvadersontheirsouthwardmarch.TheEarlofOxfordwas advancing from the Eastern counties, and Clarence from London. By amasterlyflankmarch theKingpassed to thewestwardofPomfretandreachedNottingham,leavingMontaguinhisrearbaffledandoutwitted.AtNottinghamloyalmenbegantoflocktotheKing'sstandard.TheEarlofOxfordandDukeof

Exeter had advanced against him from theEastern counties, but the rumouredincreaseofhisforcesmadethemhaltatNewark.TheKingpressedonwardstoLeicester, and marching thence to Coventry, offered battle to the Earl ofWarwick,whowasbehindthewallswith7,000men.Warwickdeclined.Hewastaken completely by surprise. This was on March 29, only a fortnight afterEdward had landed.Without losing a moment the royal armymarched on toWarwick,andontheapproachofClarencefromLondon,hisbrothersencampedinafieldthreemilesontheroadtoBanbury.

The negotiations between King Edward and Clarence were conductedthroughoutbytheiryoungerbrotherRichard,andtohimisduethecreditofthereconciliationwhichtookplace.Hethusrestoredonebrothertohisthrone,andreclaimed the other from dishonour. The defection of Clarence left no enemybetweentheKingandhiscapital.EdwardreachedDaventryonthenightofApril6, attending divine service there on Palm Sunday. On the 9th he was atNorthampton, and on the 11th he entered London, where he was joyfullyreceivedbythecitizens.

Warwickwasoutwittedlikehisbrother.Therewasnothingleftforhimbuttofollow theKing,whocouldgivehimbattleornot ashechose.So thebaffledEarlconcentratedhisarmy,callingupMontagufromPomfret,VereandExeterfromNewark,andSomersetfromthewest.HavingunitedhisforceshemarchedtowardsLondon,reachingSt.Albansonthe12th,andencampingonGladmoreHeathtothenorthofBarnet,andabouttenmilesfromLondon,ontheafternoonofApril13.

BattleofBarnet

TheKing only had one full day in London, inwhich to organise his littlearmy,nowincreasedto9,000men,andtorestthefaithfulfewwhohadmarchedwithhimfromRavenspur.HeenteredLondononthe11th,andintheforenoonof the13thhemarchedout toencounterhisenemies.Advancing toBarnethisscouts drove out the scouts ofWarwick and chased them for half amile.TheKingthenmarchedthroughthetown,andreachedGladmoreHeathwhenitwasdusk.Heencampedmuchnearertheenemythanheintended,andbyreasonofthedarknesshislinewasnotformeddirectlyinfrontoftheopposingforce.TheKing's right extended beyond Warwick's left, while his left was similarlyoverlappedbyWarwick'sright.Inonerespectthiswasfortunate,forWarwick'sartillerywas in his rightwing, and he kept up a fire all through the night[11]

without doing any damage to his adversaries, because their leftwingwas notpostedinfrontoftherebelrightwing;butsomewhattotheeastwardofit.

Warwickhaddrawnuphis armywithhisbrotherMontaguand JohnVere,sonoftheattaintedEarlofOxford,inchargeoftherightwingconsistingmainlyof cavalry; theDukeofSomerset in the centrewith archers andbill-men; andWarwickhimself,with theDukeofExeter, in commandof the leftwing.TheopposingforceoftheKingwasinferiorinnumberstothatoftherebels.Edward,accompaniedbyClarenceandHenryVI.,commandedthecentreinperson.OntheleftwasLordHastings,whileyoungRichardDukeofGloucester,whowasonly eighteen years of age, had charge of the right wing. A strong body ofinfantry was kept in reserve. The King ordered strict silence to be observedthroughoutthenight.

WhenthemorningofEasterSunday,April14,atlengthdawnedtherewasadense fog, so that the twoarmiescouldbarelydistinguisheachother.Athalf-pastfourtheKingadvancedhisstandards,andsoundedhistrumpetsforbattle.There were flights of arrows, and then the opposing forces closed andencounteredeachotherwithhandstrokes, in the thickmist.Fora long time itwasimpossiblefortheleaderstoknowwhatwastakingplaceindifferentpartsofthefield.Oxfordfoundlittletoopposehim.HechargedthefollowersofLordHastingsandeasily routed them,continuing thechasebeyondBarnet.Thenhereturned to reinforce the main body; but here a fatal mistake occurred. ThecognizanceofKingEdwardwas thesun insplendour,adoptedafterseeing theparhelionatMortimer'sCross.ThecognizanceoftheVereswasastarwithrays.[12]WhenthesoldiersofWarwick'scentre,underSomerset,sawafreshbodyofmen approaching under the banner of the star, theymistook it for the King'scognizanceandthoughttheywereattackedinflank.Acryoftreasonranthroughtheirranks.UptothistimetheyhadstubbornlyresistedtheonslaughtsofKingEdwardandhismen,butnowtheybrokeandfled.SomersetandVererodeawaywiththeirmen,andmadegoodtheirescape.

MeanwhiletheDukeofGloucesterhadledhistroopstoafuriousattackontheenemy'sleftwingwhichwascommandedbyWarwickinperson.TheDukehimself plunged into the thickest of the fight. His two esquires, JohnMilwater[13]andThomasParr,wereslainbyhisside.Atthemomentwhenthefate of the battlewas still uncertain, andwhen theKing heard that his youngbrother was hard pressed, the reserves were brought into action, just asSomerset'sdivisionbegantowaver.Victorythenceasedtobedoubtful,andsoon

therewas complete rout all along the rebel line.TheEarlofWarwickandhisbrotherMontagufelleitherinthebattleorinattemptingtoescape.Theaccountsvary.Thoughenemiesandtraitorstotheroyalbrothers,theywerecousins,andhad once been devoted friends. The King sincerely mourned the death ofMontagu, and the depth of Richard's sorrow is proved by his subsequentintercessionforMontagu'sheirs.Thebodies,afterbeinglaidfortwodaysinSt.Paul'sCathedral,werehonourably interred in theburialplaceof theirmother'sfamilyatBisham.The losseson theKing's side includedLordSaye,whohadshared Edward's exile, Humphrey Bourchier Lord Cromwell,[14] another SirHumphrey Bourchier,[15] son of Lord Berners, and the son and heir of LordMountjoy.The losses, on both sides, amounted to about 1,500men.[16]KingEdward and the Duke of Gloucester returned to London the same day, whiletheirarmyrestedforthenightonthebattlefield.

[1]Rot.Parl.vol.vi.p.227.Halsted,i.432.

[2]Sandford,p.391.

[3] The tombs were desecrated in the time of Edward VI., when the college wasgrantedtoJohnDudley,DukeofNorthumberland.QueenElizabethgaveordersthattheyshouldberestored.ThebonesofRichardDukeofYork,oftheDuchessCicely,andofEdmundEarlofRutland,lappedinlead,wereremovedintotheparishchurch.Forthechoir,wheretheyrestedunderthebeautifulshrine,hadbeendestroyed.Meanmonumentsofplasterwerethenerectedoverthem,andovertheremainsofEdwardDuke of York, on either side of the altar. They are specimens of the taste of theElizabethanage,flutedcolumnssupportingafriezeandcornice,ornamentedwiththefalcon and fetter-lock. In the inscriptions they have forgotten the name of youngEdmundEarlofRutland.

[4]PortraitatWindsorCastle.Dr.Parr,inalettertoRoscoe,speakingoftheheadofLorenzo (the Magnificent) prefixed to Roscoe's biography, says: 'I am very muchmistaken if, by invigorating a few traits, it would not make an excellent head ofRichardIII.'—LifeofRoscoe,i.178.

[5]Buck,p.83.

[6]PastonLetters,ii.357,389.

[7]Comines.

[8]TheshipsofthetownsbelongingtotheHanseaticLeague,intheBaltic,andontheElbe,wereknowninEnglandbythenameofEasterlings.

[9]Ravenspurappears,fromthedescriptionofthewriterinFleetwood,tohavebeeninsideSpurnHead.Hesays:'HelandedwithinHumberonHoldernessside,ataplace

calledRavenspoure.'

[10]TheTudorchroniclers,asistheirwont,grosslyexaggerateandmisrepresentthisincident: introducing imaginary details, including an oath before an altar, vows ofallegiancetoHenryVI.,andotherromances.ThesearetheoffspringoftheirzealtopleasetheirTudorpaymasters,bytraducingtheHouseofYork.

[11]Warkworth says that: 'each of them loosed guns at other all night.' Balls havebeendugupweighing1-½lbs.

[12]ThesecondAlbericdeVere,fatherofthefirstEarlofOxford,wasacrusader.In1098 he was in a battle near Antioch when the infidels were defeated. During thechase, a silver star of five points was seen to descend from heaven and light onAlberic's shield, there shining excessively. It had ever since been borne in the firstquarter of theVere arms.This is the old tradition.Modern heralds suspect that themulletwasmerely amark of cadency adopted by the secondbrother of the secondEarl,whoretaineditwhenhebecamethirdEarl.

[13]MentionedintheletterofEdwardandEdmundtotheirfather.

[14] Ralph Cromwell, fourth Baron Cromwell, whowas Lord Treasurer for HenryVI.,andwasthebuilderofTattershallCastle,diedchildlessin1455.HissisterMaudmarried Sir Richard Stanhope and had a daughter Maud, whose husband SirHumphrey Bourchier, third son of Henry Bourchier Earl of Essex, by the PrincessIsabelPlantagenet(auntofEdwardIV.),tookthetitleofLordCromwelljureuxoris.ThisLordCromwellseemstohavebeenastudentoflawaswellasasoldier.ThereisamanuscriptcopyofthestatutesofEdwardIII.intheHunterianLibraryofGlasgowUniversitywhichoncebelongedtohim.Atthebeginningthereisthefollowingentry:'Eximiietpreclarimilitis liber,JohannisMarkhamcapitalis just,deB.Regis,LiberHumfrediBourchierdmusCromwellexdonosupradicti';andattheend:'ThisbokeismineHumphreyBourchierLordCromwellby thegiftof therightnobleand famousjudgeSirJohnMarkhamChiefJusticeoftheKing'sBench.'

[15] Sir John Bourchier, fourth son of William Bourchier Earl of Eu, by Anne,daughterofThomasDukeofGloucester,marriedtheheiressofSirRichardBerners,and was summoned to Parliament as Lord Berners in 1455 to 1472. The secondHumphreyBourchierwhowasslainatBarnetwashisson.FabyanandHabingtoncallhim'LordBarnes.'

[16]Fabyangives thenumber at 1,500.Habington says4,600.Hall is unreliable asusual.Hesays10,000onbothsides.AlthoughsomewriterssaythattheKing'sarmywassuperior innumbers, it isprobable that,whileEdwardonlyhad9,000men, theforcesofWarwickwereverymuchmorenumerous.

CHAPTERV

MARGARETOFANJOUANDHERSONEDWARD

Itisnecessarytolookbackafewyearsinordertoconsiderthelivesofthemotherandsonwhonow,foratime,comeprominentlyintoconnectionwiththelifestoryofRichardDukeofGloucester.

Margaret, seconddaughter ofRenéofAnjou and Isabelle ofLorraine,wasbornatPont-à-MoussononMarch23,1429,andbaptizedatToul.AsachildshewentwithhermothertoCapuaandNaples.Provencewasalsooneofherhomes,butshereturnedtoLorraineinherfifteenthyear.ShewasonlysixteenwhentheDukeandDuchessofSuffolkcametoNancytodemandherhandforHenryVI.of England, and in November 1444 she was married by proxy amidst greatrejoicings;fortheeventsecuredalastingpeacewithFrance.Therewasagreattournament in the Place deCarrière atNancy to celebrate the event, atwhichCharlesVII.andmanyofthechiefnoblesofFrancewerepresent.CharlestiltedwithKing René, bearing on his shield the serpent of the fairyMelusina. ThedaisywasyoungMargaret'scognizance,andPierredeBrezé,LordofVarenne,andSeneschalofNormandy,maintainedthepre-eminenceofthe'daisyeflower'against all comers in thePlace deCarrière.[1]Thiswas nopassing sentiment.Twoatleastinthatbrilliantthrongremainedtruetothefairprincesstothebitterend,PierredeBrezéandtheDuchessofSuffolk.

Margaret was not only very beautiful, she was endowedwith rare gifts ofintellect,whichhadbeencultivatedbytravelinItalyandProvence,andthroughcommunionwithheraccomplishedfather.Shesetout forEnglandattendedbytheDukeandDuchessofSuffolkandatrainofnobles.Onherwayshesuppedwith the Duke of York at Mantes, and reached Honfleur on April 3, 1445.ThenceshesailedacrosstoPortsmouth,whereshesleptattheMaisonDieu.Shewasthentakeninarow-boattoSouthampton,buthermarriagewasdelayedforsometimebyan illness.HenryVI.,whowas inhis twenty-fourthyear,[2]hadbeenwaiting forhisbrideatSouthwick.Themarriage tookplaceatTitchfieldAbbeyonMay30.

Neverwasayounggirlplacedinamorewretchedposition.Marriedtoapoorfeeble creaturewho could be neither companion nor protector, surrounded byself-seekingintriguers, livinginaforeigncountrywithfewtosympathisewithorcareforher;theyearsthatfollowedhermarriagecouldnotfailtoembitterthebraveheart thatnomisfortunehadpower tocrush.Foryears she livedon, thememoriesofthebrightandhappycourtofherfathergraduallyfading,whilethe

cruelfactsofhermiserablepositionhardenedroundher.

ItwasintheeighthyearafterhermarriagethatMargaretbecameamother.Her whole soul opened to the loving influence. All her pent-up womanlyfeelingsfoundavent.Sheatlasthadsomethingtolivefor.Herbrilliantintellect,herfortitudeanddevotion,hergreatpowersofendurance,allshehad,herwholebeing,becamecentredinthischild—theonethingshehadtolove.Forhimshewould face dangers, daremore thanmostmen in perils and hardships, and, ifneedbe,wouldbecomeasatigressatbayindefenceofheryoung.

TheprincewasbornatWestminsteronOctober13,1453,beingjustoneyearyoungerthanRichard.ItwasatatimewhenHenryVI.wasinoneofhisfitsofcompletemental derangementwhich came upon him periodically, as they diduponhisgrandfatherCharlesVI.ofFrance, fromwhomnodoubthe inheritedthem.TheDukeofYorkwasadministeringtherealm.ThechildwasproclaimedPrince of Wales and Earl of Chester. His mother was just twenty-four, andHenrywasinhisthirty-thirdyear.TheQueenhadlosthermother,towhomshewasfondlyattached,onthepreviousFebruary28.Inhopesthatthenamewouldendear her boy to the people, Margaret gave him that of Edward. He wasbaptizedbyCardinalKemp,ArchbishopofCanterbury,assistedbyWaynfleteofWinchester, the Duke of Somerset and Duchess of Buckingham[3] beingsponsors.HewasalsocreatedaKnightoftheGarter.

From his very cradle the child was in the midst of war and turmoil. Themisgovernment of the Beauforts had strengthened the legitimate claim of theDukeofYork,whichwouldneverhavehadachanceagainsttheparliamentarytitleofanableandpopularking.But theYorkistsnowhad to reckonwith thegiftedandintrepidQueen,whosewholesoul,andwhoseeverygiftofmindandbody, were concentrated with fierce devotion on the defence of her child'sbirthright.Nothingbutdeathcouldmakeherdesistfromeffortsonhisbehalf.

YoungEdwardwasonlyinhissecondyearwhenthefirstbattleofSt.Albanswasfought,onMay22,1455.Hismotherhad takenhimtoGreenwich,whereshereceivedthenewsofthedeathofSomersetandherothersupporters,andofthe wound received by Henry. During the following four years there werehollowreconciliations,butadeathstrugglewasinevitable;andinJune1459thecourtleftLondonforWarwick,virtuallytotakethefield.ThechildEdwardwasonlyfiveyearsold.HewasdestinednevertoseeLondonagain.

Margaret strove tomake the child popularwith the people, and to excite afeelingof loyalty for him.HewasnamedEdward to remind themof thekingwhoaddedtothegloryofEnglandatCressyandPoitiers.SheadoptedthebadgeofEdwardIII.as thatof thePrince,and thepretty littleboy,with longgoldenhair, distributed silver swans among thepeoplewherever hewent.TheQueencouldnotbearhimoutofhersight,yetherdauntlesseagernesswouldnotallowher tobeabsentfromscenesofstrife,whenherchild'sfuturedependedontheresult. Mother and child looked down on the battle of Blore Heath from thetower ofMuccleston Church, andwhen LordAudleywas routed they fled toEccleshallCastle.Then therewerea fewmonthsofdawninghope,whichwascrushedatNorthampton.AgainMargaretwatched the fortunesof thedaywithherchild.SheheardofthetreacheryofGrey,shesawthegallantyoungEdwardofYorkleadinghismenoverthetrenches,andthatthedaywaslost.TheKingfellintothehandsofherenemies.

OntheeveningofthatJuly9,1460,sherodeawaywithherbelovedchild,ahomelessfugitive.BetweenEccleshallandChestershewasmadeprisonerbyapartyledbyoneJohnCleger,aservantofLordStanley.Everyinstinctwasonthealertwhendangerapproachedherchild.Shewatchedanopportunitywhilehercaptorswereriflingthebaggage,andescapedwithlittleEdwardinherarms.The adventures through which they passed are not recorded, but she waseventuallyjoinedbytheDukeofSomerset,whoconductedhertoasaferefugeatHarlechCastleinWales.

TheDukeofYork,withHenryinhispower,inducedtheParliamenttoalterthesuccession,andtheclaimsofHenry'ssonwereignored.HenryVI.wrotealetter tohiswife,orderingher toaccept thenewsettlement,andto joinhiminLondonwithherchild.Thismusthavebeenoneofthebitterestmomentsofherunhappylife.Butnoreversecoulddauntthisromanticheroine.ShewentbyseafromHarlechtoScotland,andthencecalleduponallhersupportersinthenorthtorallyroundthestandardofKingHenry.Margaret'sappealmetwithapromptanswer, andon the lastdayof theyear1460 theDukeofYork losthis life atWakefield, overwhelmed by superior numbers. The road was thus open toLondon, andMargaretmade a vigorous effort to recover the birthright of herchild. On February 17, 1461, she won the second battle of St. Albans andrecovered the person of her husband; but she failed to induce the citizens ofLondon toopen their gates toher, andwasobliged to retreat northwards.TheQueenandherchildappeartohavebeeninthethickofthefight;andthiswasthe third battle at which Edward had been present before he had reached his

eighthyear.TheroyalpartyretreatedtoYork,whilepreparationsweremadeforthefinalanddecisivestrugglebetweenthetwofactions.OnMarch4,1461,theyoung Earl of March was proclaimed King, and on the 29th he won thecrowningvictoryofTowton.

Queen Margaret, with her husband and child, had remained at York, andthereshereceivedthenewsofthedestructionofherhopes.Therewasnothingleft forherbut instant and rapid flight.The fugitives fromTowton toldher tomountatonce,andtheunhappyfamily,withafewfaithfulfriends,gallopedoutofBoothamBar,andplungedintotheforestofGaltres.TheDukesofSomersetandExeterandLordRoosattendedthem.TheyescapedtoBerwickandthenceto Edinburgh, where Henry found a suitable abode with the Grey Friars.Margaretpassed the followingwinter inScotland,but in the spring, seeingnopresent hope from her English adherents, who appeared to be crushed, sheresolved toseekhelp fromabroad.Taking the littleprincewithher, shesailedfromKirkcudbrightinApril1462,andlandedinBrittany,whencesheproceededto thecourtofhercousinLouisXI.,whowas thenatChinon. Itwas resolvedthat some assistance should be given to the undaunted heroine in men andmoney.HeroldchampionPierredeBrezénowflewtothesuccouroftheforlornMargaret in her distress.He organized an expedition, and inOctober 1462 hesailedtothecoastofNorthumberlandwiththeQueenandherson.Theylandedat Tynemouth, but the foreign levies were repulsed and fled to their ships,abandoningdeBrezéandtheQueen.Thefugitiveswereafterwardscuttopiecesby troops under Sir RobertOglewhen they landed atHoly Island.DeBrezé,withMargaret and her child, escaped from Tynemouth in a fishing boat and,afteraperilousvoyage,theylandedsafelyatBerwick,whichwasthenaScottishport.

In Scotland there was but a cold welcome for Queen Margaret. It wasnecessary tomake her way to Bamborough, which still held out for her, andthere,abandoningpresenthope,theQueenandherchildembarkedtocommencea life of exile in April 1463. They were accompanied by a band of faithfulfriendswhowouldnotdesertthemintheirextremity.ChiefamongthemwastheLordChiefJustice,SirJohnFortescue.

TheDukeofSomerset,nowadouble-dyedtraitor,withSirHughPercyandothers then rose in rebellion, and captured the castles of Alnwick andBamborough. The Marquis Montagu, followed by Edward IV. in person,advancedrapidlyfromthesouthtoputdownthenewinsurrection.OnApril25,

1464, the insurgentswere defeated atHedgleyMoor, and soon afterwards therestofSomerset'sforcesentrenchedthemselvesnearHexham.PoorHenrywasbroughtfromEdinburgh,wherehewasquitecontentedwithhisGreyFriars,tothe camp. The entrenchments were thrown up on Lyvel's plain, nearDowelwater,andSomersetawaitedtheattack.OnMay8,1464,Montagucameinsight,assaulted theposition,and,afteradesperateresistance,carried itwithgreatslaughter.TheDukeofSomerset,LordsRoosandHungerfordweretakenand beheaded, Henry galloped off on a swift horse in the direction of theScottishBorder.Heconcealedhimself in thewestofYorkshire forayear,butwascapturedatBoltonHallinJune1465andtakentotheTower.[4]

Meanwhile,QueenMargaretencounteredafuriousgaleofwindwhichlastedfor twelve hours, but her vessel at length reached the Flemish port of Sluys.ThencesheproceededbyLilleandHesdintotheCourtoftheDukeofBurgundyatSt. Pol.Here the exileswere hospitably received and suppliedwithmoney,and, after some stay, they went on to the castle of Koeur-la-Petite near St.Mihiel,ontheMeuse.KingRenéhadassignedthiscastleastheresidenceofhisdaughterandgrandson,withtheirfollowers.

No boy who had only reached his eleventh year ever went through suchvicissitudes as Edward of Lancaster.He had been at four pitched battles, hadridden over hundreds of miles, had been seized by robbers, had wandered intracklessforests,hadpassedmanynightsonthebareground,andinopenboats.He hadmade hairbreadth escapes, and had suffered privations and hardships.Fewchildrencouldhavesurvivedsuchalife.Hemusthavehadarobustframecombinedwiththehighcourageofhisrace.Throughall,andprotectinghimatevery step, he had his heroic mother as his companion; surrounding andpervadinghislifewithherdevotedlove.Suchexperiencesmusthaveleftadeepimpressionon theboy's character. Itwas awild and turbulent opening for theyounglife,butnowatlasttherewastobeabriefintervalofrest.Forafewyearshe was to live more peaceably, receiving instruction and enjoying somepleasures,beforedestinyhurriedhimtoaviolentdeath.

St.MihielisasmalltownontherightbankoftheMeuse,inthedioceseofVerdun andDuchy of Bar. Near it there are enormous rocks overhanging theriver, called Les Falaises de St. Mihiel. In the fifteenth century there wascultivation along the river banks,while extensive forests covered theArgonnemountainsfurtherback.NearlyoppositeSt.Mihiel,ontheleftbankoftheriver,was the old castle of Koeur-la-Petite, which René gave to his daughter

Margaret[5];andhecontributedtohersupportasfarashisnarrowmeanswouldallow.Here she dwelt for the five succeeding years,watching the growth andeducationofherboy,andenjoyingmorehappinessthanshehadknownsinceherill-fatedmarriage.ShewaswithinafewmilesofPont-à-Mousson,theplaceofherbirth,andoftensawherbelovedfather,andhersisterIolanthe.

Young Edward was devoted to field sports and martial exercises. Hiscompanionswerethesonsofknightsandesquireswhohadremainedfaithfultohismother; and he loved to gallopwith themover the valley, and to exercisewithswordandlance.Somuchofhistimewaspassedintheseoutdoorexercisesthat,ashisyearsincreased,thegraveradvisersofhismotherbegantothinkthatheshouldgiverathermoreofhisattentiontotheacquisitionoflearning.

AmongtheexileswasthemostlearnedandaccomplishedlawyerwhosatontheEnglishbenchduringthefifteenthcentury,andtheyoungprinceenjoyedtheadvantage of his companionship and instruction. John Fortescue of Ebringtonwas born in 1394, was educated at Exeter College, and became Lord ChiefJusticein1442.ConsideringtheparliamentarytitleoftheLancastrianKingnotonlygood in itself,butevenbetter thanamerelyhereditary title,hebecameasteadyadherentofMargaretofAnjou.Hewroteatreatisesupportingtheclaimof the Lancastrians on principles of constitutional law; while his presence intheircampgavejudicialcountenancetotheappealtoarms.DuringhisexilehemainlyresidedatSt.Mihiel,inattendanceonthelittlecourtofKoeur-la-Petite,and superintended the education of the prince. He was anxious to impart aknowledgeofEnglandandofEnglishconstitutionallawtoaprincewhomightsomedayhavetoruleoverfreedom-lovingEnglishmen,butwholefthiscountrywhen he was too young to recollect much about it. Fortescue has related theoccasionofthesestudiesbeingcommenced,andtheprogressthatwasmade.

'The Prince,' says the aged Chief Justice, 'as he grew up, applied himselfwholly to martial exercises. He was often mounted on fiery and wild horseswhich he did not fear to urge on with the spur. Sometimes with his lance,sometimes with his sword, he made it his diversion to assault the younggentlemen, his attendants, according to the rules ofmilitary discipline.' In thisSirJohnFortescueencouragedhim,buthealsourgedhimtostudylaw,quotingDeuteronomyxvii.18,19.Theboy replied that, althoughheought to read theDivine law, it did not follow that he should study human laws. He said thisthoughtfully,andlookingveryintentlyattheoldjudge.Fortescueansweredthathuman lawswere also sacred, that theywere no other than ruleswhereby the

perfectnotionof justicecouldbedetermined, and that this justicemustbe thesubjectoftheroyalcare.QuotingWisdomi.1,hesaid,'Beinstructed,yejudgesof the earth. Love righteousness, ye judges of the earth. To love justice,' heconcluded, 'you must acquire a competent knowledge of the laws.' PrinceEdwardwas convinced by the discourse of his venerable tutor.He said, 'Youhaveovercomeme, goodChancellor,with your agreeable discourse, andhavekindledwithinmybreastathirstforaknowledgeofthelaw.'Theboycandidlyconfessedthathedidnotwishtopassallhisyoungeryearsinsuchstudies.ThenSir John Fortescue explained to him the amount of legal knowledge that wasnecessaryforaprince.InoneyearhecouldacquiresufficientacquaintancewiththelawsofEngland,andatthesametimehecouldcontinuetoinurehimselftothosemartialexercisestowhichhisnatural inclinationpromptedhimsomuch.'Stillmakeyourdiversionasitbestpleaseyou,atyourleisure,'saidthetutor.

Afterthisconversation,theagedjudgeofseventy-fiveandtheyoungprinceoffifteendevotedsomehoursofeachdaytoastudyoftheEnglishConstitution.Theselectures,intheformofdialogues,wereafterwardsembodiedbyFortescuein a treatise entitled 'De Laudibus legum Angliæ,' which was first printed in1537. Edward began by asking his instructor to satisfy him that the laws ofEnglandwerebetteradaptedfor thegovernmentof thatkingdomthanthecivillaw of the Holy Roman Empire. Fortescue proceeded to establish this point,speciallydwellingonthefactthattheEnglishstatuteswerenotmadebythewilloftheKings,butwereenactedbytheconcurrentconsentofthewholepeople,bytheir representatives inParliament.He thenexplained the territorialdivisionofEnglandintocounties,thedutiesofsheriffs,themethodofempannellingjuries,the procedure in civil and criminal causes. The boy approved highly of thesystemoftrialbyjury,thejurorsbeingmenchosenfromamongneighbourswhoknew thecountryandpeople. 'Iknowofmyself,'he remarked, 'morecertainlywhat is doing at this time in theBarroiswhere I reside, thanwhat is doing inEngland.'

Onanotherday theChief Justice illustrated thegood resultsof theEnglishConstitutionbycomparingtheconditionofEnglandwiththatofFranceruledbyadespotism.'InthelandofEngland,'hesaid,'therearenowolvesnorbears.Thegrazing lands are enclosedwith hedgerows and ditches and plantedwith treeswhich fence the herds and flocks frombleakwinds and sultry heat.There aremanyfranklinsandyeomen,ofestatessufficienttomakesubstantialjuries,notafew spending 100l. a year andmore.Other countries are not in such a happysituation,andnotsowellstoredwithinhabitants.'Theprincethenremarkedthat

he could understand how the wealth and populousness of England had beencausedbythesuperiorexcellenceofherlaws.Butadoubtaboutthenumberofjurors had occurred to his youthful mind. He said, 'Although this method ofsiftingout the truthhighlypleasesme,yet there rests thisdoubtwithme.OurblessedSavioursays:"Itiswritteninyourlawthatthetestimonyoftwomenistrue" (Johnviii. 17), and again inMatthewxviii. 16.' Fortescue answered thatourjurylawdidnotcontradictthis,forifthetestimonyoftwobetrue,afortiorithatoftwelveoughttobepresumedtobeso.'Themorealwayscontainsinitthatwhich is less.'Besides inEnglandsomecasesmaybeprovedbefore twoonly,such as facts occurring on the high seas, and proceedings before the LordConstableandEarlMarshal.

Onanotheroccasion,havingpreviouslyshownthattheprosperityofEnglandwas due to laws agreed to by the people, Fortescue illustrated the evils ofdespoticpowerby the conditionofFrance. 'Youwill remember,' he said, 'thatyousawinFrancehowthevillagesaresomuchoppressedbytheKing'ssoldiersthat you could scarcely be accommodated in your travels. The troops pay fornothing,andtreatthepeoplebarbarouslyiftheyarenotsatisfied.Thusthepoorpeopleareexposedtogreatcalamities.TheKingofFrancewillallownoonetousesalt,butwhatisboughtofhimselfathisownarbitraryprice.Allgrowersofvinesmustgive a fourth to theKing.All the townspay theKinggreatyearlysumsforhismen-at-arms;sothatthepeasantsliveingreathardshipsandmisery.Theywearnowoollen.Theirclothingconsistsoflittleshortjerkinsofsackcloth,notrowsebutfromthekneesupwards,andlegsexposedandnaked.Thewomenallgobarefoot.Thepeopleeatnotmeat,except thefatofbacon in theirsoup.Norarethegentrymuchbetteroff.Ifanaccusationisbroughtagainstthem,theyareexaminedinprivate,andperhapsnevermoreheardof.

'In England it is very different. No one can abide in another man's housewithout his leave, or take his goods, except the King by his purveyors at areasonableprice.TheKingcannotputontaxes,noralterthelaws,normakenewones.TheEnglish never drinkwater except for penance.They eat all sorts offleshandfish.Theyareclothedthroughoutingoodwoollens;andareprovidedwithallsortsofhouseholdgoods.AnEnglishmancannotbesuedexceptbeforetheordinaryjudge.'HavingdrawnthiscontrastbetweentheFrenchandEnglish,the old judge continued: 'These advantages are due to the political mixedgovernmentwhichprevailsinEngland.ThoseKingswhohavewishedtochangeit preferred ambition, luxury, and impotent passion to the good of the State.Rememberthatthekingisgivenforthesakeofthekingdom,notthekingdom

forthesakeoftheking.'

Edward,althoughhefrequentlyintervenedwithpertinentquestions,showingthathewasgivingcloseattentiontothesubject,fullyconcurredintheargumentsofhistutor,andmusthavederivedgreatbenefitfromthiscourseofstudies.HewasimpressedwiththedutiesofanEnglishking,withthelimitedcharacterofhispower,andwiththeimportanceofaparliamentarytitle.FortescuealsobegantooccupytheyoungPrinceintheactivetransactionofaffairsofState.Edwardhimselfwrote adespatch toSirThomasButler,Earl ofOrmonde,whowas inPortugalrepresentingthecauseoftheHouseofLancastertoKingAlfonsoV.,[6]andhewasacquaintedwiththeproceedingsofSirJohnFortescuewhenhemadejourneystothecourtofLouisXI.

TheresidenceatKoeur-la-Petitelastedforfiveyears,1465-69.Thepeacefulhomewasbrokenupthroughthetreacheryoftheturbulentandself-seekingEarlofWarwick.ExasperatedwithEdwardIV.,owingtohismarriageandconnexionwith theWoodville faction,Warwick had resolved to abandon the causewithwhichhewasconnectedbytiesofrelationshipandbylife-longservice.HehadmarriedhisdaughterIsabeltotheDukeofClarencewithouttheKing'sconsent,and had alienated that vacillating prince from his brother.He came to Francewith the Countess, his two daughters Isabel and Anne, and Clarence: andproposed to King Louis to espouse the cause of his cousin Margaret, and torestoreHenrytothethrone.ThefearofanalliancebetweenEdwardIV.andtheDukeofBurgundycausedLouistoentertainWarwick'sscheme.ButitwasmostdistastefultoMargaret.Muchasshelongedfortherestorationtoherchildofhisbirthright,shefounditdifficult toacceptsuchaid.Warwickhadnotonlybeenthemost inveterate enemyofher family, hehadalsomadehimself personallyodious to Margaret. He was now a double-dyed traitor. His motives weretransparentlyselfish,andshebelievedneitherinhisnew-bornloyaltynorinhisabilitytohelpher.ButthepersuasionsofLouisXI.andofherownrelationsatlengthinducedhertocometotheFrenchcourt.TheQueenandherson,attendedbySirJohnFortescueandtheirotherfaithfuladherents,leftthehappyhomeinthelovelyvalleyoftheMeuseinDecember1469.

MargaretarrivedatTours,wheretheFrenchcourtthenwas,accompaniedbyPrinceEdward,KingRené,herbrotherJohnofCalabria,hersisterIolanthe,andherbrother-in-lawFerrydeVaudemont.Warwickarrivedsoonafterwards,andwith much reluctance Margaret consented to an interview. Negotiations werecontinuedforseveralmonths;andonJuly15thecourtmovedtoAngers,where

theCountessofWarwickandherdaughterAnnewereinattendance.

Warwickasked thatPrinceEdwardshouldmarryhisdaughterAnne,as thereward of his assistance.At first theQueen positively refused, but she at lastgave a conditional and very unwilling assent, moved by the importunities ofLouisXI.andherrelations.ThemarriagewasnottotakeplaceuntilafterHenryVI.wasrestoredtothethroneand, ifWarwickfailed, theagreementwasatanend. 'The said marriage shall not be perfyted until the Earl of Warwick hasrecovered the realmofEngland forKingHenry.'[7]Theywerenevermarried.They were, indeed, too young, Edward being seventeen, and Anne barelyfourteen.[8] Knowing the dislike of his mother to such a union, and stronglyprejudicedagainstithimself,itisnotlikelythatEdwardevertookmorenoticeofWarwick'schildthanordinarycourtesyrequired,ifindeedheeversawher.

Queen Margaret made preparations for a voyage to England, where hersupporterswere expected to rise in thewestern counties andWales.Warwickhadprecededherbyseveralmonths.Margaretwasinherforty-secondyear,andshe had lost some of her buoyancy and vigorous hopefulnesswith her youth.Still asdeterminedasever toassert the rightsofher son, she trembled forhissafety.Shegot ready to embarkwith feelingsofdeepanxiety and foreboding.Edward reached his seventeenth birthday in October 1470, and in NovemberQueenMargaretand thePrinceenteredParis,andwerehonouredwithagrandofficialreception.Edwardwasnowahandsomeladofseventeen,witharobustframewell seasoned by active outdoor life. He was tall for his age, with thefeatures of hismother, and long golden hair.Hewas a good horseman and apractisedman-at-arms.Wellinstructedinalltheliterarycultureofthetime,anddoubtlessinheritingsomeofhisgrandfather'sloveofpoetryandromance,youngEdwardhadalsocarefullystudiedtheconstitutionandlawsofEngland.Hewasfullyconvincedofthejusticeofhiscausebythereasoningofoneoftheablestlawyersofthetime,andthehereditarybraveryofhisracenowfilledhimwithmartialardour.Buthewasstillveryyoung,andall thesequalitiesofheadandheartwereasyetonlybuddingtowardsmaturity.

[1]Barante.

[2]Bornin1421.

[3]ANevill.SisteroftheDuchessofYork.

[4]SeeArchæologia,47(ii),p.265.Margaretwasnotat thebattleofHexham,andtherobberstoryisafabrication.

[5]Villeneuve,ViedeRoiRené.

[6]AlfonsoV.was a grandson ofQueen Philippa, sister ofHenry IV. of England,thereforeasecondcousinofHenryVI.

[7]Ellis,OriginalLetters,SecondSeries,i.132.

[8]BornJune11,1456.

CHAPTERVI

THEBATTLEOFTEWKESBURY

There was long delay in the arrival of Queen Margaret in England withreinforcements.Shewasprevented fromsailingbycontrarywindsatHarfleur.Three times the ships put to sea, andwere forced to return. The Countess ofWarwick,withherdaughterAnne,arrivedfirstatPortsmouthand,hearingofthedeathofherhusbandatBarnetsoonafterwards,shetooksanctuaryinBeaulieuAbbey.QueenMargaretwithhersonEdward,SirJohnLangstrother,PriorofSt.John,SirJohnFortescue,andmanyexiledknightslandedatWeymouthonApril14,theverydayofthebattleofBarnet.

Weymouthwasthenasmallseaportwithnosuitableaccommodationforsolarge a concourse. The Queen, therefore, passing throughDorchester, at onceadvancedfifteenmilesnorthwardfromtheseacoast,totheAbbeyofCerne.Dr.Morton,whoaccompaniedher,hadoncebeenamonkatCerne;andtheAbbotwas his old friend. This circumstance no doubt led to the decision of QueenMargaret to seek the hospitality of Abbot Roger Bemynster, and here shereceived tidings of the battle of Barnet, a disaster which seemed fatal to hercause.At first shewasoverwhelmed, andwishedher boy to return toFrance.But in a few days she was joined by Edmund Beaufort, the last Duke ofSomerset,andhisbrotherJohn.SomersethadcommandedthearchersatBarnet,buthadescapedand foundhisway to theQueen. JasperTudor,[1] theEarlofDevonshire,andLordWenlockfollowedcloselyontheheelsofSomerset.Theyentreatedher topersevere, assuringher that thewest ofEnglandwas ready torise inhersupport,and that levieshadactuallybeencalledout,withExeterastherendezvous.Withsomereluctancesheconsented,andhergallantsonentereduponthelastthreeweeksofhisyounglife.TudorwasdespatchedtoraiseforcesinWales.Margaret,withtherestofheradherents,leftCerneAbbeyafterastayofabouttendays,marchedtoExeterandthence,byTaunton,GlastonburyandWells,toBristol.Freshleviesjoinedandincreasedherforcesassheadvanced.

OnApril 16King Edward heard thatQueenMargaret had landed.He hadreturnedtoLondontwodaysbefore,afterhisvictoryatBarnet.Onthe19thhewenttoWindsorandwaitedtocollectmen,celebratingthefeastofSt.Georgethereonthe23rd.Hesawatoncethattheenemyhadonlytwocourses:eitherto

march on London and give him battle, or to go northwards and unite withTudor's levies inWales. His policy was to engage his adversaries as soon aspossible, before they could be reinforced. He was not likely to receive moresupportuntilhehadgainedadecisivevictory,andhispositionwasestablished.Queen Margaret's generals tried to deceive him by sending detachments inseveral directions; but his final conclusion was that they intended to take anortherlydirection,bycrossingtheSevernandmarchingintoWales.Thisitwashisintentiontoprevent.

TheKing leftWindsor onApril 24, accompanied by his brothersClarenceand Gloucester, by Lords Hastings and Dorset, and by his old tutor RichardCroft.Hehadsomeartillery,whichcausedhimtoproceedbyeasymarches.Afew reinforcements had arrived. Among them were forty soldiers paid andclothedby thecityofNorwich.On the27thEdwardwasatAbingdon,andonthe29thatCirencester.Hekeptasomewhatnortherly line,soas tofallontheenemy's flank if a rush wasmade at London. At Abingdon he heard that theQueenwasatWells.NewscametoCirencesterthatshewouldbeatBathnextday, and then advance to attack him. So he moved to meet her as far asMalmesbury. Then the news arrived that she had gone to Bristol, and hadresolved togivehimbattle atChippingSodbury.Lancastrianparties had evenbeen sent to take ground on Sodbury Hill. On Thursday, May 2, the Kingmarched to Chipping Sodbury, but found no enemy. It was a feint. TheLancastrianshadgainedadayonhim,andwereinfullmarchtoGloucester.Itwasnowarace to theSevern.Itwas lifeanddeath to theLancastrianarmytocrosstheriverandjoinTudorontheWelshborder.ItwasequallylifeanddeathforKingEdward to prevent it.He encamped in a valley between the hill andSodbury village on the night of the 2nd, anxiously waiting for correctintelligence.AtthreeinthenextmorningheheardthattheenemywasmakingaforcedmarchonGloucester.LuckilythecastlewasheldbyRichard,sonofLordBeauchamp of Powyke, for theKing. Edward sent a trustymessenger, urgingthem to hold out, with the assurance that he was following rapidly. Themessengerarrivedintime.

TheLancastrianarmyhadmarchedall through thenight fromBristol,overtheplainbetweentheCotswoldHillsandtheSevern.AttenintheforenoonofMay3, theQueen'sforcescamebefore thegatesofGloucesterandsummonedthe place. SirRichardBeauchampmanned thewalls and refused to surrender.There was no time to spare. It was thought wiser to proceed to Tewkesburywithoutresting.TheyarrivedatTewkesburyataboutfourintheafternoonofthe

sameday.But the troopshadmarched,during thatdayand thenightbefore,adistanceofthirty-sixmileswithoutrest.Themenwereexhausted,andcouldgonofurther.MargaretwantedthemtopassovertheSevern,butitwasrepresentedtoher that if theycouldcrosstheriver theKingcouldfollow,andattackthemwhen theywerewornoutwith fatigue.TheQueenwas right. Itwas resolved,however, that the troops should obtain some rest, and that a strong positionshouldbetakenupandentrenched,outsidethetownofTewkesbury.TherewasabridgeovertheAvoninthosedays,butnoneovertheSevernatTewkesbury.

Close to the first mile-post on the turnpike road, on the west side ofTewkesbury, there is a range of elevated ground called Holme Hill, where acastle once stood. The present workhouse is built on part of the site. Closebehind it there isa fieldcalled 'theGastons,'[2]andsomeground laidoutasacemetery.OntheeastsideoftheroadisGupshillfarmandgardens,andafieldcalled 'Margaret's camp.' The Lancastrian position included the Gastons andGupshill,withtheabbeyandthehousesofthetownimmediatelyintherear.Itisdescribed as 'a place right evil to approach.'[3] Strong entrenchments werethrownupinthefrontandbothflanks,strengthenedbymuddylanesandditches.

OnthesamemorningofMay3,atearlydawn,KingEdwardmarshalledhisforcesatChippingSodbury in threebattalions,andprepared fora longmarch,withscoutsinfrontandontheflanks.Hisinfantrynumbered3,000men.Itwasaveryhotdayandhe tookadirect lineover theCotswoldHills; rightly judgingthat the enemy,having failedbeforeGloucester,wouldmake forTewkesbury.Thither,therefore,hemarcheddirectwithoutahalt.Themenfoundneitherfoodnor evenwater, except at one small brook. But theKing allowed no rest. HereachedCheltenhamastheenemygottoTewkesbury.AtCheltenhamheservedouttherationsthathadbeenbrought,themenhavingmarched28miles.Thenheresumedthemarch,andatnightheencampedwithintwomilesof theenemy'sposition,havingmarchedoverthirty-fourmiles.

AtdawnonSaturday,May4,1471,thearmyofQueenMargaretpreparedtoresist the assault of the King's forces. The van was commanded by EdmundDukeofSomerset,andhisbrotherSirJohnBeaufort.YoungPrinceEdwardwastoleadthemainbattle,assistedbyLordWenlockandthePriorofSt.John.ThereardivisionwasundertheEarlofDevonshire.QueenMargaretpartedwithhersonthatmorningindeepanxiety,forthefirstandalas!thelasttime.Sheretiredto a small religious house at Gupshill, with the Countess of Devonshire, theLadyVauxandotherladies.

King Edward[4] arranged his army in three divisions. Young Richard ofGloucester[5]commandedthevanguardwiththeartillery.TheKinghimselfledthe centre.Hastings andDorset conducted the rear. TheKing had observed aparkwithmuchwood to the right of the enemy's position, and he posted 300spearmenthere,toactasoccasionmightrequire.Hethendisplayedhisbanners,blewhistrumpets,andmarchedstraightontheentrenchments.

Gloucester found so many hedges and deep dikes in front of him that hecouldnotbreakintotheenemy'slinesoastocomehandtohand.Heordereduptheartilleryand,alsousingarrows,openedonSomerset'sdivision.Galledbythefire,SomersetthenledhismendownsomelanesontheKing'sflank,whichhehadpreviouslyreconnoitred,andfelluponthetroopsoftheYorkistcentrewithgreat fury, driving them backwards. He charged Gloucester with the sameimpetuosity, and was in the full tide of success when, just as the King wasrallying hismen, the select 300 spearmen from thewood attacked Somerset'srearandcausedapanic.ThisgavetheKingtimetoreformandresumethefight.Somerset'smennowfellback,while theDukeofGloucestermadeadesperateassaulton theLancastriancentre,behind theentrenchments.Therewasashortandgallantstruggle, inwhichyoungPrinceEdwardfleshedhismaidensword,and then theLancastrians broke in all directions. The routwas complete. Theabbeywatermillswereinameadowclosetothetown,andheremanyfugitivesweredrowned.Therewasagreatslaughterinthe'BloodyMeadow'totherearofthe Lancastrian position, for it leads to a ford or ferry over the Severn calledLowerLode.ButsoontheKinggaveorderstosparethefugitives.

The brave youngPrince,who led themain battle of theLancastrians, borehimselfvaliantly,andplayedthemanbeforehispeopleinthatsuprememomentofhislife.Ofthatweneedhavenodoubt.Borneawayintherout,andfollowedcloselybythevictoriousenemy,hewasslainbetweenGastonsandTewkesbury.Theclosingsceneisdimlyshowntous.Thehorseiswoundedandonitsknees.Thentheriderreceiveshisdeathblowfrombehind.Thehelmethadbeenstruckoff.Thebrightgolden locks sinkdownon thehorse'smane,[6]and inanothermoment horse and rider fall and are ridden over. Thus ended the life of SirEdward Plantagenet, K.G., Prince ofWales and Earl of Chester. His agewasseventeen years and sixmonths. Hewas a boy of great promise; courageous,intelligent,andaffectionate.Hisshortlifemusthaveembracedalargeshareofhappiness.Evenduringallthedangersandhardshipsofhischildhood,thelovingarmofthedevotedmothermusthavedivertedthoseterrorswhichcausemiseryto unprotected children.The life atKoeur-la-Petitewas a period of unclouded

pleasure.Thencame theexcitementof the lastcampaign,andagloriousdeathonthebattlefield.ThebodyofPrinceEdwardwasburiedinTewkesburyAbbeychurch.

TheEarlofDevonshire,LordWenlock,SirJohnBeaufort,SirWilliamVaux,Sir Edmund Hampton, Sir E. Whittingham, Sir William Melding, Sir JohnSeymour,Mr.Henry,acaptainofBristol,andSirWilliamRooswereamongtheslain.Beaufort,Hampton,Vaux,WhittinghamandRooshadsharedtheQueen'sexileatKoeur-la-Petite.

The lords and knightswho escaped from the battlefield took refuge in theabbeychurch,which,however,hadnospecialprivilegeofsanctuary.Theyweretriedfor treasonbefore theEarlMarshaland theLordHighConstable,acourtwhich is recognised as legal by Chief Justice Fortescue. Thirteen[7] werecondemned,andwerebeheaded in themarketplaceofTewkesburyonMay6,1471.Itmustberememberedthatthetreasonofwhichmostofthemwereguiltywasdouble-dyed,thatis,theyhadbeenforgivenandhadagainbecometraitors.

DukeofSomerset

PriorofSt.JohnSirW.Newborough

SirGervaseCliftonSirWalterCourtenay

SirHumphreyAudleyJamesGower

SirHughCareyLewisMiles

SirThomasTreshamRobertJackson

HenryTreshamJohnFlory,ofFrance

Gowerwas the youngPrince's sword-bearer.Audley andCourtenay sharedtheQueen'sexile.Thesemighthavebeenspared.EdwardIV.wasgenerousandforgivingafterthefirstfuryofthemomenthadpassed.Allinferiorofficersandsoldierswerepardoned.SirJohnFortescuereceivedpardonanddiedatagoodold age at his seat at Ebrington in Gloucestershire. The intriguing Earl ofOrmonde was also pardoned, as were many leading captains of the defeatedarmy, Sir Henry Roos, Sir JohnGiles, SirWilliamGrimsby, Fulford, Parker,Basset, Throgmorton,Walleys andmanymore. Dr.Morton and Dr.Makerel,whowerewiththeQueen,werealsopardoned.

TheKingconferredknighthoodonforty-threeofficers;includinghisoldtutorRichardCroft,SirJohnPilkington,andSirThomasStricklandfromYorkshire;Sir Terry Robsart, Sir Edward Wodehouse, and Sir William Brandon fromNorfolk;SirJohnSt.Lo,SirE.CorbetandLordCobham.ThenamesofNevill,

Courtenay,Berkeley,Hastings,Harington,Grey,Tyrrel,Pierpoint,Parr,Welby,Ratcliffe,Devereuxalsoappear.

One turns with shuddering pity from the anguish beyond all power ofutterance, from the black despair in the religious house atGupshillwhere theQueenawaitedtheissueofthebattlewithherladies.[8]TheyescapedacrosstheAvon, and took refuge at Payne's Place in the parish of Bushley. Next day,continuingtheirjourneytowardsWorcester,theyfoundshelterinsomereligioushouse near that city.There theywere captured bySirWilliamStanley. Itwasreportedthatheannouncedtheprince'sdeathwithcallousbrutality.Itmatteredlittle.Theblowmusthavestunnedtheunhappymotherandnothingcouldaddtoits crushing effect. Her real life ended with that of her beloved child. QueenMargaretwas brought toEdward IV. atCoventry, bySirWilliamStanley, onMay11,andtotheTowerofLondononthe22nd.

HenryVI.died in theToweron the24th,at thecomparativelyearlyageofforty-nine.AsMargaretarrivedonthe22nd,sheprobablyattendedherhusbandduringthelasttwodaysofhislife.TheLancastrianleaningofthefamilyofLordRivers, who was then Constable of the Tower, would ensure facilities beingextendedtoher.ThenceMargaretofAnjouwasremovedtoWindsor,aransomhavingbeendemanded forher.With thoughtful kindnessKingEdward finallyentrustedthechargeofthepoorQueentoheroldfriendtheDowagerDuchessofSuffolkatEwelme.[9]TheDuchesshadcometoNancyforHenry'sbride,andhad seen the beautiful young princess at the brilliant tournament. She nowreceived her, after twenty-seven years, a childless and despairing widow,crushedtotheearthbygriefunspeakable.MargaretresidedwiththeDuchessatEwelme,andafterwardsatWallingfordCastleuntiltheransomwaspaidbyoldKingRené.

OnAugust29,1475,theransom,amountingtofiftythousandcrowns,havingbeenpaid,QueenMargaretproceededtoembarkatSandwich,attendedbythreeladies and seven gentlemen, and escorted by Sir John Haute. She landed atDieppe, and signed a renunciation of all rights derived from her marriage, atRouenonJanuary29,1476.ThenceshewenttoReculée,aleaguefromAngers,where she livedwithher old father until his death in1480, aged seventy-two.The last sadyearswerepassedat thechâteauofDampierreon theLoire,nearSaumur,under thecareofFrançoisdeVignolle, anoldand faithful servantofherfamily.Thebraveandlovingsoulwasatlengthreleased.MargaretofAnjoudiedattheageoffifty-two,onAugust25,1482,elevenyearsafterthelightwent

outofherlife.ShewasburiedinthecathedralofAngers.

[1] Jasper and Edmund Tudor were created Earls of Pembroke and Richmond byHenry VI. They were attainted and deprived of their earldoms by Edward's firstParliament. Subsequently Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was created Earl ofRichmond;andthesonofKingEdwardIV.becameEarlofPembroke.

[2]Leland says: 'intravit campumnomineGastum,' and 'nominaoccisorum in belloGastriensis prope Theokesbury.' A place called 'the Vineyard' is mentioned. But'vineyards' were merely apple orchards.Where manors were held of the King, thetenantswereobligedtopayyearlyavesselofwinemadeofapples,orcider.

[3]'Inaclosehardeatthetoune'send,havingthetounandabbeyattheirbacks,andbeforethemdefendedbylanesanddeepditchesandhedges.'—Holinshed.

[4]Thenagedtwenty-nine.BornApril28,1442.

[5]Thenagedeighteenandahalf.BornOctober2,1452.Hewas just ayearolderthanPrinceEdward.

[6]SomuchisshowninapictureaccompanyingthenarrativesenttoFlandersbyaneyewitness.ItisinthepubliclibraryatGhent.SeealsoArchæologia,xxi.11-23.

[7] In the Pastern Letters there is a list of sixteen, Sir John Delves, Sir William'Newbery'added,andAudleygiventwice,Jacksonnotbeinggiven(iii.9).

[8]Speed,p.684.SeealsoapaperbytheRev.E.E.Dowdeswellonthe'MovementsofQueenMargaretafterthebattleofTewkesbury,'intheTransactions(x.144)oftheBristolandGloucestershireArchæologicalSociety.

[9] 'As for Queen Margaret, I understand that she is removed from Windsor toWallingford nigh to Ewelme,my Lady of Suffolk's place inOxfordshire.'—PastonLetters,iii.83.

EwelmebelongedtotheChaucerfamily,andAlice,theheiressofGeoffreyChaucer,married William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk. In 1424 the Duke and Duchess ofSuffolk built a palace at Ewelme, rebuilt the church, and founded a hospital and aschoolthere.QueenMargaretwasreceivedbytheDuchessatEwelme,andafterwardsatWallingfordCastle.

CHAPTERVII

MARRIEDLIFEANDPUBLICSERVICESOFRICHARDDUKEOF

MARRIEDLIFEANDPUBLICSERVICESOFRICHARDDUKEOFGLOUCESTER

While theKingwasengagedatTewkesbury, thebastardofhisuncle,LordFauconberg,madeanattackonLondonBridge,andwhenhewas repulsed,heretreatedtoSandwich.ThisdisturbancehastenedthereturnofEdwardIV.,whoreachedtheToweronMay21.TotheDukeofGloucesterwasentrustedthedutyoffollowingupthebastard,andearlynextmorninghestartedforKent.ArrivingbyforcedmarchesatSandwich,therebelwastakenbysurpriseandsurrenderedon the26th.Hewasa firstcousinof theKingandof theDukeofGloucester,thoughillegitimate;sonofthegeneraltowhom,nexttoEdward,thevictoryofTowtonwasdue.RichardtookhimtoMiddleham,andtreatedhimkindlyasaprisoner at large. But he escaped, was taken at Southampton, tried for hisoriginaltreason,andbeheaded.

Peacewasoncemorerestoredtotheland,andtheDukeofGloucester'sgreatserviceswere recognised by the country. TheKing and Parliamentwere soonafterwardsoccupiedwithRichard'smarriage.

The estates of the Earl and Countess of Warwick were forfeited, and theDuke of Clarence, who had married the elder daughter, Isabella, desired toobtainthewholeforhimself.TheCountessofWarwick,whenshereturnedfromFrancewithherdaughter,Anne,andreceivedthenewsofherhusband'sdeath,took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey on the Southampton Water. AfterTewkesbury,Clarenceclaimed thewardshipofAnne,and tried together intohispower.

The Duke of Clarence was grasping and selfish. He had no stability ofcharacter,wasvacillating,andeasily influencedbybadadvisers.It isnotclearhowhissister-in-lawescapedfromhisclutches;buthisobjectwastopreventherfrommarryingandtoseizehershareofherparents'property,aswellasthatofhiswife. It is certain thatAnne left hermother atBeaulieu andplacedherselfunder theprotectionofheruncle,GeorgeNevill,ArchbishopofYork.But thecircumstancesareunrecorded.Thereismentionofadisguiseasacookmaid.TheArchbishop placed her in sanctuary at St. Martin's-le-Grand: where herinclinationsandwishescouldinnowaybeinfluencedoroverridden.

TheyoungDukeofGloucestersoughtthehandofhiscousinAnne.Theyhadbeenplayfellowsaschildren,andnowthecousinsformedanattachmentwhich

endured until death, Richard only surviving his wife for four months. AnneacceptedtheproposalofRichard,andhissuitwasapprovedbytheKingandbythe Archbishop, the guardians of the two lovers. But Clarence madeunreasonabledifficultiesaboutthesettlement.Fromthe'PastonLetters'welearnthat 'the King entreateth my Lord Clarence for my Lord Gloucester, and heanswereththathemaywellhavemylady,hissister-in-law,buttheyshallpartnolivelihood.'

AtlengththemarriagesettlementswerearrangedbyParliament.MiddlehamwasincludedinGloucester'sshareoftheWarwickinheritance.In1472,Richardand Anne were happily married inWestminster Abbey by the Archbishop ofYork.Hisagewasnineteen,thatofhiswifesixteen.

MiddlehamCastle

TheirhomewasatMiddleham,inbeautifulWensleydale,andAnne'smother,theCountessofWarwick,wastakenfromhersanctuaryatBeaulieu,tolivewiththem.HeretheDukeandDuchesspassedseveralyears,winninggoldenopinionsfromthepeopleofthenorth,andacquiringgreatpopularityinYorkshire.

In1475,theDukeofGloucesterwascalledfromhishometoaccompanytheKing when he invaded France. Louis XI. offered a large sum of money ifEdwardIV.wouldabandonhisally,theDukeofBurgundy,andmakepeace.Healso bribed Dr. Morton and Edward's principal courtiers. Under the evilinfluence ofMorton and theWoodville faction, theKing ofEngland, after aninterview with Louis, acceded to the disgraceful bargain. But the Duke ofGloucesteralsohadaninterviewwithKingLouisandwasnottobecorrupted.Heobjectedtothearrangement,andwouldhavenopartinit.Hisconductwashonourable and consistent. He maintained that faith ought to be kept withEngland'sally.

RichardDuke of Gloucester lived atMiddlehamCastle, with his wife andchild,fortenyears,from1472to1482,fromhistwentiethtohisthirtiethyear.Herehehadpassedhisearlyyouth,hadformedhismostenduringfriendships,andhadfirstseenhiscousinAnne.ThetenyearsofpeacefulmarriedresidenceatMiddlehamwasnodoubt thehappiestperiodofRichard'sshortbuteventfullife.

SEIZEQUARTIERSOFANNENEVILLSEIZEQUARTIERSOFANNENEVILL

Theruinsofthegrandoldpile,withthevillageandthechurchattheirfeet,still form a conspicuous object on the southern slope of Wensleydale.Middleham is about a mile and a half above the junction of the Ure and theCover.Inrearofthecastlearethebreezydowns,andinfronttheriverUreflowsthrough rich pastures,with the town ofLeybourne on the opposite slope.ThecastleconsistedofaloftyNormankeepsurroundedbyanenceinteeightyyardslong by sixty-fivewide. The keep,whichwas built byRobert FitzRanulph in1190,wasfiftyfeethigh,withwallsninefeet thick,strengthenedat theanglesbybuttressesrisingintorectangularturrets.Itwasdividedintotwolargeroomsoneachfloor,thegreathallhavingaloftyarchedwindow,duetothetasteoftheDukeofGloucester.Inthenorth-eastangletherewasacuriousmuralchamber,twelve feet longbynine,openingon to thehall, and theeast faceof thekeepwas one side of the chapel. The outerwallswere thirty feet highwith squaretowersattheangles,andagatehouseonthenorthface.Theresidentialbuildingsstoodagainst threesidesoftheenceinte,andseemtohavecommunicatedwiththegreathallinthekeepbyacoveredpassage.

The nearest neighbours of the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester were theMonksofJervauxandCoverham,theircousintheLordScropeofBolton,[1]andtheMetcalfesofNappaHall.[2]

The manuscript volume No. 433 of the Harleian collection in the BritishMuseumsuppliesafewglimpsesofthehomelifeatMiddleham.Wereadofapackofhoundsandof thewagesofa jester.There is theelectionofakingofrushbearing,andofakingofMiddleham,evidentlygamesfortheamusementoftheDuke'slittlesonEdward,whowasbornabout1473.[3]Thechild'stutorwasRichardBernall,andthecostisrecordedofhisprimerandpsalter,andofsatintocoverthem.Therearealsopaymentsforgreenclothformylordprince,andforafeatherformylordprince.

Richard'sableadministration

Though Middleham was Richard's home, his official residence, as ChiefSeneschalof theDuchyofLancaster in thenorthparts,wasatPomfretCastle.HealsostayedoccasionallyatSheriffHutton,Skipton,andBarnardCastle.Hewasregardedasa trustedfriendbyhisneighbours,and inSeptember1481wefind Lady Latimer showing her confidence in his integrity by appointing himsupervisor of herwill. Shewas a sister of hismother-in-law, theCountess ofWarwick.TheDukeofGloucesterbestowedgreatbenefitsonthecityofYork,

wherehewasmuchbeloved.Duringhisfrequentvisitshewasusuallytheguestof the Augustine friars,[4] and in their monastery he conferred with theauthorities touching their local affairs. He was actively engaged inadministrativework,andingivinghistimetosettletheaffairsofhisneighboursfrom 1472. In that year we find him writing about a robbery of cattle atSpofforth.In1482hewasanarbitratorinthedisputebetweenRobertPlumptonand his heirs-general.[5] He improved and beautified several Yorkshirechurches,buildinganadditional chapel atSheriffHutton, foundingcolleges atMiddleham[6]andBarnardCastle,andamemorialchapelnearthebattlefieldofTowton.CrosbyPlace,inBishopsgate,becamethetownresidenceoftheDukeand Duchess of Gloucester, after the death of its wealthy founder, Sir JohnCrosby,in1475.

Richard, Duke of Gloucester, had been created Great Chamberlain andAdmiral of England by his brother, and he was LordWarden of the CinquePorts.HislittlesonEdwardbecameEarlofSalisburyin1478.[7]In1480,whenRichard had attained the age of twenty-eight, he was appointed Lieutenant-General of theNorth andWarden of theMarches.By his skill and energy hesubduedpartofthewesternborderofScotlandforanextentofmorethanthirtymiles, bringingportionsunder obedience to theKingofEngland, 'to the greatrestandeaseoftheinhabitantsofthewestmarches.'[8]Hisadministrationwassoable that itwas remembered longafter as averymodelof efficiency.[9] In1482 he received command of an army for the invasion of Scotland. In thesummer of that year he entered Edinburgh, where he was received by themalcontentnoblesratherasafriendthanasanenemy.HereconciledKingJamesIII.withhis brother, enforced all theEnglishdemands, and captured the townand castle of Berwick after an obstinate resistance. This was a greatachievement, and gave England an important advantage in case of futurehostilities.Richard'sserviceswerecordiallyrecognisedbytheParliamentwhichmetinJanuary,andnomanstoodinhigherhonourthroughoutthekingdom.

ChildrenofEdwardIV.

KingEdward IV. died atWestminster onApril 9, 1483, andwas buried atWindsor.HehadgonethroughamarriageceremonywithElizabeth,daughterofSirRichardWoodville ofGrafton, andwidow of Sir JohnGrey ofGroby, onMay1,1464.Besidesthepriestandhisassistant,theonlywitnesseswereLadyGrey'smotherandtwounnamedgentlewomen.EdwardIV.hadthreesonsandsevendaughtersbyLadyGrey,ofwhomtwosonsandfivedaughterssurvived

him.[10] He also had one son and one daughter by Elizabeth Lucy.[11] TheDukeofClarencehadleftasonEdwardandadaughter[12]byIsabella,daughteroftheEarlofWarwick.

[1]LordScropewasfaithfultotheend.HissisterAgneswasmarriedtoSirRichardRatcliffe,oneofthemostloyalofRichard'sfriends.

[2]JamesMetcalfeofNappa,nearAysgarth,servedatthebattleofAgincourt.Hehadtwosons,MilesandThomas.ImmediatelyafterhisaccessionRichardIII.appointedMilesMetcalfeoneof the Judgesof theCountyPalatineofLancaster, andThomasMetcalfeChancelloroftheDuchy(YorkRecords,p.58n).

[3]AccordingtoRoushewassevenandahalfin1483,whenhewasmadePrinceofWales.Butthedateinthetextismoreprobable.SeeSandford,p.410.

[4]YorkRecords,p.125n.

[5]PlumptonCorrespondence.

[6]SeetheHistoryoftheCollegiateChurchofMiddleham,bytheRev.Wm.Atthill(Camden Society, 1847). The licence for erecting the church into a college wasgrantedtotheDukeofGloucesteronFebruary21,1478,andheissuedtheStatutesonJuly18, 1478.MissHalsted, the laborious and conscientiousbiographer ofRichardIII., had a romantic attachment forMiddleham, as the scene of the ill-fated youngKing's happy married life. She eventually married the Rector, and was buried inMiddlehamChurch.

[7]Rot.Parl.17Ed.iv.p.2,m.16.

[8]Rot.Parl.vi.204.

[9]Gairdner,p.48,quotingBrewer'sLettersandPapersofHenryVIII.,vol. i.nos.4518-5090,andvol.iv.no.133.

[10]Elizabeth,bornatWestminsteronFebruary11,1465.(Sandfordsays1466,butNicolasgivesgoodreasonfor1465beingtheyear.)

Cicely.Thedateofherbirth isnotrecorded;butshecamenext toElizabeth.HenryTudormarriedher tohisolduncle,LordWelles,sometimebeforeDecember1487.Onhisdeathin1499,shemarriedoneKymeofLincolnshire.Shediedinabout1503.

Edward was born in sanctuary on November 14, 1470. On July 26, 1471, he wascreatedPrinceofWales,andonJune20,1475,DukeofCornwallandEarlofChester.HewasalsocreatedEarlofMarchandPembroke.

RichardwasbornatShrewsburyin1473,andwascreatedDukeofYorkonMay28,1474, Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Warren and Nottingham on Feb. 7, 1477. OnJanuary 15, 1478, hewasmarried toAnne, daughter and heiress of JohnMowbray

DukeofNorfolk,shebeingthenagedsix.Shediedsoonafterwards.

Annewasbornin1475,andin1495shemarriedThomasHowardEarlofSurrey;butnochildrensurvivedinfancy.Shediedbefore1515.

Katherine,probablybornin1479,andinabout1495shemarriedWilliamCourtenayEarlofDevon,anddiedin1527.

Bridget,theyoungestchild,wasbornatElthamonNovember10,1480.ShebecameanunatDartford,whereshediedin1517.

[11] Edward IV. had two children by Elizabeth Lucy. Arthur, who was createdViscountLislein1524,anddiedin1540;andElizabeth,marriedtoLordLumley.

[12]GeorgeDukeofClarence,byhiswifeIsabella,daughterofRichardNevill,EarlofWarwick,lefttwochildren:

Edward,bornatWarwickCastleonFebruary21,1475,andcreatedEarlofWarwickbyhisuncleEdwardIV.,afterhisfather'sexecution,in1478.

Margaret,bornatFarleyCastlenearBath in1473,createdCountessofSalisbury in1514,andmarriedtoaTudorpartisannamedRichardPole.

CHAPTERVIII

ACCESSIONOFRICHARDIII

The Queen and her relations had acquired predominating influence in thecounselsofEdward IV.HerbrotherAnthonywasEarlRivers, anotherbrotherLionelwasBishopofSalisbury,hersonThomasGreyhadbeencreatedMarquisofDorset.HersistershadbeenmarriedtotheDukeofBuckingham,theEarlsofKent,Arundel,HuntingdonandLordStrange.Herbrother-in-law,EdwardGrey,hadbeenmadeViscountLisle.

ThisWoodville faction had the design tomonopolise all the powers of thestate.TheWoodvilleshadreceivedbribesfromLouisXI.,hadcausedthedeathofClarence,andhadsharedhisinheritance.TheynowlookedtotheminorityofKingEdward's sonas anopportunity for still furthergratifying their ambition.But theyhadneversucceeded inalienating theaffectionsof theKingfromhisbrotherRichard.

At the time of theKing's death his sonEdwardwas residing atLudlow inchargeofhisuncleLordRivers,hishalfbrotherSirRichardGrey,hiscousinSirRichardHaute,SirThomasVaughanandDr.Alcock,BishopofWorcester.TheMarquisofDorset,anotherhalf-brotherofyoungEdward,wasinpossessionofthe Tower. The other chief councillors of the late King, including BishopsRotherhamandMorton,theDukeofBuckingham,LordsHastings,StanleyandHoward,wereinLondon.TheDukeofGloucesterwasfarawayinthemarchesofScotland.

RichardappointedProtector

By his will King Edward IV. left the care of his son's person and thegovernmentofthekingdomduringtheminoritytohisbrotherRichard,withoutany colleague.[1] Richard Duke of Gloucester was a prince who had shownvalour and generalship in the field, wisdom and ability in his civiladministration.Asacouncillorhehadupheldthehonourofhiscountry.Hewasbelovedbythepeopleofthenorth,andwasdeservedlypopularthroughouttheland.Heproceeded toYorkonhearingofhisbrother'sdeathandattended thesolemnobsequiesintheminster.Hethencausedhisnephewtobeproclaimed,andbeganthejourneytoLondon,with600gentlemenofthenorthinattendance,allindeepmourning.Hecametoassumetheresponsibilitiesimposeduponhimbyhisbrother.

VerydifferentwastheconductoftheWoodvilles.Theyformedaconspiracyto set aside the lateKing'swishes, to exclude theDuke ofGloucester, and toretain by force the authority they had hitherto exercised through the Queen'sinfluence.Rivers set out fromLudlowwith 2,000men, and a large supply ofarms, on April 24.[2] Dorset seized the arms and treasure in the Tower, andfittedoutanavalforcetosecurecommandoftheChannel.CouncilOrderswereissuedinthenamesofRivers—'AvunculusRegis,'andofDorset—'Fraterregisuterinus,'while thatof theDukeofGloucesterwasexcluded.Therecanbenodoubt of the treasonable designs of the Woodville faction, which are indeedproved by these overt acts; and which went the length of conspiring againstRichard'slife.[3]

ArrestofRivers

The Duke of Buckingham hurried from London with 300 men, to warnGloucesterofhisdanger,andfoundhimatNorthamptononApril29,wherehehadexpectedtomeethisnephew.TheyascertainedthatRivershadarrivedthat

very morning with young Edward, and had pushed on to Stony Stratford,fourteenmilesnearerLondon,toavoidameetingbetweentheboyandhisuncle.Thismadehisconductstillmoresuspicious.Riversthen,withRichardGreyanda portion of his force, returned to Northampton to give some plausibleexplanation to the two Dukes, while young Edward was to be hurried on toLondon. Gloucester acted with prompt decision. There was not a moment tolose. A Council was summoned, consisting of the nobles present, and it wasresolved that Rivers and his fellow-conspirators should be arrested. ThecombinedcompaniesofGloucesterandBuckinghamnumbered900men.Rivershadaforceof2,000,buthehadonlybroughtaportiontoNorthampton,andhisarrest, with his nephew Richard Grey, was effected without resistance.Gloucester then advanced rapidly toStonyStratford, andwas just in time.Hefound young Edward and his retinue on the point of starting for London.VaughanandHautewerearrested;andthefourprisonersweresenttoYorkshireto await their trials. Lord Rivers was taken to Sheriff Hutton, Grey toMiddleham,Vaughan andHaute to Pomfret.Dr.Alcockwas not suspected ofcomplicity in theplot.HewasaYorkshiremananda staunch supporterof theWhite Rose. His subsequent conduct in welcoming King Richard at Oxford,accompanying him in his progress, and giving him the aid of his diplomaticservices, proves that Bishop Alcock recognised the justice of that King'saccession.[4]

The troops of Rivers, now without a leader, submitted to the Duke ofGloucester,whothenresumedhis journey, incompanywithhisnephew.TheyreachedLondononMay4.Assoonas theQueenDowagerheard that theplotwasdiscovered,shewentintosanctuaryatWestminster[5]withhersonRichardandfivedaughters.HereshewasjoinedbyherothersonDorset.

Young Edward took up his abode at the Bishop's Palace in St. Paul'sChurchyard.Gloucesterwenttoresidewithhismother,thewidowedDuchessofYork,atBaynard'sCastle.ThisedificestoodatthefootofSt.Andrew'sHill,onthe banks of the Thames, a little west of St. Paul's.[6] After the death of hernoble husband at the battle ofWakefield, in 1460, theDuchess ofYork tooklittle part in public affairs, although she survived for upwards of 33 years. Ahappy married life of 22 years was followed by a long and sorrowfulwidowhood.Thewaywardandlawlessconductofhereldestsonwithregardtohismatrimonialaffairsdoubtlesscausedherconstantanxiety,whilethedeathofher sonGeorgeby thehandof his brother added another pang to thewidow'sgrief.

Richard, so far as appears, can have given his mother neither anxiety norsorrow.LivinghappilyatMiddleham,marriedtohismother'sgrand-niece,andalwaysgainingapplauseandapprovalwheneverhetookpartinpublicaffairs,hemust have been the son fromwhom hismother derivedmost comfort. It wasnatural that, in this crisis of his fortunes, he should have sought counsel andsupportunderthatmother'sroof,andwemayfairlyconcludethatthesubsequentproceedings,which led toRichard'sassumptionof thecrown,had thesanctionand approval of the Duchess of York.[7] The Duke of Gloucester had beenrecognised as Protector of the Realm before his arrival in London,[8] and onMay13hesummonedaParliamenttomeetonthe25thofthefollowingmonth.When the Duchess of Gloucester reached London on June 5, the Duke leftBaynard'sCastle,wherehehadresidedwithhismotherforupwardsofamonth,andremovedtoCrosbyPlace[9]withhiswife.

BishopStillington'srevelation

Uptothistimeaffairshadgonesmoothly.OnJune5theProtectorhadgivendetailed orders for his nephew's coronation on the 22nd, and had even causedlettersofsummonstobeissuedfortheattendanceoffortyesquireswhoweretoreceive theknighthoodof theBathon theoccasion.[10]Butnowtherecameachange.Dr.RobertStillington,BishopofBathandWells,apparentlyonJune8,revealedtotheCouncilthelong-concealedfactthatEdwardIV.wascontractedto the Lady Eleanor Butler, widow of a son of Lord Butler of Sudeley, anddaughter of the first Earl of Shrewsbury, before he went through a secretmarriageceremonywiththeLadyGrey.[11]

Dr. Stillington thus becomes a very important personage in the history ofKingRichard'saccession;anditwillbewelltolearnallthatcanbegleanedofhislife.Hefirstsawthelightinanoldbrickmanorhouse,whichstillstandsonthe right bank of the Ouse at Acaster Selby (then within the parish ofStillingfleet),aboutninemilessouthofYork.

The familyofStillingtonhad longbeenestablishedhere, renting land fromtheAbbotofSelby,whentwosons,ThomasandRobert,wereborntoThomasStillington and his wife Catherine, daughter of John Halthorp. Thomassucceeded to thepaternalestate,whileRobertwasdestined for thepriesthood.Hewassent toOxford,andeventually took thedegreeofDoctorofLawwithgreat distinction. He was a Fellow of All Souls, and became Rector of St.Michael's,OuseBridge,andaCanonofYorkin1448and1451.Stillingtonwas

ever loyal to thecauseof theWhiteRose.Atsometime inorbefore1463,hewitnessed themarriage contractwhichunitedEdward IV. to theLadyEleanorButler; the King strictly charging him not to reveal it. When EdwardsubsequentlywentthroughthesameceremonywiththeLadyGrey,hismothertheDuchess of York, whowas in the secret, remonstrated, but without avail.Edwardwasself-willedandheadstrong.TheLadyEleanorretiredtoaconventinNorwich,whereshediedonJuly30,1466,andwasburiedintheChurchoftheCarmelites.[12]

In1466Dr.StillingtonbecameBishopofBathandWells, and in the sameyearEdwardIV.madehimKeeperofthePrivySeal.OnJune8,1467,hewasinstalled in the high office of Lord Chancellor, in succession to ArchbishopNevill.HedeliveredaveryeloquentandstatesmanlikespeechattheopeningofParliamentinMay1468,whichmadeadeepimpression.AfterholdingtheofficeofChancellor,withdignityandcredit, for sixyears,he resigned,owing to ill-health,in1473.HewasafterwardsemployedonanembassytoBrittany.

If the Queen Dowager and her relations had any knowledge of the firstmarriage, Bishop Stillington would be a source of anxiety and fear to them;while they could never be certainwho elsemight know the secret besides theKing'smother.WefindthattheDukeofClarencewasattaintedonFebruary7,1478,onaseriesofcharges,mostofthemfrivolousandnonesufficientlygravetoaccountforhisdeathatthehandsofhisownbrother.Theremusthavebeensomething behind.Mr. Gairdner has suggested that the execution of Clarencewas due to his having discovered the secret.[13] Certainly that wouldsatisfactorilyaccountforit.TheinfluenceoftheWoodvilleswasparamount,anditwouldthenbeanecessityoftheircontinuanceinpowerthatClarenceshouldceasetolive.ThecharacterofClarencemadeit impossiblethatasecretwouldbe safewithhim.Hisdeathwas theonly safe course for theWoodvilles. It isverysignificantthat,attheverytimeofClarence'sattainder,BishopStillingtonwasarrestedandimprisoned[14]for'utteringwordsprejudicialtotheKingandhisState.'HewaspardonedinthefollowingJune1478.Allthispointsclearlytothe discovery of the first contract by Clarence, and to the utterance of someimprudentspeechbythebishop,whichwasexpiatedbyimprisonmentfollowedbyrenewedpromisesofsilence.

During theyears followinghis imprisonment,BishopStillingtonappears tohavedevotedhimselftothedutiesofhisdiocese.Healwaysretainedfeelingsofaffection for the family at Acaster, and for the home of his childhood on the

banks of the Ouse. Towards the close of his long and honourable career hefounded a collegiate chapel on his brother's land at Acaster, dedicated to St.Andrew,foraprovostandfellows,andforfreeeducationingrammar,musicandwriting.ThegrantwasconfirmedbyKingRichardIII.in1483.Afinecollegiatechurch of brick, eighty-seven feet long and twenty-one broad, rose upon thebanks of the Ouse, with twenty windows filled with stained glass. It was amemorialofthegoodbishop,andmembersofhisfamilyinlatergenerationsleftin theirwills that theywished tobeburiedatSt.Andrew'scollege.Thesite isnowmarkedbyafewgrassymounds.[15]

Dr.Stillingtonwasagoodandpiousbishop,anablestatesman,andamostloyalandfaithfuladherentoftheWhiteRose.Hisonefaultwasthathedidnotensure his own destruction by proclaiming Edward's secret before that King'sdeath.Therewasnourgentobligation todo so;butwhen the timearrived, hewasboundtocomeforward,andhewasprobablyurgedbytheDuchessofYorktopublishthetruth.Richardhadhithertobeenignorantoftheearlyintriguesofhisbrother.HewasonlyelevenandahalfwhenthewidowofSirJ.Greywastakenintofavour,andtheButlercontractwasofastillearlierdate.

The announcement must have fallen on Richard and the Council like athunderclap.Itwasinevitablethatthemattershouldbethoroughlysifted.Therewas a prolonged sitting of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in the CouncilChamber at Westminster, on June 9.[16] Bishop Stillington 'brought ininstruments,authenticdoctors,proctors,andnotariesofthelaw,withdepositionsofdiverswitnesses.'[17]ThemajorityoftheCouncilmusthaveseenatoncethattheillegitimatesonofthelateKingcouldnotsucceed.Suchaproceedingwouldinevitablybetheprecursorofinnumerabletroubles.ThecasewaspreparedtobelaidbeforetheParliamentwhichwassummonedtomeetonJune25.

Therewas, however, a small but powerfulminority in theCouncil, led byLordHastingsandBishopMorton,towhomtheprospectoflosingtheopeningsto theirambitionofferedbyaminoritywasmostdistasteful.Theycommencedopposition[18] and began to meet apart, plotting against the Protector'sgovernment.Thiswassoonfollowedbyovertacts.Hithertoallordersandgrantshad been issued 'by the advice of our uncle, Richard Duke of Gloucester,ProtectorandDefender.'Butonthe9th,andagainonJune12,theconspiratorsissued orders without the Protector's name. They were preparing for openhostility.Hastingswas intriguingwith his former adversaries, theWoodvilles,both at Westminster and in Yorkshire. On June 10 the Duke of Gloucester

becamethoroughlyalarmed.HedespatchedalettertohisfaithfulcityofYork,askingthattroopsmightbesentuptoprotectandsupporthim.Itwasdeliveredon the 15th. On the 11th a similar letter was sent to his cousin, LordNevill.Meanwhile,theHastingsfactionwasnotidle.Asupersedeaswassecretlyissuedto the townsandcounties,ordering theParliamentnot toassemble.[19] ItwasreceivedatYorkonJune21.Thiswasdonetodelayorpreventtheconsiderationof the question of illegitimacy, and of the evidence submitted by BishopStillington.FinallyaplotwasformedtoseizetheProtectorandputhimtodeath.[20]

Conspiratorsthwarted

The conspiracywas divulged to the Protector byMasterWilliamCatesby,who was in the confidence of Hastings. The danger was imminent. It wasprobablyaquestionofhours.Richardactedwithcharacteristicpromptitudeandvigour. On June 13 he proceeded in person to the Tower with a body ofretainers,andarrestedLordHastingsatthecounciltableonachargeoftreason.Theconspiratorswerecaught,asitwere,red-handed.Aproclamationwasthenissued, giving the details of the plot, but unfortunately no copy remains.HastingswascondemnedandexecutedonJune20,aweekafterhisarrest.[21]Thedangerover,Richardmourned for the loss of his old companion in arms.'UndoubtedlytheProtectorlovedhimwell,andwaslothtohavelosthim.'[22]AprominentfeatureinRichard'scharacterwashisgenerositytotherelationsofhispoliticalopponents.Inthisrespecttheconductwhichwashabitualwithhimwasalmostunprecedentedinhis,andindeedinlater times.InthecaseofHastings,heatoncerestoredthechildreninblood,andgrantedtheforfeitedestatestothewidow.HealsoliberallyrewardedthebrotherofHastingsforpastservices,andgrantedallhisrequests.

The conspirators inYorkshirewould probably have been pardoned, if theyhad not joined in this new treasonwithHastings.But now an orderwas sent,throughSirRichardRatcliffe,foratribunaltoassembleatPomfret,totryLordRivers and his companions. TheEarl ofNorthumberlandwas president of thecourt.Theywerefoundguilty.TheaccomplishedEarlphilosophicallypreparedfor death. He had played for high stakes, had lost, and was ready to pay thepenalty. He showed his confidence in the integrity and kindly feeling of theDukeofGloucesterbyappointinghimsupervisortothewillwhichhemadeatSheriffHuttononJune23.[23]Thetrustwasnotmisplaced.Onthe25th,Rivers,Grey, Haute, and Vaughan were beheaded. Those arrested in London, with

Hastings,were treatedwith unwise leniency.The treacherous Stanleywas notonlypardoned,butrewarded.BishopMortonwasmerelytakenintocustody,andplaced in chargeof theDukeofBuckingham.ArchbishopRotherham, aweaktoolinthehandsof theothers,afterabriefdetention,wasallowedtoreturntohisdiocese.

JaneShore, themistressofDorset,hadbeenthemediumofcommunicationbetweenHastingsandtheWoodvillefaction.Apenancewasimposeduponherby the Church for her vicious life. But she was treated with considerateforbearance by Richard, whom she had tried to injure. He ordered her to bereleased, andconsented, though reluctantly, tohermarriagewithhisSolicitor-General.

Theformidablecoalitionof the twomalcontentpartieswas thuscompletelybroken. The Woodvilles gave up all further resistance to the Protector'sgovernment.TheBishopofSalisbury, brotherof theQueen-Dowager, andherbrother-in-law,ViscountLisle,cameovertohisside.[24]Elizabethalso,at theintercessionof theArchbishopofCanterbury, sentheryounger sonRichard tojoinhisbrotherEdwardonJune16.[25]Sheherselfremainedinsanctuarywithherdaughtersforatime,inordertomakebetterterms.

Titletothecrown

In spite of the supersedeas which was treacherously sent out by theconspirators to prevent themeeting of Parliament,[26] theLords Spiritual andTemporal and the Commons had assembled in London on the day appointed,June25,and formedwhat in later timeswouldhavebeencalledaConventionParliament. The proofs of the previous contract of Edward IV. with LadyEleanor Butler were laid before this assembly by Bishop Stillington and hiswitnesses, and it was decided by the three Estates of the Realm that theillegitimate son couldnot succeed to the throne.Owing to the attainderof theDuke of Clarence, his children were not in the succession. The Duke ofGloucesterwas, therefore, the legalheir:and itwasresolved thatheshouldbecalled upon to accept the high office of King. A statement of the royal title,styled'TitulusRegius,'wasprepared,inwhichitwassetforththatthechildrenofEdwardIV.bytheLadyGreywereillegitimateowingtothatKing'spreviouscontractwiththeLadyEleanorButler,thatinconsequenceoftheattainderoftheDukeofClarence,his twochildrenwereincapacitated;andthatRichard,DukeofGloucester,wastheonlytrueandrightfulheirtothethrone.

The children of Edward IV. being illegitimate, Richard was certainly thelegal heir, because the children of Clarence were disabled by law. But theirdisabilitycouldbesetasideatanytimebyareversaloftheirfather'sattainder,orby the removal of any corruption in blood inherited in consequence of thatattainder.EdwardEarl ofWarwick, sonofGeorgeDukeofClarence,was therightful heir to the throne, when the children of Edward were proved to beillegitimate.HewasbornatWarwickCastleonFebruary21,1475,andat thistimehisagewaseightyearsandfourmonths.ButevenifRichardhadattemptedto substitute this child for the sonof the lateKing, it is veryunlikely that theassembled notables would have consented. They dreaded, above all things, alongminority.Whenhis own son died prematurely,KingRichard showedhissenseofthestrongclaimofhisnephewbydeclaringyoungWarwicktobehisheir.

It isallegedthatonSunday,June22,1483,aneminentpreachernamedDr.Shawhaddelivered a sermonatPaul'sCross, inwhichhe explained the royaltitletothepeople;andthataspeechwasmadetothesameeffect,bytheDukeofBuckingham,attheGuildhallonthe24th.Thisisnotimprobable.

On June 26,[27] the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and the CommonsproceededtoBaynard'sCastlewiththeTitulusRegius,tosubmittheirresolutionand topetitionRichard toassume thecrown.Heconsented.Hewas thenagedthirty years and eightmonths.On the 27th he delivered theGreat Seal toDr.Russell,BishopofLincoln,aprelatecelebratedforlearning,piety,andwisdom.[28] On the 28th a letter was despatched to Lord Mountjoy at Calais, withinstructionstoacquaintthegarrisonofthenewKing'saccession,andtosecuretheirallegiance.RichardIII.thenorganisedhisCouncil,andsurroundedhimselfwithableanduprightadvisers.Therewereonlytwofalsefriendsamongthem—thetraitorsBuckinghamandStanley.

[1]BernardAndré,23.PolydoreVirgil,530(171,173Eng.trans.)

[2]Rous,212.Croyland,564.

[3] Rous says they had contrived theDuke's death, 213.Also theCroylandMonk,565: 'Conspiratum est contra eos, quod ipsi contrivissent mortem ducis ProtectorisAngliæ.'

[4]JohnAlcockwasthesonofaburgessofHull,andwaseducatedatthegrammarschool of Beverley. He graduated at Cambridge in 1461. He was Dean of St.

Stephen's, Westminster, and one of the King's Council in 1470, and Bishop ofRochesterin1472.In1476hewastranslatedtoWorcester,andin1483wastutortoyoungEdward.HewasatOxford towelcomeRichard III. afterhis coronation, andaccompanied him on his progress to Warwick. In 1484 he was one of theCommissioners delegated to treat with the Scottish Ambassadors. In 1486 he wastranslatedtoEly,wherehebuiltatoweroftheBishop'spalace,andabeautifulchapelforhisinterment.HisattachmenttothehouseofYorkisshownbytheornamentsinthevaultingofthebasementof thetower,andinthechapel.Therebusonhisname(twocockswiththeirfeetonaglobe)occursalternatelywiththe 'roseensoleil,' thebadgeofEdwardIV.BishopAlcockfoundedJesusCollegeatCambridge.HediedatWisbeachin1500.

[5]Croyland565.Rous,213.

[6] Baynard's Castle was so called from Baynard, one of the companions of theConqueror,whohad license to fortifyhishouseonThamesbankwithin thecity. Itwasfortifiedbyhisdescendant in1110A.D.In1428ithadbecomethepropertyofthecrownand,havingbeendestroyedby fire, itwas rebuilt byHumphreyDukeofGloucester.Onhisattainderitagainrevertedtothecrown,andwasgrantedtoRichardDukeofYork.Itwaslongtheresidenceofhiswidow,andherebothEdwardIV.andRichard III. accepted the crown. Baynard's Castle was gutted in the Great Fire of1666.IthadlongbeenrentedbytheEarlsofPembroke,butseemstohavebeeninaruinouscondition.Itwasprobablypulleddownduringtheclearanceoperationsafterthefire.

[7]OneletterhasbeenpreservedfromRichardIII.tohismother,afterhisaccession.Itiswritteninmostaffectionateterms,andshowsdeferencetoherwishes.Afterherlast surviving son's death at Bosworth theDuchess retired from theworld entirely,livingathercastleofBerkhampstead,undertherulesofoneofthemonasticorders.Shediedin1493,andwasburiedbythesideofherhusbandatFotheringhay.

[8]Mr.GairdnerhaspointedoutthathewasstyledProtectorintwodocumentsuponthePatentRolls,datedApril21andMay2.

[9]CrosbyPlace,inBishopsgateStreet,wasbuiltbyAldermanSirJohnCrosby,whodiedin1475.TheDukeofGloucesterhadaleaseofitfromSirJohn'swidow.Itmusthave been a princely residence, and the hall is still one of the finest examples ofPerpendiculardomesticarchitectureofthefifteenthcentury.

[10]Rymer,vol.xii.p.186;Anstis,Obs.;SirHarrisNicolas,HistoryoftheOrdersofKnighthood,iii.ix.;Ellis,OriginalLetters,2ndseries.

[11]CominessaysthatthecontractwasmadebytheBishopofBathandWells,whotoldCominesthatheafterwardsmarriedEdwardandLadyEleanor.TheKingchargedhimstrictlynottorevealit.(Phil.deComines,ii.157.)

[12]Weever'sFuneralMonuments.

[13]Gairdner'sRichardIII.,p.91.

[14]Rymer,xii.66.InthepapersoftheStonorfamilythereisaletterfromElizabeth

Stonortoherhusband,datedMarch6,1478,inwhichshesaidthattheBishopofBathhadbeenbroughtintotheTowersinceherhusbanddeparted.

[15]AllwasdestroyedandsoldinthereignofEdwardVI.(1552).Butaviewoftheruins, andof amonumentof the founderofAcasterCollege,withagroundplot, ismentionedinGough'sTopographyofYorkshire,1804,p.469.Rentsatthedissolution27l.13s.4d.Worth553l.6s.8d.Grantedin1552toJohnHulseandWilliamPendred.

ThefamilyofStillingtoncontinuedtoflourishatAcasterandKelfield,intheparishofStillingfleet; greatly improving their estate by a marriage with the heiress ofFitzHenry. In 1520 stained glass with the arms of Stillington impaling Bigod, wasplaced in one of the windows of Stillingfleet church. At that time Dr. ThomasStillington was a man of great learning, and became Professor of Divinity at theUniversity of Louvain. The Stillingtons continued to flourish at Kelfield Hallthroughouttheseventeenthcentury.ThelastmaleoftheracewasyounginthedaysofQueenAnne.There isaportraitofhimasaboy, inaclassicalcostume,whichwaspainted by Parmentier in 1708. It is now in the dining room atMorebyHall. ThisJoseph Stillington ofKelfield died in 1742.His daughterDorothymarriedWilliamPeirseofHuttonBonville.

[16]Stallworthe'slettertoSirW.Stonor.(Excerpt.Hist.p.16.)

[17]Morton,inhisaccountofaconversationwiththeDukeofBuckingham(Grafton,p.126).

[18]PolydoreVirgil,p.540.

[19] Davies, York Records, p. 154. That this supersedeas was issued by theconspirators and not by the Protector's Council is proved by Dr. Russell havingactuallypreparedaspeechfortheopeningofParliamentonJune24.Thisspeechhasbeenpreserved.ThedateofthesupersedeaswasprobablybeforeJune13.

[20]Rastell,p.80,

[21]StallworthetoSirW.Stonor.

[22]Morton,p.69,inRastell.Thisistheevidenceofabitterenemy.

[23] The will is given in the Excerpta Historica, pp. 246-248. He also appointedWilliamCatesby,anothermeritoriousbutshamefullymalignedpublicservant, tobehisexecutor.

[24] 'MyLordLylehascometomyLordProtectorandwaitsonhim.'Stallworthe'ssecondletter(Excerpt.Hist.p.16).

[25]Croyland,p.566.

[26]Davies,YorkRecords,p.134.

[27] The date of Richard's accession is fixed by the Year Book. 'Les Reports desCases.'SeeDavies,YorkRecords,p.157n.

[28]'Awisemanandagood,andofmuchexperience.'—Morton,inRastell.

CHAPTERIX

CONDITIONOFTHEPEOPLE

AtRichard'saccessionwemaypausetoglanceattheconditionofthepeopleofEngland420yearsago,notinanyminutedetail,notprobingthemattertoanydepth,butwiththeobjectofhavingthegeneralsurroundingsinourminds,whilecontemplatingthebriefreignofourlastPlantagenet.

The Lancastrian usurpation, effected by Henry of Bolingbroke (Duke ofLancaster), caused much ruthless slaughter, and led to the atrocious Act Dehereticocomburendo,passedtosecurethesupportoftheclergyfortheusurper.Hisson,HenryofMonmouth,wasafanatic,butotherwiseamanofafarnoblernaturethanhisfather.HesecuredhispositionbyapopularbutmostunjustwarwithFrance,andbyhisownfascinatingpersonality.FromhislandingatHavreto the death of Talbot at Châtillon, this war covered a period of thirty-eightyears,from1415to1453.Itdidnot,however,exhaustthewealthofthecountry,nordid theothermoreodiouspolicyof theLancastrians inpassinganAct forthe burning of heretics, destroy all freedomof thought.But thewar filled thecountrywith lawlessmilitary adventurers, and the persecution unsettledmen'sminds.

The cause of theWar of the Roses was themisgovernment of the factionwhich ruled in thenameofHenryofWindsor, the feeble-mindedgrandsonofCharles VI. of France, whosemalady he inherited. Recognition during half acentury hadmade the parliamentary title of the usurpers secure.Owing to theabsence of an hereditary title, the House of Commons had never been morepowerful. The Speakers were practically Chancellors of the Exchequer, andprepared the budgets. Speaker Tresham, who was murdered in 1450 by LordGreydeRuthyn,wasthefirsttoproposeagraduatedincometax,andwasagreatstatesman. But the House was not strong enough to control an unprincipledexecutive. The usurpation would never have been challenged, after aParliamentary recognition of sixty years, if the administration of the usurpingfaction had not been intolerably bad. The Duke of York was the rightful

hereditaryheir to the throne.HisgrandfatherhadbeenrecognisedasheirbyaParliamentofRichardII.TheDukewasajustandmoderatestatesman.Untilamonthbefore the battle ofWakefield his sole purpose hadbeen the reformofabuses.

Thewar, however,was not awar of the people.AlthoughLondonwarmlysupportedthehouseofYork,itwasawarfoughtoutbytwopartiesofthenoblesandtheirretainers,includingsomeoldveteransoftheFrenchwar.Thestruggledid not in the least degree affect the ordinary life of England. Mr. ThoroldRogers tells us that, though he has read hundreds of documents compiled forprivateinspectiononly,chieflymanorialaccounts,coveringthewholeperiodofthewar,hehasnevermetasingleallusiontothetroubles.'Thepeople,'headds,'wereabsolutelyindifferent.ExcepttheoutragesofMargaret'sarmyin1461,noinjurywasdonetoneutrals.Thewarwasaslittleinjurioustothegreatmassofthepeople, in its immediateeffects,assummer lightning. Ithadnobearingonworkorwages.'

ThePeerage

It is also a mistake, though a frequently reiterated one, that the Englishnobility,asaclass,wasalmostdestroyedbytheWarof theRoses.Nothingofthesorthappened.Severalnoblemenfell inbattle,otherslosttheirlivesonthescaffold.Therearelonglistsoftraitorsinthebillsofattainder.Butthedeathofanoblemandidnot include thedeathsofhisheirs; andmostof thosewhowereattaintedeventuallyreceivedpardons.Aftertheheatofbattlewasover,EdwardIV.wasplacable andgood-natured.Henever refused apetition for pardon.[1]Only two peerages became extinct from causes connected with the war. TheBeaufortscametoanend,andtheTiptoftpeeragelapsed,theaccomplishedEarlofWorcesterbeingchildless.Thelaypeerage,includingpeerstemporarilyunderattainder, numbered fifty-four on the accession of Richard III., quite asnumerousasitwasbeforethewar.

Wehavenot,therefore,tocontemplateadevastatedcountryandadecimatedpeerageatthetimewhenourlastPlantagenetKingascendedthethrone.Englandwasfairlyprosperous,andthenumbersandwealthofthenobilityhadnotbeenreduced.Buthowdifferentwas thewhole faceof thecountry!Theoutlinesofthe hills are alone the same. There were immense areas of forest and swampwhere now the landscape consists of enclosed fields like a green chessboard.Therewere fewenclosures,[2]but tractsof common land foreachmanor, and

cultivationinlongstripsnearthevillagesandmanorhouses.Thebeatentracks,some following the lines of the old Roman roads leading to the towns andcastles,were often almost impassable inwinter.KingRichardwas the first toestablishanykindofpost.Thescenerywasverybeautifulonthehillsandintheforests, in thequietvalleys,and in theswampyfens.Wildanimals,manynowextinct,were then abundant, huntedoccasionally, but, to agreat extent, left inpeaceovervastareasofabsolutesolitude.ItwasaverybeautifulEngland,buthowutterlydifferentfromtheEnglandofthetwentiethcentury!

The noble and gentle families passed most of their time in their counties,hawking and hunting, mustering their armed retainers, often disputing abouttheirrespectiverights,sometimestryingtosettledisputesbyforceregardlessoflaw.Yetmanywerelaw-abidingandmaintainersoftheKing'speace,andafewwere giving some attention to the new learning to which Caxton was nowopeningthedoor.SomeoftheeldershadseenserviceintheFrenchwarwhichcametoanendthirtyyearsbefore.Onlyagreatnoblecouldraiseorcommandamilitaryforce,butreliancewasplacedontheexperienceofsomeveteran,suchasHallorTrollope,toorganiseanddirectaschiefofthestaff.InthosetroublousdaystheKingmight,atanytime,havetosendforthcommissionsofarray.

Castles

Castles thenstudded thecountry,and theruinsofsomeof themstillgiveacorrectideaoftheiraccommodationandgeneralplan.OldNormankeepsrearedtheirmassivefronts,surroundedbylodgingsandoutworksoflaterconstruction.Thekeepscontainedstatelyhalls,guardrooms,andchapels.Themoremodernand more comfortable lodgings followed the lines of the outer defences,generally having covered communication with the keep. Such were KingRichard'shomeatMiddleham,theroyalcastlesofRichmond,ConisboroughandTickhill.Hedingham,thehomeof theVeresinEssex,Rochester, theTowerofLondon,andafewothersarestillstanding.LordBourchier, theTreasurer,hadquite recentlybuilt acastleofbrickatTattershall inLincolnshire,witha loftykeepstillintact.TheTreasurer'sdeviceofapursefrequentlyrecursthere.

The castles of the later period were, however, generally built without thecentralkeep.Theyconsistedofsquareangletowersconnectedbycurtains,oneof which usually formed the great hall, as at Lumley. These were morenumerous and probably more commodious. Bolton and Lumley are goodexamples. There was already a tendency to increase the conveniences and

amenitiesoftheoldcastlesbytheenlargementofwindowsandinotherways,asis shown by the fine oriel window at Barnard Castle, the work of Richardhimself. The royal residences at Eltham, Sheen, andWindsor are believed tohave been designedmore for comfort and pleasure than for defence; althoughWindsorisaplaceofstrength,withcircularkeep,andmeanstoresistanenemybothintheupperandlowerwards.Thegeneraltendency,duringthelasthalfofthefifteenthcentury,wastobuildforcomfortratherthanfordefence.

In the courts andat thegatesof the castlesofnoblemen therewereguardswearingmoreor lessofdefensivearmour,morionsorbacinetson theirheads,and brigandines of quilted linen or leather with small plates of iron sewn onthem.Glaivesor bills, crossbowswithquarrels or darts, andbows and arrowswereintheguardrooms.

The sons of the surrounding gentry were brought up and taught martialexercises and the other accomplishments of a gentleman of the time, at thecastlesof thelords theirpatrons,acustomwhichboundthenobilityandlessergentrytogetherbycommoninterestsandcommonpursuits.

Much timewasoccupied inhuntingandhawking, and the adherentsof theHouseofYorkweremoreespeciallythevotariesofthenobleartofvenery.ThefirstEnglishbookofsporthadthesecondDukeofYorkforitsauthor,andwasentitled'TheMasterofGame.'TheDukedeclaresthat'hunterslivemorejoyfullythan any othermen,' and hiswork shows that hewas a keen observerwith awonderfully accurate knowledge of natural history. With such a master andguide in their family the scions of the royal House of Yorkwere the leadingsportsmen in the country, closely followed by their friends and numerouscousins among the nobility and gentry. The 'Book of St. Albans' by JulianaBerners thePrioressofSopwell, treatingofhawking,hunting, fishing, and thelawsofarms,wasalsoaworkofthatperiod,andwasfirstprintedatSt.AlbansAbbey, by John Insomuch, the Schoolmaster, in 1481.[3] Juliana divides thewild animals into beasts of venery—the wolf, wild boar, stag, hart and hare;beasts of the chase of the sweet foot—buck and doe and the roe—and of thestinkingfoot,wildcat,badger,fox,weasel,marten,squirrel,andothers.Sheisparticularinexplainingthetermstobeusedinvenery,thatonemustsayacoveyofpartridgesbutabevyofquails,andsoforth.Closelyalliedtotheartsofwarandofvenerywas the lawofarms,ofwhicheverygentlemanof thatdayhadsome knowledge. Charges on shields and standards, on surcoats and liverieswereregulatedbytheheralds,andaftertheordinanceofHenryV.weregranted

bytheSovereign.Butinthemostflourishingdaysofchivalry,thoseofEdwardIII.,thiswasnotessential.TherewasnoHeralds'College,[4]andtheonlyreallyinterestingarmorialbearingsarethoseusedinthedaysofthePlantagenets.WithTudors and Stuarts heraldry lost its chivalric significance, and coats of armssubsequentlygrantedareunmeaningandvulgar.

PeerageofRichardIII

PEERS

RelationsoftheSovereign

*DukeofSuffolk(brother-in-law),K.G.

*+EarlofLincoln(nephew),K.B.

*+ViscountLovell(dearestfriend),

LordChamberlain,K.G.

*+EarlofNorthumberland(1stcousin),K.G.

*LordGreystoke(1stcousin).

*LordAbergavenny,K.B.}(cousins).

EarlofWestmoreland(sick)}

Minors

DukeofBuckingham}(cousins)

EarlofEssex}

EarlofSalisbury(son).

*EarlofWarwick(nephew).

EarlofPembroke(nephew).

Staunchandtrue

*+DukeofNorfolk,Ld.Admiral,K.G.

*+EarlofSurrey,K.G.

*LordAudley,Ld.Treasurer.

*+LordZouch,K.B.

*+LordFerrers.

MarchingtojointheKing

*EarlofKent,K.B.

*LordDacre.

*LordFitzHugh.

*LordLumley.

*LordOgleintheMarches,

*2LordsScrope.

OtherPeers

*EarlofArundel,K.G.

*LordMaltravers,K.G.

*EarlofNottingham.

*EarlofHuntingdon.

*EarlofWiltshire.

*LordGreyofWilton.

*LordGreyofCodnor.

*LordGreyofPowys.

*LordBeauchamp.

*LordMorley.

*LordStourton.

*LordCobham.

LordMountjoy(atCalais).

LorddelaWarre(abroad).

LordDudley(veryold).

Minors

EarlofShrewsbury.

LordClifford.

LordHastings.

LordHungerford.

Peers42

Minors9

--

33

--

Traitors

#JohnVere,EarlofOxford(underattainder).

Courtenay,EarlofDevonshire.

Grey,MarquisofDorset.

Woodville,EarlRivers.

LordBeaumont.

LordWelles.

*LordLisle.

LordDynham.

#JasperTudor(lateEarlofPembroke).

#HenryTudor(callinghimselfEarlofRichmond).

*#LordStanley(turnedtraitorattheend).

*#LordStrange.

*Atthecoronation.

+AtBosworthfortheKing.

#AtBosworthforH.Tudor.

Attendance at the court or the Parliament led to a demand for lodgings inLondon.Baynard'sCastlewas the townresidenceof theDukeandDuchessofYork. Crosby Place, which is still standing, was the home of the Duke andDuchessofGloucesterduring the shortprotectorate.ColdHarbour, inThamesStreet,alternatelylodgedtheEarlofSalisbury(1453),AnneDuchessofExeter,andherbrother theDukeofClarence.Therewereotherhousesof thenobilitywithinthecity,includingElyPlaceinHolborn,withlargegardensbehindthem;andsomeoftherichercitizenshadhandsomeresidencesofwhichCrosbyPlacewasanexample.Itwasontheoccasionofvisitstothecapitalthatopportunitieswereofferedforthoseextravagantdisplayswhichwerethefashionofthatage,especiallyatthegreattournaments.

TheHouseofYorkwascloselyknittothenobilitybytiesofkindred.Ofthethree Dukes, Suffolk was King Richard's brother-in-law, Buckingham and

Norfolkwerehiscousins,asweretheEarlsofNorthumberland,Westmorelandand Essex, and Lords Abergavenny and Greystoke. Lincoln was his nephew.Richard,moreover,hadfourfirstandseveralsecondcousinsamongtheBarons;andtheArchbishopofCanterburywasalsohiscousin.Theremusthavebeenafeeling of kinship as well as of loyalty when the nobles gathered round thesovereignonstateoccasions.

Magnificenceofthecourt

Magnificenceindresswasnotasignofostentationandvanity,butofwhatwasfelttobeduetohighrankandtoceremonialfunctionsofstate;anditwasundoubtedlygoodfortrade.Longgownswithhighcollarsweretheindoorandcivildresses, and they lent themselves todisplaysofgreat splendour.Thus, inthe wardrobe accounts, we find among thematerials for doublets and gowns,blackvelvet,crimsonvelvet,bluevelvetfiguredwithtawny,whitevelvet,whitedamaskwithflowersofdiverscolours,chequeredmotleyvelvet,clothofgold,silksandsatins,sarsenet,aswellasembroideredshoes,andostrichfeathers.Wefindgreen,scarletandwhitecloth,ermines,sables,fringes,gownsofbluevelvetlined with white satin, golden aiglettes, and various furs. The keeper of theKing's wardrobe also had in charge feather beds and bolsters, bed clothes,cushions, table cloths and napkins, and theKing's carriage. Presents from thewardrobearerecordedasbeinggiventotheDukeofNorfolk,LordGrey,LordStanley,SirW.Parr,SirJ.Borough,LordAudleyandtheCollegeofWindsor.WhentheDuchessofBurgundycametovisitherbrother,allherattendantswereordered to be clothed in cloth jackets of murrey and blue, while the knightsappointed to attend upon her received gowns of velvet. The velvet was tenshillingsayard,theostrichfeatherstenshillingseach.ThesewardrobeaccountsofthelastyearsofEdwardIV.bearsilenttestimonytothelavishsplendourofthecourt,andofcourtceremonialinthosedays.

IncreasingwealthresultedtothemerchantsandtradersoftheCity,theGuildsflourished and increased in numbers, and there were periodical fairs in thecountry. At the Stourbridge fair, which was the chief mart of LombardExchange, glass, silks and velvets were sold by the Venetian and Genoesemerchants, linen of Liège and Ghent by the Flemish weavers, hardware bySpaniards,tarandpitchbyNorwegians,winebyGascons,fursandamberbytheHanseTowns.Millstones came fromParis.Our own productswere hides andwoolpacks, the produce of the tinmines, and iron fromSussex.AtAbingdonthere was a cattle fair, at Winchester a wool and cloth fair. King Richard's

Parliamentgavemuchattentiontotheadvancementoftrade.

In London thewealthymerchants lived in handsome houseswith gardens.ThelawyerslivedintheInnsofCourt,andtherewerenotwantinggoodinnsandhostelries forpassing travellers.Wehearof the 'WhiteHart' inSouthwark, the'George'atPaul'sWharf,andseveralothers.

TheCityCompanieswereacquiringgreatinfluence.TheSkinners'Companyfoundedthe 'Brethrenof thefraternityofCorpusChristi'ofwhichtheDukeofYorkandhissonsEdwardIV.andtheDukesofClarenceandGloucesterweremembers.DisputesbetweenCityCompanieswereamicablysettled.TherewasonebetweentheSkinners'andMerchantTaylors'withreferencetoprecedenceinCityprocessions.InthereignofRichardIII.,10April,1484,thetwocompaniesagreedtoabidebythejudgmentoftheLordMayorandAldermen.

TheawardwasthattheSkinnersshouldinvitetheMerchantTaylorstodinnereveryyear,ontheVigilofCorpusChristi,andthattheMerchantTaylorsshouldinvitetheSkinnersontheFeastoftheNativityofJohntheBaptist.OnthefirstyearafterthearbitrationtheSkinnersweretowalkinallprocessionsbeforetheMerchantTaylors, on thenextyear theMerchantTaylorsbefore theSkinners,andsoon.ThuswasarbitrationestablishedintheCityduringRichard'sreign,acoursealwaysfavouredandpractisedbytheKinghimself.

Introductionofprinting

The great glory of the Yorkist kings was the introduction of printing intoEngland, inwhich their sisterofBurgundyalso tooka liberal andenlightenedpart. Caxton tells us he was born in the Weald of Kent in 1422, and wasapprenticedtoRobertLarge,amercerofLondonandLordMayorin1439.HishousewasinthenorthendoftheOldJewry,andhereyoungCaxtonliveduntilhismasterdied in1441, leavinghim twentymarks.Caxtonwent toBruges in1441,andin1453hewasadmittedtotheliveryoftheMercers'Company.TheMerchant Adventurers were an association of merchants trading to foreigncountries, chieflymercers.Theyhad a 'domusAngliæ' atBruges, and in1464Caxtonwaschosen'Governorbeyondseas.'In1468heattendedthemarriageofthe young English PrincessMargaret with Duke Charles of Burgundy, whichwas celebrated with great pomp. Caxton was not only a leading merchant atBruges,healsotookagreatinterestinliteratureandinthenewartofprinting.In1469hebeganthetranslationof'LeRecueildesHistoiresdeTroyes,'andinthefollowingyear,whenDukeCharleswasinvestedwiththeGarter,Caxtonmade

hisfirstessayatprinting,withtheorationofDr.Russellonthatoccasion.When,in October 1470, Edward IV. and his young brother Richard took refuge inFlanders, they received active assistance from the loyalmerchant and printer,and in the sameyearCaxton entered the serviceof theDuchessMargaret andmanaged her trading in English wool for her. He was surrounded hy literaryinfluences at Bruges, where there was a printing press encouraged by theDuchess.

In1476CaxtoncametoEngland,andinNovember1477hehadestablishedaprintingpress inhis house atWestminster, under the shadowof theAbbey. Itwas in theAlmonry near the old chapel of St. Anne, at the gate leading intoTothillStreet.Caxton'shousewasthesignoftheredpale.[5]JohnEsteneywasthenAbbotofWestminster(1474-98),butitisnotrecordedthatCaxtonreceivedhelporpatronage fromhim.The firstbookprinted inEnglandwas the 'DictesandSayingsofPhilosophes,'byLordRivers,in1477.Thenfollowed'Cordyale'in 1479, and 'Chronicles of England' in 1480, 'Description of Britain' also in1480. In that year the Duchess of Burgundy came to London to visit herbrothers,andnodoubtshethenpaidavisittotheprintingpressofheroldfriendCaxton. Five books came from that active press in 1481. 'TheMirrour of theWorld'wastranslatedandprintedforacitizennamedHughBriceasapresenttoLord Hastings. 'Reynard the Fox' was translated by Caxton himself. The 'desenectute,' 'de amicitiâ,' and 'declamatio' of Cicero were translated by the ill-fatedEarlofWorcester;aswellas'GodefroydeBoulogne.'Asecondeditionof'ThegameandplayofChess' completed thepublications for1481.During thewhole ofKingRichard's reign, and under his enlightened patronage, Caxton'sprinting press showed great activity. The publicationswere 'Pilgrimage of theSoul' 'LiberFestivalis,' 'QuatuorSermones,' the 'ConfessioAmantis' ofGower,the 'GoldenLegend,' 'Caton,' 'Knightof theTower,' 'Æsop,' 'ParisandVienna,''LifeofCharlestheGreat,'the'CanterburyTales'ofChaucer,'LifeofourLady,''KingArthur,'bySirT.Mallory,whofinishedhisworkin1470,andthe'Orderof Chivalry' translated by Caxton and dedicated to his redoubted Lord KingRichard.

Literarynoblemen

Literaturewas beginning to receive attention from severalmembers of thenobility, and the printing press gave this tendency very great encouragement.AmongthebooksintheWardrobeAccountofEdwardIV.whichwereorderedto be bound, were the 'Book of the Holy Trinity,' the Bible, 'Government of

Kings and Princes,' 'Froissart,' Titus Livius, Josephus, 'Bible Historial,' 'LaForteresse de Foy'; and to this royal library his brotherRichard added severalbooksincludingthe'RomauntofTristram.'

LordRiverswasanaccomplishednoblemanwhosetranslationsandoriginalcompositionsarewellknown.ButJohnTiptoft,EarlofWorcester,wasthemoststudiousandlearned,aswellasthemostaccomplished,authorandstatesmanofYorkisttimes.BornatEverton,Cambridgeshire,TiptoftwasatBalliolCollege,andcompletedhiseducationbyaresidenceofthreeyearsinItaly.HewastwiceLord High Treasurer, was Lord Deputy of Ireland, and was created Earl ofWorcester.But he fell a victim toLancastrian rancour duringWarwick's briefusurpation. He was beheaded in 1470, and Caxton eloquently mourned hisuntimelydeath.

'Thisbook,'Caxtonwrote, 'was translatedbythevirtuousandnobleEarlofWorcesterintoourEnglishtongue,sonandheirtotheLordTiptoft,whichinhistimefloweredinvirtueandcunning,towhomIknownonelikeamongthelordsofthetemporalityinscienceandmoralvirtue.IbeseechAlmightyGodtohavemercyonhissoul,andprayallthemthatshallreadthislittletreatise,likewiseofyourcharity to rememberhis soulamongyourprayers.The rightvirtuousandnoble Earl of Worcester, which late piteously lost his life, whose soul Irecommendtoyourspecialprayers,also inhis timemademanyothervirtuousworkswhichIhaveheardof.OGod,blessedLord,whatgreatlosswasitofthatnoble,virtuousandwelldisposedlord,whenIrememberandadvertisehislife,his science and his virtue.MethinkethGod displeased over so great a loss ofsuchaman,consideringhisestateandcunning,andalsotheexerciseofthesamewiththegreatlaboursingoingonpilgrimageuntoJerusalem,visitingtheretheholyplaces,andwhatworshiphadheinRomeinthepresenceofourholyfatherthePope,andsoinallotherplacesuntilhisdeath,atwhichdeatheverymanthatwastheremightlearntodie,andtakehisdeathpatiently.'

Education

RiversandWorcesterwerenottheonlymenoftheirdaywithliterarytastes.ThecollegesatOxfordandCambridgenumberedamongtheiralumnilaymenaswell as churchmen.The threegreatpublic schoolsofEnglandalreadyexisted.Thegrammar schoolofWestminster, afterwards tobecomeSt.Peter'sCollegeunderQueenElizabeth,hadacontinuousexistencefromthe timeofEdwardI.WinchesterCollege hadbeen foundedbyWilliamofWykeham.EtonCollege

was a foundation due to Henry ofWindsor. All three were flourishing. Boyswent very young to the universities, and parents showed anxiety for theiradvancementinlearningaswellasfortheirduesupplyofclothing.Mrs.PastondesiredatutornamedGrenefeldtosendherwordhowhersonClementisdoinghis duty as regards his lessons. If he does not do well, and will not amend,Grenefeldistolashhimuntilhedoesamend,ashisformertutordid,whowasthe best that ever he had at Cambridge. She is no less particular about hisclothes,whichwere tobe looked to.Clementhada shortgreengown, a shortmusterdevelers (gown of greywoollen cloth), a short blue gown, and a russetgownfurredwithbeaver:aprettygoodsupply.

LatertherewasaPastonboyatEton,oneofwhoselettershascomedowntous(1478).Hedesireshoseclothestobesenttohim,onepairofsomecolourforholidays,andone forworkingdays. Itdoesnotmatterhowcoarse theone forcommonuseis.Healsoasksforastomacher,twoshirts,andapairofslippers.'But,'addstheEtonboy,'ifitlykeyouthatImaycomebywater,andsportmewithyouinLondonadayortwothistermtime,thenyoumayletallthisbetillthetimethatIcome;andthenIshalltellyouwhenIshallbereadytocomefromEton.'Hewantedaholidayinthemiddleoftermtime,andhewantedthefunofboatingdowntheriver.Soitwaswithmanyhundredsofotherboysthenasitisnow; liking play better than work, but still learning, with or without the lashwhichMrs.AgnesPastonbelievedtobesoefficacious.TheEtonianwasabouttenyearsyoungerthanKingRichard.

The Church, in the Yorkist days, had deteriorated. The devil's compactbetweenArchbishopArundelandHenryofBolingbroke,bywhichBishopsweretobeallowedtoburnhereticsonconditionthattheusurpationwasupheldbytheChurch,hadalienated thepeople.TheActDehereticocomburendowasnot adead letter. There were many innocent sufferers. Henry of Monmouth was afanatic.Hearguedwithhereticsandwouldgladlypardononrecantation,butifhisvictimdidnotrecanthewasactuallypresentatexecutionsandwitnessedthecruel tortures.Caxton, someyears afterHenry'sdeath (1439), sawwithhorrortheburningonTowerHillofthegoodVicarofDeptford,whoseloveandcharityhadendearedhimtothepoor.SuchsceneswouldnotendeartheBishopstothepeople. The prelates were self-seeking politicians for the most part, andoccasionally the peoplemade shortwork of them.WhenBishop deMoleyns,thenLordPrivySeal,camedowntoPortsmouthtopaythesailorsandkeptbacksome of their dues, he was seized by the mob and hanged in front of God'sHouse.BishopAyscough of Salisburymet a similar fate.Mr.ThoroldRogers

formed a very bad opinion of the clergy of the fifteenth century.He says 'theBishopswereon thewholebadmen,parochial clergynotmuchbetter,monksworstofall.PeopledesertedthemforthesecretbutstirringexhortationsoftheBiblemen.'But therewere exceptions.Dr.Russell ofLincoln,KingRichard'sChancellor, was a prelate and statesman of the highest integrity, so wereStillingtonofBathandWells,AlcockofWorcester,andLangtonofSt.David's.

The great monasteries still stood, in all their glorious architectural beauty,among thewoodlands and by the trout streams; and charitywas dispensed bytheir inmates.Religiousfoundations likeMiddlehamCollegebyKingRichard,and Acaster College by Bishop Stillington, attest the piety of the age; andreligious buildings proceeded apace. The beautiful chapel of St. George atWindsor was approaching completion in King Richard's time, and many finechurchtowers,especiallyinSuffolk,datefromthisperiod.

ThereweresuperstitiouspilgrimagestoshrinessuchasthoseofSt.ThomasatCanterburyandofOurLadyatWalsingham,whileobitsandsaints'dayswerescrupulously observed. Letters were almost always referred to saints' days,scarcelyevertothedaysofthemonth.Inthe'PastonLetters'wehave'MondaynextafterSt.EdmundtheKing,''thedaynextafterSt.Kateryn,''St.Pernall,''St.Leonard'sEve,' 'St. Erkenwald's,' and so on: even, in one instance, the date isfixed by the collect of the precedingSunday. 'Wednesday next afterDeus quierrantibus.'Thisseemstoshowthatreligion,oratleastitsritesandceremonies,was really part of the actual life of the people. Miracle plays, such as thoseperformedbytheCorpusChristiguildatYork,servedtokeepaliveaninterestinreligion.Therewerealsoallegoricalplays,anditseemsthat'EveryMan,'whichhasinterestedsomanyinthesemoderntimes,mayhavebeenactedbefore,andhaveimpressedaudiencesinthedaysoftheYorkistkings.

TheChurchandthelaw

The lawwaspresidedoverbyconscientiousand learned judges.OldFullersaysofMarkhamandFortescue that theywere the 'ChiefJusticesof theChiefJustices.'Markhamboldlyresistedanyattempttointimidatehim,andbyhisfirmstand against King Edward established an important maxim in constitutionallaw.He did not confine his judgments to the bench, but upbraided evil-doerswhenhemettheminthestreet.JohnHeydon,RecorderofNorwich,wasstoppedbythejudgeandbroughttobookinpublic,forputtingawayhiswifeandlivingwithanother;andalsoforhisunjustconducttowardsJohnPaston,inenforcing

thedoubtfulclaimofLordMoleyns.

Conditionofthepeople

Butthecountrywasinalawlessstate.Uprightjudgmentswerepronounced,but they could not always be enforced. Noblemen, like Lord Moleyns,occasionally acted in defiance of the law, and often therewas no redress.Wehear of 'a greatmultitude ofmisruled people at the house ofRobertLedehamwhoissueattheirpleasure,sometimesthirtyandmore,armedinsteelcapsandjackets,withbowsandbills,overridingthecountry,oppressingthepeople,anddoingmanyhorribleandabominabledeeds.'ThereisaletterfromPaston'swifereporting that 'theyhavemadebars tobar thedoorscrossways,andwicketsateverycornerofthehousetoshootoutat,bothwithbowsandhandguns.'Thissounds like an expected siege. For she adds—'Myworshipful husband, I prayyoutogetsomecrossbowsandwyndacswithquarrels,foryourholeshavebeenmadesolowthatmymencannotshootoutwithalongbow,thoughwehadeversomuchneed.Alsogettwoorthreeshortpoleaxestokeepthedoors.'Thenweare told of Robert Letham killing JohnWilson's bullocks for arrears of rent,eatingthem,andthenbeatingWilsonhimselfinPlumsteadchurchyarduntilhewas indoubtof his life, besidesbeating JohnCoke'smother.WhenSirPhilipWentfordwantstosettleadispute,insteadofgoingtolaw,heridestoColchesterwithahundredarmedmen.Thesewerenotaltogetherpeacefultimes.Theywereexciting, full of adventure, and there was much fun to be got out of them.Different, more eventful, perhaps less safe, than our days of policemen andpenitentiaries,butfarfromunendurable.

These were trifles, and on the whole the country gentry of the fifteenthcentury lived in comfort on their manors. These manors included the lord'sdomain cultivated by his bailiff, the small estates of freeholders paying quitrents,thetenementsandlandsofthelabourersheldforservices,andthewasteorcommononwhichalltenantshadrightofpasture.Themanorhousewasusuallybuilt of stone, though brick was beginning to come into use. The house wasgenerally divided into three principal rooms: the hall, the dormitories, and thesolar or parlour with a southern aspect. In the hall the family and householddined. It was also used for the manor courts, for levying fines, and passingjudicial sentences. The table was on trestles, there were a few stools andbenches, and some chests for linen. Here would also be seen a pot of brass,severaldishes,platters, and trenchers, ironor lateencandlesticks,abrassewerand basin, and a box of salt. The walls were hung with mattocks, scythes,

reaping hooks, buckets and corn measures. In the dairy were the pails, pans,churn,andcheesepress.Inthegrangewerethesacksofcorn.

The manor land was ploughed twice, but half the arable remained fallow.Whenharvestwasoverpigsandgeesewereturnedintothestubble.Themeansof supporting the stock in winter depended upon the supply of hay, for therewerenorootcrops.TherestofthestockhadtobekilleddownforsaltingonSt.Martin'sday(November11).Inthegardenandorchardwereapplesandpears,damsons, cherries, currants, strawberries, kitchen herbs, onions and leeks,mustard, peas and beans, and cabbage. Crab apples were collected to makeverjuice.

WeareinformedofthecommissionsJohnPastonreceivedfromhiswife,inher numerous letters. Besides weapons of offence and defence she writes forgingerandalmondsandsugar,alsoforfriezefortheirgrowingchildwithanoteofthebestandcheapestshop.Nextshewantstwodozentrenchers,syrup,quincepreserve, oil for salads.As regards luggage JohnPastonwrites to his brother,whowasatan inn—thesignof the 'George' inPaul'sWharf—toputup in themailhistawnygownfurredwithblack,thedoubletofpurplesatin,thedoubletofblacksatin, andhiswritingboxofcypress.Thesecommissionsgivea littleinsightintothedomesticarrangementsofthetime.ButforacompleteoutfitofoneofthelessergentryequippedforwarwemustreadoverthecontentsofMr.Payn'sluggage,robbedfromhimbyJackCadeandhisrabbleatthesignofthe'WhiteHart'nearLondonBridge.

There was a fine gown of mixed grey woollen cloth trimmed with finebeavers.Apair of 'bregandyns,'whichwere coats of leather or cottonquilted,havingsmallironplatessewnoverthem;alsolegharness.Abluishgreygownfurredwithmartens.Twogownsfurredwithbudge(lambskin).Lastly,agownlinedwithfrieze.ButthegreatestlosswasasetofMilanharness(armour).TheyforcedMr.PaynintothebattleonLondonBridge,wherehewaswounded;androbbedhiswifeinKentofallbutkirtleandsmock.Thosewereexcitingtimes,andluggagewasnotalwayssafe,butonthewholetheyweretimesofplenty.

The fifteenth centurywas the golden age of the labourer.At no timewerewagesrelativelysohigh.Thepeopleatewheatenbread,drankbarleybeer,andhadplentyofcheap,thoughperhapscoarse,meatatafarthingapound(equalto3d.now).Ifalabourerhadtoundertakeajourney,therewerehousesaswellasmonasterieswheredolesweregiven toallwayfarers.Thecottagesof thepoor

werebuiltofwattleanddaub,butskilledlabourerswerefedatthetableofthelordofthemanorbelowthesalt;andsomeofthemlodgedintheout-buildings.Itissaidthatscurvy,inavirulentform,wasacommondisorder;asallthepoor,exceptthenumerousclassofpoachers,hadtoliveonsaltmeatforsixmonths,onionsandcabbagesbeingtheonlyesculents.Buttheprevalenceofthisdisorderhasbeenexaggerated.

Wehave theevidenceofChiefJusticeFortescue that the labouringclass inEngland was far better off as regards lodging, clothing, and food than thepeasantryofFranceandothercountriesofEurope.

PRICES--1484

Wheat,5s.3-¾d.thequarter.|Hen,2d.

Barley,4s.1-¼d.|Swan,2s.6d.

Oats,2s.2-½d.|Duck,2d.

Beans,3s.8d.|Charcoal,6s.5d.theload.

Oatmeal,7d.|Firewood,1s.10-½d.theload.

Malt,3s.10-¼d.|Hurdles,2s.thedozen.

Hay,2s.2d.theload.|Salt,4s.8d.thequarter.

Wool,5s.4d.theton.|Tiles,6s.10d.the1,000.

Ox,10s.|Bricks,6s.8d.the1,000.

Calf,3s.|Gasconywine,9s.8-½d.thedozen

Sheep,1s.4d.|gallons.

Pig,5s.4d.|Sugar,19s.thedozenpounds.

Horse,60s.|Pepper,15s.""

Capon,3d.|Currants,2s.4d.""

Goose,1d.|

Wages--Carpenter6d.perday,3s.aweek,£92s.6d.ayear.

Tiler6d."

Unskilled4d."2s."

[1]ThoroldRogers.

[2]Theenclosuregrievancewasjustbeginningtobefelt.

[3]ThesecondeditionwasbroughtoutbyWynkyndeWordein1496.

[4]ItwascreatedbyRichardIII.in1484.

[5]The'pale'inheraldry.

CHAPTERX

REIGNOFKINGRICHARDIII

King Richard was a youngman in his thirtieth year when he came to thethrone. During the previous ten years he had acquired considerableadministrativeexperience,andhadshownhimself topossessability,powersofapplication,andresolution.Hewasextremelypopular in thenorthofEngland,wherehehadgenerallyresided.

YoungRichardwasnottall,ofslightbuild,withoneshoulderalittlehigherthantheother,butnotsomuchastobenoticeableortocauseweakness.Hewasaformidableadversaryinbattle.TheportraitatWindsorissoremarkablethatitmust have been taken from life. The eyes are a little closed, and give athoughtful,almostdreamylook.Theotherfeaturesareregular.Thelipsthinandfirm, the chin prominent. The whole expression is that of a thoughtful andearnest man, firm, resolute, and fearless. Dr. Parr remarked on the stronglikenessbetweenRichardIII.andLorenzode'Medici,theMagnificent.HiswifeAnne inherited great beauty from the Nevills and Beauchamps, but she wasfragileanddelicate.

Theyoungnephews

On July 4, 1483,KingRichard III. andQueenAnne removed to the royallodgingsintheTower,wheretheirnephewsEdwardandRichardwereresiding.Owing to his illegitimacy the eldest boy,who had been proclaimedKing andsoonafterwardssetaside,couldnotretainthetitlesofWalesandCornwall,norcouldtheyoungeronecontinuetohavetheroyaltitleofYork.TheyoungerboyhadalsolosthisclaimtotheMowbraytitlesofNorfolkandNottinghambythedeathofthelittleMowbrayheiresstowhomhehadbeenbetrothed.ThosetitlesjustlypassedtotherepresentativesoftheauntswhosucceededAnneMowbrayas the heirs of that family, theLadiesHoward andBerkeley. Their sonswerecreatedDukeofNorfolkandEarlofNottinghamrespectively,onJune28.ButEdward,theeldestboy,retainedtheearldomsseparatelyconferredonhimbyhisfather,ofPembrokeandMarch.

ItwastheKing'sintentiontobringhisnephewsupandprovideforthemasbecame their rank and their near relationship to himself. 'He promised that hewouldsoprovideforthem,andsomaintaintheminhonourableestate,asthatall

therealmoughtandshouldbecontent.'[1]TheallegationthattheyneverlefttheTowerisderivedfromtheinsinuationsofveryunscrupulousenemies.

Itismuchmorelikelythattheyresidedintheroyalhousehold,andwerethecompanions of theKing's other nephew, theEarl ofWarwick; at least until itbecamenecessarytoplacetheminsafekeepingontheinvasionoftherealmbyHenry Tudor. In the regulations for King Richard's household, dated July 23,1484, it isordained that 'thechildrenare tobe togetheratonebreakfast.'Whowerethesechildren,ifnottheKing'snephews?Theywereevidentlychildrenofhighrank,[2]andRichard'slittlesonEdwardhaddiedinthepreviousApril.

Beforethecoronation,theKingcreatedeighteenKnightsoftheBath,fourofthemsonsorbrothersofpeers.

ThecoronationofKingRichardIII.andQueenAnnetookplaceonSunday,July6,1483. Its splendourwasgreater thanhadeverbeenknownbefore.TheCardinalArchbishopplacedthecrownsontheheadsof thenewsovereignandhisconsort.Hewas surroundedbybishops, andnearly thewholepeeragewaspresent.Neverwasaccessionreceivedwithsuchunanimousconsentbyallranksofthepeople.TheattendanceofaWoodvillebishopandaGreyviscountgavegrounds for the hope that even faction was at an end. On scarcely any otheroccasionwas the aristocracy ofEngland so fully represented. TheDuchess ofSuffolk, as sister of the King, walked alone in state, in the procession. TheintriguingwifeofStanley,motherofHenryTudor,hadtheprivilegeofbearingtheQueen'strain.

CORONATIONPROCESSIONOFKINGRICHARDIII.

SerjeantsofArms

Heralds

TrumpetsandClarions

TheCross

Priestsingreyamices

Bishops,withmitresandcroziers

Abbots,withmitres

BISHOPOFROCHESTER,bearingacross

THECARDINALARCHBISHOP

THEEARLOFNORTHUMBERLAND,bearingthepointlessswordofmercy

LORDSTANLEY,DUKEOFSUFFOLK,EARLOFLINCOLN

bearingthemaceofbearingthesceptrebearingtheorb

Constable

DUKEOFNORFOLK,bearingthecrown

EARLOFSURREY,bearingtheswordofstateinscabbard

VISCOUNTLOVELL,BCBCEARLOFKENT

bearingtheswordaiaibearingthesword

(civil)ofjusticernrn(ecclesiastical)

oqoqofjustice

nunu

sese

THEKING

oPoP

fofo

rr

BISHOPOFBATHANDttBISHOPOFDURHAM

WELLSss

DUKEOFBUCKINGHAM,bearingtheKing'strain

Earls

Barons

EARLOFHUNTINGDON,EARLOFWILTSHIRE,VISCOUNTLYLE,

bearingtheQueen'sbearingtheQueen'sbearingtherod

sceptrecrownwithdove

BISHOPOFEXETERTHEQUEENBISHOPOFNORWICH

LADYSTANLEY,bearingtheQueen'strain

DUCHESSOFSUFFOLK(King'ssister),instate,alone

Twentypeeresses

The Duke of Buckingham put forward an important claim, soon after thecoronation,anditssuccesswasanexampleof the lavishgenerosityofRichardIII. Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford and Essex, died in the year 1372,leavinghis twodaughters co-heiressesofhisvast estates.Alianore, the eldest,marriedThomasofWoodstock,DukeofGloucester,theyoungestsonofEdwardIII.TheirdaughterandeventualheiressAnnemarriedEdmundEarlofStafford,great-grandfather of the Duke of Buckingham. Mary, the second daughter,marriedHenryofBolingbroke,EarlofDerby,whobecameEarlofHerefordbyright of his wife, and eventually usurped the crown as Henry IV. His maledescendants ended with his grandson Henry VI. The Duke of BuckinghamclaimedthatthemoietyoftheBohunestateswhichMarybroughttoHenryIV.andwhichhadmergedinthecrown,shouldnowreverttohimasthemaleheirof both sisters. Legally, the claimwas untenable, and it had been rejected by

EdwardIV.Richard,however,generouslyconcededallthatBuckinghamasked,makingaformalgrantofthelandsinquestionunderhisownsignmanual.

OnhisaccessionthegenerousyoungKingwasanxioustobereconciledwithall his subjects with whom he had ever had differences. Among these was acertainSir JohnFogge, a low intriguer,withwhom theKing condescended toshake hands. This treacherous fellow soon afterwards joined in Buckingham'srebellion. Like Louis XII. of France King Richard forgot and forgave alloffencesagainsttheDukeofGloucester.

TheRoyalProgress

The King set out on a progress through England,[3] a fortnight after thecoronation,accompaniedby theDukeofBuckinghamanda large retinue.Theyoung Earl of Warwick, Richard's nephew, was also with him, having beenliberatedfromduranceintheTower,wherehehadbeenkeptbytheMarquisofDorsetashisward,eversincethedeathofhisfatherClarence.YoungWarwickwasalsoathisuncle'scoronation.

TheKing leftWindsor forReadingon the23rd,arrivingatOxfordonJuly24,wherehewasreceivedbyoldDr.Waynflete,BishopofWinchester,andtheBishopsofWorcester,St.Asaph,andSt.David's.Hewas lodged inMagdalenCollege,andonhisdeparturetheagedDr.WaynfletecausedtobeenteredintheCollegeregister—

VIVATREXINAETERNUM.

OnAugust1theKingwasatGloucester,andheretheDukeofBuckinghamtook his leave and proceeded to his estates in Wales, accompanied by hisintriguing prisoner Bishop Morton. Passing on to Tewkesbury on August 4,RichardarrivedatWarwickonthe8th,wherehewasjoinedbytheQueen,whocame direct from Windsor.[4] The court remained a week at Warwick, andcomprised the young Earl ofWarwick, five Bishops,[5] the Earls of Lincoln,Surrey,andHuntingdon,LordsStanley,Dudley,Morley,Scrope,andLovell,theChiefJustice,theScottishDukeofAlbany,andtheSpanishAmbassador.Onthe10th the royal partywas atCoventry, on the17th atLeicester, on the22ndatNottingham.TheKing andQueen arrived at Pomfret on the 27th,where theyweremetby their little sonEdward,whohad travelled fromMiddleham tobe

withthem.Onthe30ththeyenteredthecityofYork.

ThepeopleofYorkviedwitheachotherintheloyaltyandcordialityoftheirwelcome. Richard III. was a most popular sovereign, and with good reason.Bishop Langton,[6] who accompanied him on this progress, thus wrote: 'HecontentsthepeoplewherehegoesbestthateverdidPrince,formanyapoormanthathathsufferedwrongmanydayshasbeenrelievedandhelpedbyhimandhiscommandsinhisprogress.Andinmanygreatcitiesandtownsweregreatsumsofmoney given himwhich he hath refused.[7]Onmy truth I never liked theconditionsofanyPrincesowellashis.Godhathsenthimtousforthewealofus all.'[8] On September 8 King Richard and Queen Anne walked in solemnprocessionwith the crowns on their heads, on the occasion of the creation oftheirsonEdwardasPrinceofWales.[9]TheyoungPrince,hiscousintheEarlofWarwick, and Galfridus de Sasiola, the Spanish Ambassador, were knighted.TheroyalpartyleftYorkonthe20th,andproceededbyGainsboroughtowardsLincoln,whichcitywasenteredonOctober12.

Suddenly the news reached the King that the Duke of Buckingham hadbrokenoutinrebellion.Neverwasthereanactsounprovokedandtreacherous.TheDukeseemstohavebeenaweakunprincipledman,fullofvanityandself-importance, and his worst qualities were worked upon by the insidious oldintriguerMorton,whohadbeenentrustedtohiscustody.Buckingham'sambitionwastoseizethecrown.Inaccordancewiththe'TitulusRegius,'onlytwopersonsstood inhisway.ThesewereKingRichard III.andhisdelicate little son.Thetraitor's scheme was to strike them down and seize the coveted prize. Therebellionwascarefullyplanned.AlltheLancastrianandWoodvillemalcontentswereinvitedtojoin,andthereweretohavebeenseveralsimultaneousrisingsinthe south of England, on October 18. On that day Buckingham unfurled hisstandardatBrecknock,whileDorsetandSirThomasSt.Legerroseinthewest;and even the cautiousHenry Tudor sailed across fromBrittany, but feared toland. His mother, the wife of Stanley, intrigued actively with the QueenDowagerandtheWoodvillefaction.

The energy and decision with which the King met the danger baffled thepolicy of the rebels. As Buckingham was Constable of England, it becamenecessarytoappointaVice-ConstabletotryrebelsinconjunctionwiththeEarlMarshal,andSirRalphAshtonwasselectedfor thepost.[10]Owingtoagreatflood in the Severn the forces of Buckinghamwere unable to cross the river,their provisions failed, and they disbanded. The wretched traitor put on a

disguise and fled; but he was betrayed and apprehended by the Sheriff ofShropshire.Meanwhile,theKinghadorganisedasufficientforce,andadvancedrapidly to Salisbury, whither Buckinghamwas brought a prisoner. The traitorsought an interview with his injured sovereign, with the intention ofassassinatinghim.[11]Fortunatelytherequestwasrefused.Hehadbeencaughtred-handed,andtheEarlMarshal'scourtcondemnedhimtodeath.[12]HewasbeheadedatSalisburyonNovember2.RichardtreatedtheDuke'swidow,whowasaWoodville,withhishabitualgenerosity;grantingherapensionoutofthelordshipofTunbridge.

Theotherrebelsfled.DorsetandoldMortonescapedabroad.SirThomasSt.LegerwascaughtandbeheadedatExeter,withThomasRammeandoneotherdelinquent.SevenrebelssufferedinLondon.Thereareahundrednamesinthebill of attainder against the rebels; but most of them were subsequentlypardoned, including Stanley's intriguing wife, who wasmerely given into thecustodyofherperfidioushusband,anactofunwiseleniencywhichamountedtorecklessness.[13]

Richardhaddestroyed all opposition, andhenowenteredupon the seriousbusiness of government.Although his administrationwas profusely liberal, hecheckedcorruption, reformed thepublicoffices,andpromotedeconomyin theservice of the state. Parliamentmet on January 23, 1484, andMasterWilliamCatesbywas chosenSpeaker. Its first businesswas to give full validity to the'Titulus Regius' by embodying it in an Act of Parliament. The public acts ofRichard's parliament arenoted for theirwisdomandbeneficial effects.Oneofthem gave security to purchasers of land against secret feoffments, anotherconferredpoweronmagistrates toacceptbail frompersonsaccusedof felony,another was intended to prevent the intimidation of juries. The abolition ofbenevolences was a most beneficent measure, designed to put an end to anoppressivesystemofextortingmoney.Anelaborate statutewasalsopassed tocheckmalpracticesinthemanufactureofwoollengoods.ThestatutesofRichardIII.werethefirstthatwerepublishedinEnglish.Thedistinctionbetweenpublicandprivate actswasalso firstmade in thisparliament.The latter included thereversalof theattainderof thePercys,severalother restitutions,andgrants forendowments,includingagrantfortheendowmentofBishopStillington'scollegeatAcaster.

LordBacon, no friendly critic, saidofRichard III. that hewas 'a prince inmilitary virtue approved, jealous of the honour of the English nation, and

likewiseagoodlawmakerfortheeaseandsolaceofthecommonpeople.'[14]Inspeaking of the parliament of Richard III. Lord Campbell says: 'We have nodifficulty in pronouncing Richard's parliament the most meritorious nationalassemblyforprotectingthelibertyofthesubject,andputtingdownabusesintheadministrationofjusticethathadsatinEnglandsincethereignofHenryIII.'[15]

Therevenue

KingRichardIII.introducedreformsintherevenuedepartments,whichwerepreparedunderhisowneye.HeorderedtheAuditoroftheExchequertosubmitan annual return of all revenues, issues, and profits;while theLordTreasurerwastomakeareturnofallmoneyreceivedanddisbursedinhisoffice.FormerlythePellIssueandReceiptRollsonlyshowednetsumspaidintotheExchequer,'reprises'anddirectpaymentsbeingignored.

Theprincipalsourceofrevenuewasfromthecustoms.The'antiquacostuma'consistedof6s.8d.onthesackofwool,and13s.4d.onthelastofleather.The'parvacostuma'included3s.4d.onasackofwool,asmalltaxonclothandotherimportsandexports,andanadvaloremdutyof2d.inthepound,and3d.fromforeigners,ongeneralmerchandise.Tonnageandpoundagewas1s.inthepoundon the value ofmost goods, exceptwool and leather, and 3d. on each tun ofwine. The 'antiqua costuma' and 'parva costuma' were hereditary, but tonnageand poundage had to be voted by parliament at the beginning of each reign.Customsdutiesbroughtin18,629l.inthefirst,and20,743l.inthesecondyearofKingRichard'sreign.Theoldcrownrevenuesyielded17,900l.,Hanaper2,930l.,andotherreceipts5,297l.Thetotalannualrevenuewas50,356l.inthefirst,and57,122l.inthesecondyear.

Thenavy

Thenavy in thosedayswas small, indeed it had ceased to exist during thewretchedmisruleofHenryVI.Richardhad,asLordAdmiralduringhisbrother'sreign, beengradually restoring the navy to efficiency, and in 1480his brotherappointed a 'Keeper of the Ships,' the officer who had control of navalorganisation. Thomas Rogers, a merchant and fishmonger of London, wascontinued as 'Keeper of the Ships' during King Richard's reign, the navyconsistingofsevenships, the 'Nicholas,' 'Governor,' 'GraceDieu,' 'Maryof theTower,''MartinGarcia,''Falcon,'and'Trinity.'

While parliamentwas sitting theConvocation also assembled.The bishops

and clergy presented an adulatory address to theKing, praying that hewouldredress theirgrievances, 'seeingyourmostnoble andblesseddisposition in allthings.'InreplyRichardgrantedachartertotheclergy,confirmingtheirlibertiesand immunities; andhe took the opportunity of enjoining a closer attention totheir spiritual duties. With this object he issued a Royal Letter calling uponChurchmen toenforcedisciplineandpromotemoralityamong thepeople.TheConvocationvotedtheKingthree-tenths,whichyielded5,600l.

BeforetheprorogationtheKingtookmeasurestoinducetheQueenDowagertocomeoutofsanctuarywithherdaughters.Hepromisedthat,iftheywouldbeguided and ruled by him, he would treat them kindly and honourably as hiskinswomen,marrythemtogentlemenborn,andgivethemsuitableallowances.Elizabeth agreed to these terms,whichwere faithfullyobserved; and theKingalsoundertooktograntapensionof700marksayearforherownmaintenance.She not only came out of sanctuarywith her daughters, but showed somuchconfidence in Richard's good faith that she sent to her son, the Marquis ofDorset,toreturntoEnglandandsubmithimselftotheKing.

DeathofthePrinceofWales

InMarch,1484,theKingandQueenleftLondon,andproceedednorthwardsby way of Cambridge, reaching Nottingham on April 20. Here they receivedintelligence of the death of the young Prince of Wales, which took place atMiddlehamonthe9thofthesamemonth.Theunhappyparentsweredistractedwiththemostviolentgrief.'Youmighthaveseenhisfatherandmotherinastatealmostborderingonmadnessbyreasonoftheirsuddengrief.'[16]Thechildwasinterred in the chapel built by Richard himself, on the north side of SheriffHuttonchurch.TheKinghadplaced'thesuninsplendour,'thefavouritedeviceofhisbrotherEdward,inoneofthewindows.AnalabastereffigyoftheyoungPrinceofWales,habitedinaloosegownwithacoronetonhishead,wasfixedonanaltartomb.Thesouthsideofthetombisdividedintocompartments.Inthecentreonetheheart-brokenfatherisrepresentedinarmour,offeringupprayertotheAlmighty,whoissupportingacrucifix.Oneachside,inothercompartments,there are shields nowquite plain, probablyoncepainted, supportedby angels;andonthewindowjambthereisashieldchargedwithacrossofSt.Georgeinbold relief, the badge of the garter. The charges on the other shields haveprobablybeenwilfullydefaced,aswellasanycrownsorensignsofroyalty,toconcealtheidentityofthemonument.ThiswasperhapsdonetoavoidcompletedesecrationatTudorhands.Somemonthsafterthechild'sdeath,whenRichard

had to sign a warrant for the last expenses connected with the funeral of his'most dear son,' he touchingly added, in his own handwriting, 'whom Godpardon.'[17]Thisprayermayhavesuggestedthesubjectofthesculpturedpanelon the tomb,where the petition ismade to pass, in formof a scroll, from thesuppliant'slipstotheearofGod.

KingRichard,after thedeathofhisownson,declaredhisnephewEdward,EarlofWarwick,sonofhisbrotherClarence,tobeheirtothethrone.Itwasnodoubtintendedtoreversetheattainderinduetime.MeanwhileyoungWarwickwas given precedence before all other peers. He resided sometimes at SheriffHutton,sometimeswithhisaunt,asamemberoftheKing'shousehold.[18]

It isassertedbyRous that theKingchangedhismindsoonafterwards,anddeclared his nephew the Earl of Lincoln to be his heir, closely imprisoningyoungWarwick.[19] Rous was a dishonest and unscrupulous writer, and thisparticular statement is disproved by documentary evidence. For on May 13,1485, theMayorandCorporationofYorkdeterminedtoaddressa letter to theLordsofWarwickandLincolnandotherof theCouncilatSheriffHutton.[20]TheprecedenceheregiventoyoungWarwickaboveLincoln,andthefactofhisbeingaddressedasoneoftheCouncil,provethestatementofRoustobefalse.ItshowsalsothatWarwickhadnotbeensuperseded,andthathewasstillheirtothethrone,justbeforethebattleofBosworth.[21]HewasprobablyamemberoftheKing'shousehold,andoneofthechildrenmentionedintheRoyalOrdinanceofJuly23,1484.

Richard III.madeaprogress in thenorthofEnglandduring thesummerof1484, superintending the coast defences, and in August he was again atNottinghamreceivinganembassyfromScotland.TheKinggaveaudiencetotheScottishenvoysinthegreathallofNottinghamCastleonSeptember16,seatedunderaroyalcanopyandsurroundedbythechiefofficersofstate.Atrucewasestablishedforthreeyears,andamarriagewasagreeduponbetweentheeldestson of James III. and the Lady Anne de la Pole,[22] niece of the King ofEngland.AtaboutthesametimeafriendlytreatywasratifiedbetweenRichardandtheDukeofBrittany.

In the autumn of 1484 the body of Henry VI. was, by the King's order,removedfromChertseyandinterredinSt.George'sChapelatWindsor,onthesouthsideofthehighaltar,thetombofEdwardIV.beingonthenorthside.Thechapelwasthennearlyfinished.

PopularityoftheKing

Richard III. returned to London onNovember 9.Hewasmet by the LordMayorandAldermenwithupwardsoffourhundredcitizens,whoescortedhimto his residence at the Wardrobe in Blackfriars. Christmas was kept atWestminster with all gaiety and splendour, the young niece Elizabeth beingrichlyattiredinadresssimilartothatoftheQueen,accordingtothegossipingoldmonkofCroyland.Butthebelovedconsortofsomanyyears,theplayfellowofRichard'searlydays,whohadsharedallhisjoysandsorrows,themotherofhis lost child, was passing away. Like her sister Isabella, Queen Anne wasdelicate,andshewasnowinarapiddecline.ShediedonMarch16,1485,[23]andwas buried inWestminsterAbbey; her sorrowing husband shedding tearsover her grave.[24] As an aggravation of the King's grief, an odious report,probablyoriginatinginthewishesoftheQueenDowagerandherdaughter,wasspreadabroadthathemeditatedamarriagewithhisillegitimateniece.AssoonasitcametoRichard'sears,hegaveitformalandpubliccontradiction.[25]

Asthespringof1485advanceditbecameknownthat,encouragedandaidedbytheFrenchcourt,theLancastrianmalcontentsintendedtoattemptaninvasionofEngland,andthat,probablyatthesuggestionofBishopMorton,theyhadputforwardapretenderasaclaimantofthecrown.ThiswasHenryTudor,whowasbornatPembrokeCastleonJanuary28,1457.His father,EdmundTudor,wasthe son of aWelsh esquirewithwhom thewidow ofHenryV. had formed aclandestine connection. Thus Edmund was a half-brother of Henry VI., whocreatedhimEarlofRichmond,andhisbrotherJasperEarlofPembroke.HenryTudorwasborntwomonthsafterhisfather'sdeath,whenthewidowwasonlyinherfifteenthyear.ShewasdaughterofJohnBeaufort,DukeofSomerset,andatthistimewasthewifeofLordStanley,herthirdhusband.In1471JasperTudorfled intoBrittanywithhisnephewHenry.BothEdmundandJasperTudorhadbeen attainted and deprived of their earldoms. Edward IV. had created hisbrother Richard Earl of Richmond,[26] and the title had since merged in thecrown. The earldom of Pembroke had been conferred on King Edward's sonEdward.HenryTudor,whowasneverEarlofRichmond,hadlivedinBrittanyformanyyears,butin1484hehadgonetoFrance,wherethedesiretoinjureherEnglish neighbours induced the Lady of Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XI. andRegent for her young brother Charles VIII., to encourage the conspirators.Henry's claim to relationship with the Kings of the House of Lancaster wasderivedfromhismother'sdescentfromanillegitimatesonofJohnofGaunt.[27]

Itwas afterwards considered unadvisable to put this untenable claim forward,exceptinvagueterms,andHenry'stitlewasbasedonconquest.

Threatenedinvasion

The King, in anticipation of the threatened invasion, took up a centralpositionatNottinghamCastleinthespringof1485,andissuedcommissionsofarray. In theearlypartof theyearhehadfound the treasurynearlyexhausted,andhadbeenobligedtoresorttoaloan,inordertoraisefundsforthedefenceofthecountry.Hisparliamenthadabolishedthesystemof'benevolences,'orforcedcontributions,whichhadoftenbeenresortedtobyformerkingsandwereveryoppressive.Richard, inhisdifficulties,wouldnot sanction this illegalpractice,butheappealedtothepeopleforaloan,delivering'goodandsufficientpledges'foritsrepayment.[28]Fullpaymentwastobemadeineighteenmonths,intwoinstalments.ByGoodFriday,April1,about20,000l.hadbeenreceived,outof30,000l.thathadbeenaskedfor.

On June 23 a royal proclamationwas issued declaringHenry Tydder aliasTudor and his followers to be traitors and outlaws, and announcing that thisHenry,sonofEdmund,sonofOwenTydder,actuallypretendedtohaveatitletothe crown. The Earl ofWarwick and the King's niece Elizabeth were sent toSheriffHuttonforsafety.EdwardandRichard, theyoungsonsofEdwardIV.,musthavebeensenttotheTowerwiththesameobject.

MeanwhiletheFrenchRegent,althoughtherewasnowarandnopretextforhostilitieswithEngland,furnishedthenecessaryfundstoenableanexpeditiontobe fittedout atHarfleur, andallowedFrench troops tobeembarkedunder thecommandofaFrenchofficernamedPhilibertdeShaundé.Thussupportedandaccompanied,HenryTudorlandedatMilfordHavenonAugust8,1485.HehadwithhimafewLancastrianexiles.

PEERAGEOFRICHARDIII.

(ThoseprintedinitalictypewerepresentattheCoronation.)

DUKES

1.DukeofBuckingham,K.G.(Stafford),[1]heldthetrain.

2.DukeofSuffolk,K.G.(Pole),borethesceptre.

3.DukeofNorfolk,K.G(Howard),borethecrown.

ROYALMINORS

4.EarlofSalisbury(Plantagenet),[2]sonoftheKing.

5.EarlofWarwick"sonofClarence.

6.EarlofMarchandPembroke,K.G.(Plantagenet),illegitimate

sonofEdwardIV.

EARLS

7.EarlofLincoln(Pole),[2]boretheorb.

8.EarlofSurrey,K.G.(Howard),[2]boretheswordofstate.

9.EarlofArundel,K.G.(FitzAlan).[1]

10.EarlofNorthumberland,K.G.(Percy),[1]boretheswordofmercy.

11.EarlofWestmoreland(Nevill),sick.

12.EarlofWiltshire(Herbert),borethequeen'scrown.

13.EarlofKent(Grey),boretheecclesiasticalswordofjustice.

14.EarlofNottingham(Berkeley).

15.EarlofHuntingdon,borethequeen'ssceptre.

16.EarlofShrewsbury(Talbot)}minors

17.EarlofEssex(Bourchier)}

VISCOUNTS

18.ViscountLovell,K.G.,borethecivilswordofjustice.

19.ViscountLisle(Grey),[1]boretherodwithdove.

BARONS

20.LordAbergavenny(Nevill).

21.LordMaltravers,K.G.(FitzAlan).[2]

22.LordGreyofCodnor.23.LordGreyofWilton.24.LordGreyofPowys.25.LordMorley.

26.LordScropeofBolton,K.G.27.LordScropeofMasham.28.LordBeauchamp.29.Lord

Lumley.30.LordAudley.31.LordStourton.32.LordFitzHugh.33.LordZouch.34.Lord

Dacre.35.LordFerrers,K.G.36.LordCobham.37.LordStanley,K.G.,[1]borethemaceof

constable.

[1]Turnedtraitors.

[2]EldestsonsraisedtotheUpperHouse.

BARONS--Continued

38.LordStrange.[2]

39.LordWelles.[1]

40.LordGreystoke,inthemarches.

41.LordMountjoy,atCalais.

42.LordDudley,K.G.,veryold.

43.LordHungerford,[2]aminor.

44.LordOgle,inthemarches.

45.LorddelaWarre,abroad.

PRELATES

1.ArchbishopofCanterbury(Bourchier).

2.BishopofDurham(Dudley).

3.""Rochester(Audley).

4.""Exeter(Courtenay).

5.""Norwich(Goldwell).

6.""Wells(Stillington).

7.""Salisbury(Woodville).

8.""Lincoln(Russell).

UNDERATTAINDER

1.EarlofOxford,Lancastrian.

2.EarlofDevonshire,"

3.LordRivers,"

4.LordDynham,"

5.LordBeaumont,"

6.LordClifford(minor)"

7.MarquisofDorset,Woodvillefaction.

8.JasperTudor,lateEarlofPembroke.[3]

9.HenryTudor,callinghimselfEarlofRichmond.[4]

MINISTERSOFRICHARDIII.

EarlMarshal--TheDukeofNorfolk.

LordChancellor--Dr.JohnRussell,BishopofLincoln.

LordChamberlain--ViscountLovell,K.G.(atBosworth).SlainatStoke.

LordSteward--LordStanley(traitor).

LordConstable--DukeofBuckingham(traitor),thenSirRalphAshton.

LordAdmiral--DukeofNorfolk,K.G.(atBosworth).Slaininbattle.

'KeeperoftheShips'--ThomasRogers.

LordPrivySeal--JohnGunthorpe,DeanofWells.

LordTreasurer--LordAudley(died1491).

ChancelloroftheExchequer--WilliamCatesby(atBosworth).Killed

byHenryVII.

[1]Turnedtraitors.

[2]EldestsonsraisedtotheUpperHouse.

[3]TheearldomofPembrokebelongedtoyoungEdward,eldest

illegitimatesonofEdwardIV.

[4]TheearldomofRichmondhadmergedinthecrown,havingbeen

grantedtotheDukeofGloucester.

ChancelloroftheDuchy--ThomasMetcalfe.

SecretaryofState--JohnKendall(atBosworth).Slaininbattle.

LordDeputyofIreland--EarlofKildare(ob.1513).

ClerkoftheCouncil--JamesHarington(atBosworth).Slaininbattle.

TreasureroftheHousehold--WalterHopton(atBosworth).Slain

inbattle.

ComptrollersoftheHousehold--SirRobertPercy(ofScotton,near

Knaresborough),(atBosworth).Slaininbattle.AndSirJohn

Buck(atBosworth).KilledbyHenryVII.

KeeperoftheGreatWardrobe--PierceCourteys.

COMMISSIONERSFORPEACEWITHSCOTLAND,1484.

JohnBishopofLincoln

RichardofSt.Asaph

DukeofNorfolk

EarlofNorthumberland

LordPrivySeal

SirW.Stanley

LordStanley

LordStrange

LordPowys

LordFitzHugh

LordDacre

MasteroftheRolls

SirRichardRatcliffe

WilliamCatesby

RichardSalkeld.

JUDGESANDLAWOFFICERSOFRICHARDIII.

LordChiefJusticeoftheKing'sBench..WilliamHussey.

LordChiefJusticeofCommonPleas....ThomasBrian.

ChiefBaronoftheExchequer.......SirHumphreyStarbury.

MasteroftheRolls...........ThomasBarrow.

Judges--King'sBench...........RogerTownshend.

"...........GuyFairfax.

CommonPleas...........WilliamJenney.

"...........RichardNeele.

Exchequer...........BrianRoucliffe.

"...........RalphWolseley.

Attorney-General.............MorganKidwelly.[1]

Solicitor-General............ThomasLymon.[2]

[1]MorganKidwelly,KingRichard'sAttorney-General,wassupposed,

evenbyMissHalsted,tohaveturnedtraitorandjoinedHenry

Tudor.ButMr.Gairdnerhasclearedhischaracter,andshown

thattheideawasduetoaresemblanceofnames.The

Attorney-Generalwastrueandloyaltotheend.

[2]TheSolicitor-GeneralmarriedJaneShore,withtheconsentof

KingRichard.

King'sSerjeants.............ThomasTremayne.

".............RogerTownshend.

".............JohnVavasour.

RecorderofLondon............NicholasFitzwilliam.

KINGRICHARD'SBISHOPS

1454-86. Thomas Bourchier,[1][4] Cardinal Archbishop of Canterbury. 1480-1501. Thomas

Rotherham,[4]ArchbishopofYork.

1448-89.ThomasKempe[4](thenaged79),BishopofLondon.

1447-87.WilliamdeWaynflete,[2]BishopofWinchester.1476-85.WilliamDudley,[1][2][3]

Bishop of Durham. 1465-92. Robert Stillington,[1] Bishop of Bath and Wells. 1478-1504.

EdwardStory,[4]BishopofChichester.

1478-86.JohnMorton(traitor),[4]BishopofEly.

1478-86.PeterCourtenay(traitor),[1][4]BishopofExeter.1474-92.ThomasMilling(Abbot

ofWestminster),BishopofHereford.

1459-92. William Smith,[3] Bishop of Lichfield. 1480-95. John Russell,[1] Bishop of

Lincoln.1472-99.JamesGoldwell,[1][4]BishopofNorwich.1480-92.EdmundAudley,[1][4]

BishopofRochester.1482-85.LionelWoodville(traitor),[1]BishopofSalisbury.1476-86.

JohnAlcock,[2][3]BishopofWorcester.1478-95.RichardBell,[4]BishopofCarlisle.

1464-96.ThomasEdnam,[4]BishopofBangor.

1478-96.JohnMarshall,[4]BishopofLlandaff.

1472-95.RichardRedman,[2][3]BishopofSt.Asaph.1483.ThomasLangton,[2]BishopofSt.

David's.1480-87.RichardOldham,BishopofSodorandMan.

1474-98.JohnEsteney,[1]AbbotofWestminster.

KNIGHTSOFTHEGARTER,CREATEDBYRICHARDIII.

1.SirJohnConyers(atBosworth).Escaped.

2.TheEarlofSurrey(atBosworth).Takenprisoner.

3.ViscountLovell(atBosworth).Escaped.SlainatStoke.The

King'sdearestfriend.

[1]Atthecoronation.

[2]ReceivedtheKingatOxford.

[3]WiththeKingatWarwick

[4]AtHenryTudor'sfirstParliament.

4.SirRichardRatcliffe(atBosworth).Slaininthebattle.

5.SirThomasBurgh.

6.LordStanley(traitor).

7.SirRichardTunstall.

KNIGHTS

SirRobertDymoke(thechampion)wasknightedonJuly5,1483.

SirRobertPercy........."""

SirWalterHopton........"""

SirWilliamJenney(Judge)...."""

SirRobertBrackenbury......"""1485.

KNIGHTSOFTHEBATH,CREATEDATTHECORONATIONOFRICHARDIII.[1]

1.SirEdmunddelaPole(sonoftheDukeofSuffolk).

2.SirJohnGrey(sonoftheEarlofKent).

3.SirWilliamZouch(brotherofLordZouch).

4.SirGeorgeNeville(sonofLordAbergavenny).

5.SirChristopherWilloughby.

6.SirWilliamBerkeley,ofBeverston(traitor).

7.SirHenryBabington.(BuckhasBainton.)

8.SirThomasArundell.

9.SirThomasBoleyn.(BuckhasBullen.)

10.SirEdmundBedingfield.

11.SirGervaseClifton.WoundedatBosworth.

12.SirWilliamSaye(sonofLordSaye,whofellatBarnet).

13.SirWilliamEnderby.

14.SirThomasLewknor(traitor).

15.SirThomasOrmonde.

16.SirJohnBrowne.

17.SirWilliamBerkeley,ofWyldy.

18.SirEdmundCornwall,BaronofBurford.

[1]FromGrafton,p.799,andHolinshed,p.733;Harl.MS.293,

fol.208b,and2115,fol.152;Buck,p.26.

[1]MortoninGrafton,p.127.

[2]HarlMSS.433,fol.269.Theirhighrankisshownbytheorderthatnoliveryistoexceedtheallowance,'butonlytomyLord(Lincoln?)andthechildren.'SeeDavies,YorkRecords,p.212n.,whoalsomakesthesuggestionthatthesechildrenweretheoffspringofEdwardIV.andtheyoungEarlofWarwick.

[3]KingRichard'sprogress:

Windsor22July,1483|Gloucester1Aug.1483

Reading23""|Tewkesbury4""

Oxford24""|Worcester6""

Warwick*8Aug."|Doncaster25""

Coventry15""|Pontefract27""

Leicester17""|York30""

Nottingham+22""

*Aweek.

+LetterofSecretaryKendaltoMayorofYork,Aug.23;Drake,p.116.

[4]Rous.

[5]Worcester,Lichfield,Durham,St.Asaph,andBangor(Rous,217).

[6]OfSt.David's.

[7]SeealsoRous,p.216.

[8]Sheppard'sChristChurchLetters,46,quotedbyGairdner,p.115.

[9]Rymer,xii.200,quotedbyGairdner,p.

[10]Buck,p.31,whogivestheLettersPatent.

[11]Confessionofhisson.

[12] It is generally alleged that there was no trial. The appointment of Sir RalphAshtonprovesthattherewas.

[13]KingRichard'sTraitors,Oct.1483

In the bill of attainder (Rot. Part. v. p. 294) there are 100 persons. Of these wereexecuted

TheDukeofBuckinghamatSalisbury.SirThomasSt.LegeratExeter.ApersonnamedRammeatExeter.SomeexecutedaftertrialatTorringtonbyLordScrope.

Wm.Collingbournehadofferedanotherman8l. togo toHy.Tudor inBrittanyandurgehimtoinvadeEngland.IftheywouldlandatPoole,hewouldgetpeopletorise.

ExecutedinLondon,and6others,2takeninKent,4inSouthwark.

Courtenay,BishopofExeter}

Woodville,BishopofSalisbury}

Morton,BishopofEly}

MarquisofDorset}escapedabroad.

(sonoftheQueenDowager)}

LordWelles}

(uncleofHenryTudor)}

ProclaimedTraitors—

HenryTudor,callinghimselfEarlofRichmond.*

JasperTudor,lateEarlofPembroke.*

SirE.Courtenay.

Margaret,wifeofLordStanley.

SirWilliamCheney,toinducetheDukeofBrittanytohelp.

JohnCheneyatSalisbury,andothers.

Wm.Noreys,ofYachendon}

SirWm.Berkeley,ofBeverton}

SirRogerTocotes,ofBromham,pardoned}44atNewburyandin

SirWm.Stonor,inBerks.}Berks.

SirJohnFogge,with26others}

RichardBeauchamp,ofSt.Amand}

WilliamKnyvett,ofBodenham}withBuckinghamat

JohnHush,merchantofLondon}Bechurch

ThomasNandike,necromancerofCambridge}

SirGeorgeBrown,ofBletchworth,andothersexecutedat

Maidstone(Oct.18),Rochester(Oct.20),Gravesend(Oct.22).

SirJohnGifford.

SirThomasLewknor.

SirRichardGilford.

ReynaldPympe.

SirEdwardPoynings.

SirWilliamBrandon.

SirJohnWingfield.

ArthurKeane.

SirWilliamHunter,pardoned.

SirThomasFerveys,"

NicholasGaynsford,"

OnehundrednamedintheBill,aconsiderablenumberafterwards

pardoned.

Harl.MSS.No.433,p.128;Halsted,ii.276n.;SharonTurner.

*HenryTudorhadneverbeenEarlofRichmond.His fatherwasattainted, and thetitlewasgiven toRichardDukeofGloucester,withwhom itmerged in the crown.JasperTudorhadbeenEarlofPembrokebeforehisattainder.HenceHenryTudorisnamedas'callinghimselfEarlofRichmond,'whileJasperis 'lateEarlofPembroke.'AftertheattaindertheEarldomofPembrokewasconferredbyEdwardIV.onhissonEdward.

[14]LifeofHenryVII.

[15]LivesoftheLordChancellors,i.p.407.

[16] 'Vidisses tantisper patrem et matrem, iis novis apud Nothinghaniam ubi tuncresidebant,auditispræsubitisdoloribuspeneinsanire'—Croyland,p.571.

[17]Harl.MS.No.433,fol.183.

[18]Rous,pp.217-218. 'Nonmultopostprincipe,utdicitur,mortuo, juveniscomesWarwici Edwardus, filius primogenitus Georgii ducis Clarenciæ, proclamatus estapparensAngliæincuriaregali,etinserviciisadmensametcamerampostregemetreginamprimoeiserviebatur.'

[19] 'Postea sub arta custodia positus, coniesLincolniensis ei præferrebatur nomineJohannesPole,filiusetheresJohannisPoleducisSuffolchiæ.'—Rous,p.218.

[20]Davies,YorkRecords,p.210.

[21]Moreover,LincolnfellatStoke,fightingfortheEarlofWarwickasrightfulking,notforhimself.

[22]Thismarriagenevertookplace,andtheLadyAnnebecameanunatSion.

[23]ItissaidbytheCroylandmonk(572)thattherewasaneclipseofthesunonthedayofherdeath.ThiswouldmakeitMarch16.Someauthoritieshavethe11th.

[24]Buck, p. 129. 'Non cumminore honore quam sicut reginam decuit sepeliri.'—Croyland,i.572.

[25]Croyland,YorkRecords,pp.208,210.

[26]Rot.Parl.vi.227.

[27] John ofGaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the third son of Edward III., who lived tomarry, had for his firstwifeBlanche, heiress ofHenryDuke ofLancaster, throughwhomheacquiredthetitle.ByherhehadHenryIV.,whousurpedthecrown,Edwardand John, who died young, Philippa, married to Joam I., King of Portugal, andElizabethDuchessofExeter.HemarriedsecondlyConstanza,heiressofPedroKingof Castille and Leon, and had a daughter Catalina, wife of Enrique III., King ofCastille and Leon. A governess was engaged for the daughters of the Duke ofLancaster.ThiswasCatharine, daughter of a heraldofHainault, namedPaynRoet,who hadmarried SirHugh Swynford in 1367. TheDuke had four children by thiswoman,namedJohn,Henry,Thomas,andJoan,surnamedBeaufortfromthecastleinFrancewheretheywereborn.AllwerebornduringthelifetimenotonlyoftheDuke'swife,butalsoof thegoverness'shusband.TheDuchessdied in1394,and the realmwasscandalisedbythemarriageoftheDukeofLancasterwiththiswomanonJanuary13, 1396.TheDuke died inFebruary 1399,CatharineSwynford onMay10, 1403.Their childrenweregranted letters of legitimationbyRichard II. inFebruary1397,confirmed by Henry IV. on February 10, 1407, 'excepta dignitate regali.' HenryTudor'smotherwasgranddaughterofJohn,theeldestoftheBeauforts.

[28] Every act of Richard III. has been persistently misrepresented. This loan isusually alleged to have been a return to the illegal systemof 'benevolences,'whichRichardhadhimselfabolishedayearbefore,byActofParliament.EvenMissHalstedisledintothiserror.ButMr.Gairdnerhascompletelydisposedoftheaccusation.SeeCroyland,p.572,andLingard'sremarks,iv.255.Gairdner,p.198.

CHAPTERXI

THEBATTLEOFBOSWORTH

Richard'sheadquarterswereatNottinghamCastle,the 'CastleofCare'ashehadcalledit,sincehereceivedthenewsofhisson'sdeaththere.Withtheaidoftheloanaforcehadbeenraisedandarmed;whilereinforcementswereontheirway from several directions. Here the news arrived that Henry Tudor[1] hadlandedatMilfordHavenwith2,000mercenaries.Hewouldneverhaverunthisriskunlesshehadpreviously receiveddistinctpromisesofadherence from theTalbots and Stanleys. His mother, the wife of Stanley, was an inveterateintriguer. She had already been detected in treasonable practices andcontemptuously forgivenby theKing.Nowshehadpersuadedher treacheroushusbandthat itwouldbemoreforhis interests tobestep-fathertoanewKingowing everything to his treason, than to continue loyal to his generous andforgivingmaster.ThisexplainstheconductoftheStanleys,whichemboldenedthe invader to venture upon such an enterprise. The insurgents advanced byCardigan andWelshpool to Shrewsbury. They were joined by several Welshchiefs,andbySirGilbertTalbotwith2,000men.HenryTudorwasaccompaniedby his uncle Jasper, and by John Vere, son of the attainted Earl of Oxford.Reginald Bray,[2] his mother's steward, was in attendance on him, and Dr.Richard Fox[3] acted as his secretary.Most of the leaders of his troopswereexiles who had been concerned in Buckingham's abortive treason. WilliamBrandon,[4] Sir John Cheney, Sir Giles Daubeny, Sir RobertWilloughby, SirJohnByron,RichardEdgcombe,[5]andSirThomasBourchier,allcomeunderthiscategory.SirJohnSavageandSimonDigby[6]joinedtheinvadersaftertheyhad landed,andWalterHungerford[7]deserted justbefore thebattle.Nopeer,exceptStanley,joinedtherebels.

LordStanleyandhisbrotherSirWilliamhadraisedforcesinLancashireandCheshire, with the base intention of turning traitors to their King if a goodopportunityoffered,butofbeingonthewinningsideinanycircumstances.Withthis object their design was to hold aloof until the last moment. SirWilliamStanley had a secret interview with Henry at Stafford. On August 20 the

insurgents, about 8,000 strong, arrived at Atherstone, nine miles beyondTamworth.Here theStanleysagainmetHenry secretly.Theypretended to theKingthattheywereretreatingbeforetheinvaders.

Richardwasundoubtedlyamanendowedwithgreatmilitarytalent.Hehadshownremarkablegeneralship,whenquiteaboy,atBarnetandTewkesbury.Hehad conducted the Scottish campaign with signal success. He had promptlystampedouttheBuckinghamrevolt.Hewasnowtoencountertherebels.Therecanbenodoubtthatifhehadwaitedforthereinforcementswhichwereontheirway,especiallyfromthenorth, theresultwouldneverhavebeendoubtful.Butalas! he despised his enemy, andhis open andgenerous nature prevented himfromharbouringasuspicionofthefoultreacheryoftheStanleysuntilitwastoolate.

English pluck has been a motive power which has helped to place theEnglish-speaking race in the forefront of the world's history. That doggedcourage facingoverwhelmingodds rather thanwait for helporgiveground isthe secret of England's success. Often leading to decisive victory it hassometimes resulted in disaster.Nevermore conspicuous than in the audaciouscampaigns of Crecy andAgincourt,when fortunewas on the side of recklessvalour,itwasequallypresentonthefatalfieldofBeaugé,whenThomasDukeofClarencelosthislife.WefinditagainatWakefield,abattlewhichresemblesBosworthinseveralrespects.Thebraveandchivalrousfatherlosthislifeontheformer, the gallant son on the latter field. BothRichardswere full of Englishpluck.Bothscornedtowaitforsuccour;andpreferred,likethemenofZutphenandofBalaclava,tochargeintothemidstofcountlessodds.Bothwerebetrayed—the Duke of York by Nevill, the King by the Stanleys. These PlantagenetswerefittingleadersofthepeopleofEngland.WhiletheirdoggedEnglishpluckled some of them to destruction, the very same quality has secured decisivevictoryforEnglandonahundredfields.

On August 14 King Richard was hunting in Beskwood Park. He was anardentsportsman,andthiswasfatedtobehislastday'ssport.Mondaythe15thwas theFeastof theAssumptionof theVirgin,andhedevoutlykept it, aswelearnfromtheDukeofNorfolk.[8]HecommencedhismarchfromNottinghamon Wednesday morning. He was surrounded by loyal and devoted friends.ViscountLovellandSirRobertPercy,thecompanionsofhischildhood,rodebyhisside.TheveteranDukeofNorfolk,whohadfoughtwiththegreatTalbotatChâtillon,washurryingupwithacontingentfromtheeasterncounties.Hisson,

thegallantEarlofSurrey,waswithhim.LordsFerrersandZouchhadarrivedfromtheMidlands.TheloyaloldConstable,SirRobertBrackenbury,hadcomebyforcedmarchesfromLondon.TheEarlofNorthumberland,whoowedmuchtohisroyalcousin,[9]wasbringingafirst instalmentof troopsfromthenorth.ThefaithfulcityofYorkwasrepresentedbyeightyofhercitizens,stout-heartedand well equipped.[10] Other troops were on their way, and if the King hadwaitedforthemhisvictorywascertain.Alltheloyalgentryofthenorthwereinarms,butRicharddidnotgivethemtimetoreachhiscamp.Amongthemwerethe twoLordsScrope,LordsDacre andOgle,LordGreystoke ofHinderskelf,theKing'scousin,[11]who 'broughtamightymany,'andamong theYorkshirenamesof thoseloyal toKingRichardwereGascoigneandConyers,StricklandandConstable,MaulevererandPlumpton,TempestandPudsey,PilkingtonandMusgrave.

TheKingformedhisarmyintwodivisions,marchingfiveabreast,withthecavalryontheflanks.Richardhimselfwasonawhitehorserichlycaparisoned,andheworeagoldencircletonhishelmet.HeenteredLeicesterintheeveningofAugust 19, and lodged at the 'WhiteBoar'[12] inNorthGate Street. In themorning of Sunday the 21st the armymarched out of Leicester, reaching thelittlevillageofStapleton,adistanceofeightmiles,intheafternoon.AcamphadalreadybeenpreparedinafieldnearStapleton,called'theBradshaws,'whichisonaslighteminence.

TheBattleofBosworth

Map:BattleofBosworthMap:BattleofBosworth

This part ofLeicestershire consists of a succession of hills and dales,withstreams flowing westward, and uniting to form the Anker, a tributary of theTrent. The 'Bradshaws' is on the browof a gentle slope, at the base ofwhichflowsa rivuletcalled theTweed.TheDukeofNorfolk'scampwasatCadeby,abouttwomilestothenorth,butheonlyarrivedatStapletonthedaybeforethebattle. Stanley, still pretending to retreat, marched with 2,000 men, by StokeGolding,toafieldnowcalled'Gamble'sClose,'facingthe'Bradshaws,'withtheTweed flowing between the two positions. SirWilliam Stanley had a similarforceencampedonthenorthernsideofthefield,infrontofthetownofMarketBosworth,andneartheDukeofNorfolk.Between,buttothewestofStapletonandCadeby, there isa ridgeknownasSuttonFields, in frontof thevillageof

SuttonCheney.Agentleslopesinks thence toRedmorePlain[13]andAmbienLeys,betweenwhichisthehillcalledAmbien.Furtherwest,acrossthestream,therearesomefieldscalledtheWhiteMoors,withthevillageofShentontothenorth,andthoseofDadlingtonandStokeGoldingtothesouth-east.

Henry had arrived at Atherstone on August 20, and lodged at the 'ThreeTuns,'whiletherebeltroopsandtheirFrenchalliesunderPhilibertdeShaundéencampedinthemeadowsnorthofthechurch.Tudorwasherejoinedbyanothertraitor,RobertHardwickeofLindley.Nextday the insurgentsadvancednearlydueeast,crossedthebridgeovertheriverAnkeratWitherley,andthenturneduptheFennLanes,encampingonWhiteMoors.HardwickeofLindleyactedastheirguide.TheywereamilefromAmbienHill,withLordStanleyinadvanceoftheirrightflank,andSirWilliamStanleybetweentheircampandBosworth,ontheirleftflank.

TheKinghad thrownupabreastwork toprotecthiscamp,300yards long,withflanksoffiftyyards,facingLordStanley.AtlengththesuspiciousconductofStanleyforcedhimtoentertaintheideaoftreachery.Butitwastoolate.Hehadabout8,000men,whileNorfolk'scontingentnumbered4,000.TheStanleyshad about 8,000men, and the insurgent armywas composed of 2,000 Frenchmercenaries,2,000retainersofSirGilbertTalbot,and4,000WelshandEnglishtraitors, inall8,000men. Including theStanleycontingents, theenemylargelyoutnumberedtheroyalarmy.

During the night Sir Simon Digby got into the royal camp as a spy, andreturned with the report that the troops were in motion. The rebel leaders,therefore,soundedtoarms.ThismusthavebeenatdawnofMonday,August22,1485.The sun rose thatdayat aquarter after five.[14]KingRichardmarchednorth-eastwardfortwomilestoeffectajunctionwiththeDukeofNorfolk.Theroyalarmywasthenformedintwolines,alongtheridgeofSuttonFields.Thearchers were in the front line, with a few small pieces of artillery, under theDukeofNorfolk.Thebill-menformedtherearline,andthehorsewereontheflanks.StanleymarchedatthesametimeastheKing,andhaltedtotherearofhis left flank. The Earl of Northumberland arrived the samemorning, but heseems tohave thought thathismenneeded rest.He tooknopart in thebattle.ThisslacknessandwantofzealwerepunishedinafteryearsbytheloyalpeopleofYorkshire.[15]

KingRichardwasdressedinthesamesuitofpolishedsteelthathehadworn

atTewkesbury,withagoldencircletroundhishelmet.Herodetoaknoll,sincecalled'Dickon'sNook,'andaddressedthearmyinaspirit-stirringspeech,callingon all true Englishmen to resist the foreign invaders, and appealing to theirloyalty and patriotism. He then led them down the slope, placing his righttowardsAmbienLeys. In frontofhis centre therewasawell, sinceknownasKingRichard'sWell.

PhilibertdeShaundéhadformedtheinsurgentsacrossRedmorePlain,withamorass on their right flank. In their first linewas JohnVere in the centre,SirGilbertTalbotontheright,andSirJohnSavageontheleftwing.JasperTudorcommandedthesecond line,andhisnephewHenrykeptwell in therear.JohnVere ordered his men not to advance more than ten paces in front of theirstandard; forheknewof the contemplated treachery, and that the royal troopswouldbeattackedintherear.

AssoonastheKingsawthattheinsurgentshadlefttheircampandadvancedroundthemorass,hegavetheorderfortheattackatabout10A.M.Avolleyofarrows was discharged on either side: probably a few shots from some smallpiecesofordnancewerefiredby therebels.[16]Then the traitorStanley threwoff the mask and fell upon the left rear of the royal army, throwing it intoconfusion.TheDukeofNorfolkfoughtgallantlyandfell in the thickestof thebattle.

TheyoungKingbeheldthistreason,andatoncemadeuphismind.Hesawthatadesperatechargeofcavalrywastheonlyremainingchance.HereceivedareportthatHenryTudorwasskulkingintherear,andresolvedtoattackhim.Itwasawell-concertedplan,thoughmadeonthespurofthemoment.Richardwassurroundedbyloyalanddevotedknights.Itissaidthathestoppedtoquenchhisthirstatthewell.Then,puttingspurstohishorse,hegallopedforward,followedby the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary of State, the Clerk of theCouncil,theConstableoftheTower,LordsLovell,K.G.,Ferrers,andZouch;SirBryan Stapleton, Sir Thomas andHumphrey Stafford, Sir Richard Clarendon,SirGervaseClifton,SirRobertPercy,[17]SirRichardRatcliffe,K.G.,[18] theflowerofEngland'sloyalchivalry.SirWilliamParkerwasthestandard-bearer.Never was the valour of the kingly race of Plantagenet more gloriouslydisplayed.SirRobertBrackenburywas encounteredby the traitorHungerford,whoslewthegrey-headedoldwarrior,loyaltothelast.SirGervaseCliftonwasoverthrownandbadlywounded,buthewas shielded fromfurtherharmbySirJohnByron, his old friend and neighbour inNottinghamshire,who eventually

obtained his pardon from the usurper.[19] The King himself felled WilliamBrandon to the ground. He was the adventurer's standard-bearer, and the reddragonworkedonwhiteandgreensarcenetwashurledintothemud.ThelionsofEngland stillwavedover their defenders.TheKing thenunhorsedSir JohnCheney, a French pensioner, and was on the point of reaching Henry Tudorhimself,whenthelastandfoulestactoftreacherywasperpetrated.SirWilliamStanley suddenly attacked the right flank of the royal army with 3,000 men.King Richardwas surrounded. Hewas urged to fly by the loyal knightswhostoodbyhimtothelast. 'Never,'exclaimedtheyounghero, 'Iwillnotbudgeafoot; Iwill dieKingofEngland,' andhe dashed into the thickest of the fight.Likeasturdyoaksinkingunderathousandblows,at lengthKingRichardfell,fighting an army and coveredwithwounds. 'Fightingmanfully in the thickestpressofhisenemies,'confessedoneofthemostunscrupulousamongthem.[20]He fell at the foot of the hill inAmbien Leys. Lord Ferrers, Lord Zouch, SirRichard Ratcliffe, the Secretary of State, and the Clerk of the Council fellfightingbyhisside.SirWilliamConyersandSirRichardClarendonwerealsoamong the slain, with many other loyal knights and gentlemen. Sir WilliamParker(orThurleball?),theKing'sstandard-bearer,issaidtohavekeptthelionsofEnglandonhighuntilbothhislegswerecutfromunderhim,nor,whenontheground,wouldheletgowhilebreathwasleftinhisbody.[21]

Theroyalchargecommencedat11A.M.andlastedabouthalfanhour.Eachsidelostahundredmeninbattle,butthetreasonoftheStanleyswasfollowedbythe flight of the royal army towards Stoke Golding, and during the pursuit,whichcontinuedforfiftyminutes,therewasconsiderableslaughter.

Henry thencame to the front, andwas atStokeGoldingwhenSirWilliamStanleybroughthimthegoldencircletoffthelateKing'shelmet,salutinghimasKing.Theplaceiscalled'CrownHill.'StanleywasmadeLordChamberlainbythe usurper; but such a traitor could not be trusted.Henrywas conscious that'though Stanley came in time to save his life, he delayed long enough toendangerit.'TheastuteandpatientKing,broughtupintheschoolofLouisXI.,bidedhistime.Beforemanyyearshissaviourwasbeheaded.

ShamefulindignitiesaresaidtohavebeenperpetratedonthelifelessbodyofKingRichard.TheycouldhavebeenpreventedbyawordfromHenry,butthatwordwasnotspoken.'Insultsofferedbythevictortothecorpseofasoldierslainin battle evince a great degree of meanness or cowardice on the part of theformer.'[22]

Richard III. was buried in the church of St. Mary, belonging to the GreyFriars, at Leicester, and a tombwas erected over his grave. Not only has thetomblongsincedisappeared,butthechurchalso.In1808astonepyramidwasbuiltover thewellon thebattlefield,witha suitable inscriptionby the learnedDr.Parr,tocommemoratethegallantdeathoftheKing:

AQUAEXHOCPUTEOHAUSTASITIMSEDAVIT

RICABDUSTERTIUSREXANGLIAECUMHENRICOCOMITEDERICHMONDIA

ACERRIMEATQUEINFENSISSIMEPRAELIANSETVITAPARITEBACSCEPTROANTENOCTEMCARITURUS

IIKAL.SEPT.A.D.MCCCCLXXXV

In1871thearmsofKingRichardIII.,impalingthoseofQueenAnne,wereplacedonanabutmentofthenewbridgeatNottingham,asamemorial.RichardIII.,thelastofourPlantagenetkings,istheonlyonesincetheNormanConquestwho has fallen on the field of battle. Hewas also the youngest of our actualreigningsovereignswhenhedied.[23]

Richardpassedthroughthefirstthirtyyearsofhislife,beforehisaccession,with honour and repute. He displayed brilliant courage as a knight, andremarkable ability as a general. In France he upheld the honour of Englandagainst thecorrupt factionwhich surroundedhis sovereign. InScotlandhedidadmirableservicebythecaptureofBerwick.Hewasanefficientandenergeticadministrator of the Northern Marches, and was the first to establish postalcommunicationbymeansofrelaysofhorses.Hewasjustlypopularthroughoutthecountry,andwasbelovedinYorkshire,wherehewasbestknown.WhenthenewsofhisdeathreachedYork,thepeoplewereplungedingrief.ThefollowingentrywasmadeintheCityRegister:'Hewaspiteouslyslainandmurderedtothegreatheavinessofthiscity.'[24]

On his accession to the throne his character did not alter. He loved hiscountry, and was a King of great administrative ability. He was prompt andvigorousinsuppressinginsurrections,andbafflingtheschemesofconspirators;buthewaslenient,oftenunwiselyso,whentheimmediatedangerwasover.No

otherKingwouldhavesparedsuchmischievoustraitorsasStanleyandMorton.Hisgenerositytothefamiliesofattaintedrebelswillnotfindanyparallelinourhistory.NotonlydidheshowliberalclemencytothewivesofRivers,Hastings,Buckinghamandothers:butheactuallypensionedthewivesofmenwhowereplotting against him in foreign countries, like John Vere, Lord Dynham, andAlexanderCheney.Hisuprightnessandgoodfaithwererelieduponbyenemiesand friends alike. Lord Rivers appointed him supervisor of his last will, wellknowinghimtobeanhonourableandmagnanimousfoe.LadyLatimersoughtthesameservicefromhim,asakindandtrustyfriend.Asanarbitratorinfamilydisputes, like that betweenSirRobert Plumpton andhis relations,Richard, byhisimpartialjustice,establishedpeaceandconcordwheretherehadbeenill-willand litigation.[25] There was nothing mean or sordid in his nature; he wasliberal,open-handed,andgenerous.

AdministrationofKingRichard

Richard'sParliamentwas thebest thathadmet since the timeofEdward I.His administrationwas patriotic. He checked corruption in the public service,refusedlargesumsofmoneythatwereofferedtohimasgiftsbyseveraltowns,[26]andanxiouslysoughtthewelfareofhispeople.Hetookgreatinterestintheadministrationofjustice,anditisrecordedthatinMichaelmastermof1484hepersonallyattendedintheStarChamberandpropoundedquestionsoflawtothejudges.Heencouragedtrade,andespeciallyvoyagestoIcelandandthenorthernfisheries.InIrelandhewasverypopularandhisgovernmentwassuccessful.Hisforeignpolicywaswiseandjudicious.HemadepeacewithScotland,establishedfriendly relations with Brittany and Spain, observed strict neutrality betweenMaximilian and the Flemish towns, while promoting commercial intercourse,andwatchedthetreacherousregencyofFrancewithwell-foundedsuspicion.

King Richard was a great builder.[27] He founded collegiate churches atMiddleham,BarnardCastle,andAllHallowsBarking,builtamemorialchapelatTowton,anotheratSheriffHutton,endowedQueens'College,Cambridge,[28]anderectedahandsometoweratWestminster.HepushedforwardtheworksatSt.George'sChapel,Windsor,begunbyhisbrother,andrepairedthecastlesofSkipton,Carlisle,Nottingham,andWarwick.HiscognizanceofthewhiteboarisstilltobeseenonthestoneworkofanorielwindowatBarnardCastle.Richardwas aprinceof literary tastes, and amonghis books amanuscript copyof theromanceofTristandeLeonnaisandaWickliffeBiblehavebeenpreserved.Hewas the friend and patron of Caxton, who dedicated a book 'Of the Ordre of

Chyvalry and Knyghthode' to 'his redoubted Lord King Richard.' By letterspatent, datedMarch 21, 1484, he gave theHeralds a charter of incorporation,andwasthusthefounderoftheCollegeofArms.Healsograntedthem'arightfayreandstatelyhouse,'[29]calledPulteney'sInn.Hewasdevoutandreligious,strivingtopromotegreateractivityamongtheclergyinimprovingthemoralsofthepeople.Richardwasakeensportsman,devotedtothechasebothwithhawkand hound. He kept large hunting establishments at Westminster and inYorkshire.

King Richard was probably conscious of the political change that wasimpendingintheworld,forhewasavigilantobserverofthesignsofthetimes,andwaswellversedinthepoliticalquestionswhichwereengagingtheattentionofEuropeanstatesmen.Hehadwitnessedthefallofhisbrother-in-law,Charlesthe Bold, and the collapse of the system he upheld. He must have seen thatfeudalism was giving way to a new era, in the age of the Renaissance. Theyoung Plantagenet was well fitted by nature to rule the destinies of Englandduringthisperiodofchange.Hehadreceivedanexcellenttraining.ForyearshehadbeenaccustomedtoconferwiththeauthoritiesatYorkontheirlocalaffairs,hehadoftenbeeninconsultationwithclericaladviserswhenframingstatutesforhiscollegiatechurches,andfromearlyyouthhehadhadunusualopportunitiesofacquiringaknowledgeof theneedsandwishesof thepeople.Hedesiredtoreignintheheartsofhiscountrymen.Hisproclamationsandlettersshowthathewishedtotakehispeopleintohiscounsels,toconsultpublicopinion,andtobeguidedbyit.Hewasanadministratorofnomeanability,andalthoughhewasbold even to recklessness in facing the consequences of his acts, he alwaysshowedanxietytohavethepublicfeelingwithhim.Hewould,inallprobability,have respected the rights and liberties of his subjectswhile leading them intonewways.

RichardandtheTudors

InallrespectsRichardwasbetterfittedtoreignoverEnglandinthedaysofchange that were inevitable than the two tyrants who succeeded him. HenryTudorcausedabeautifulchapeltobebuiltatWestminsterforhisowntomb,buthissonrobbedanddestroyedscoresoffarmorebeautifultombsandchurchesinallpartsofEngland.TheremighthavebeenanageofEnglishRenaissanceunderRichard.There actuallywas an age ofVandalic destruction under theTudors.Thefatherwasamiserlyforeigner, thesonarapaciousandremorseless tyrant,[30]bothdespotsbynature,andhatersofconstitutionalfreedom.Thebattleof

Bosworthwas a calamity fromwhichEnglanddidnot soon recover.But afterseventy-threeyearsoftyrannytheGreatQueenbegantoreign.ThoughaTudorby name her high qualitieswere derived from hermother's English ancestors.She was a true Englishwoman at heart. Descendant of the brave and loyalNorfolk who fell fighting for King Richard at Bosworth, the grand-niece ofRichardIII.wasbybloodevenmoretrulyEnglishthanwereherYorkistgreat-uncles.

Richardwasmost agreeable and ingratiating in hismanners, andwhere hewasbest knownhewasmost liked.[31]He formed friendshipswhich enduredthetestoftime.Thosewhoknewandlovedhiminboyhoodfoughtbyhissideon the fatal field atBosworth.[32]Richard III.was the only one of our kingswhomadea true lovematch.HiscousinAnne, theplaymateofhischildhood,was his first love. United before they were twenty, they passed ten years ofhappymarriedlifetogetheratMiddleham.Theirloveisprovedbytheirconstantcompanionship.When the Protectorwas surrounded by perils and difficulties,his wife hurried up to London to share them with him. Together they werecrowned, together they sat at public banquets,made progresses andwalked inroyalprocessions.Togethertheymournedoverthedeathoftheirbelovedchild,andsoughtcomfortinmutualsympathy.Richardonlysurvivedhiswife'sdeathforfiveshortmonths;havingsharedwithhertheirjoysandsorrowsforfourteenyears.

Contemporarysovereigns

ThetruepictureofourlastPlantagenetKingisnotunpleasanttolookupon,when the accumulated garbage and filth of centuries of calumny have beenclearedoffitssurface.

CONTEMPORARYSOVEREIGNS

ScotlandJamesIII.1460-1488

FranceAnneofBeaujeu(Regentfor1483

CharlesVIII.)

BrittanyFrancisII.1458-1488

LowCountriesMaryandMaximilian1477-1493

GermanyEmperorFrederickIII.1440-1493

Denmark,Sweden,Hans1481-1513

andNorway

BohemiaVladislaus1471-1510

HungaryMatthiasCorvinus1458-1490

PolandCasimirIV.1445-1492

CastilleIsabella1474-1504

AragonFerdinand1479-1516

PortugalJoamII.1481-1495

NaplesFerdinandofAragon1458-1494

PopeSixtusIV.(delleRovere)1471-1484

"InnocentVIII.(Cibo)1484-1492

TuscanyLorenzode'Medici1469-1492

MilanGianGaleazzoSforza1476-1494

GrandSeigneurBayazidII.1481-1512

[1]HenryTudorwasnot,andneverhadbeen,EarlofRichmond.Hisfatherhadbeendeprivedbyattainderandoutlawry.RichardDukeofGloucesterwascreatedEarlofRichmondbyKingEdwardIV.,andwhenRichardsucceeded,thetitlemergedinthecrown.

[2]SirReginaldBraywasmadeaK.B.atHenry'scoronation,andafterwardsaKnightoftheGarter.Hewasanarchitect,andhasthecreditofhavingfinishedSt.George'sChapelatWindsorandbuiltHenryVII.'sChapelatWestminster.

[3]FoxwasapriestlyconspiratorwhohadbeenactingasoneofMorton'sagents.HewasrewardedwiththeBishopricofWinchester.

[4]Henry'sstandard-bearer.

[5]Knightedafterthebattle.

[6]MadeLieutenantoftheforestsofSherwood,Beskwood,andClipston,onSept.22,1485.

[7]Knightedafterthebattle.

[8]PastonLetters,ii.p.334.

[9]Theirmothersweresisters.RichardIII.hadpassedanActrestoringalltheirrightsandpossessionstothePercys.

[10]Davies,YorkRecords,p.216.

[11]Theirmothersweresisters.

[12]Afterwardsthe'BlueBoar.'

[13]ThebattlewassometimescalledRedmore,'apudRodemorejuxtaLeicestre'(YorkRecords,p.217).SeealsoDrayton'sPolyolbion,xxii.

'ORedmorethenitseemedthynamewasnotinvain,Whenwithathousand'sbloodtheearthwascolouredred.'

[14]Thirty-firstofGregorianera.Sunrisesat5.15A.M.

[15] They killed him near Thirsk, on April 28, 1488, when he was engaged inenforcing the payment of extortionate taxes levied by his new master (Dugdale'sBaronage,p.282).

[16]FourcannonballswerefoundonAmbienHillinthelastcentury.Theyarenowin possession ofMrs. Park Yates, of Sandiway, near Northwich, who allowedMr.Gairdner to examine them. One is of lead, weighing 14-¾ lbs., another 8-½ lbs.,another 4 lbs., and the fourth is of stone and larger.Mr.Gairdner suggests that thegunsmayhavebeenbroughtbytherebelsfromTamworthCastle,whichwasontheirlineofmarch.

[17]SonofRobertPercyofScotton,nearKnaresborough.

[18]EldestsonofSirThomasRatcliffeofDerwentwater.SirRichardmarriedAgnes,daughterofLordScropeofBolton.

[19]SirGervaseCliftonofCliftonliveduntil1493.HistombisinCliftonChurch.

[20]PolydoreVirgil,p.224.'Attamensiadejushonoremveritatemdicamutnobilismiles licet corpore parvus et viribus debilis ad ultimum anhelitum suum mododefensorio clarissime se habuit, sæpius se proditum clamans et dicans "Treason!Treason! Treason!" et sic gustans quod aliis sæpius propinaverat miserrime vitamfinivit.'—Rous,p.218. 'Naminterpugnandumetnoninfuga,dictusRexRichardus,multis vulneribus ictus, quasi princeps animosus et audentissimus in campooccubuit.'—CroylandChron.,Gale,i.p.574.

[21]Hutton'sBosworth.TheonlydetailedaccountofthebattleisinthehistoryoftheItalian Polydore Virgil, who came to England in about 1503. Hall, Grafton, andHolinshed copied from Polydore, or from each other. Hutton visited the ground in1788, and again in 1807, andwrote a history of the battle.Mr.Gairdner alsowentoverthegroundandwroteanaccountofthebattleintheArchæologia,lv.pt.vii.p.159(1896),readJan.24,1895.Thepresentwriterhastwicebeenovereverypartoftheground,andexamineditcarefullywithPolydoreVirgilandHuttonashisguides,the first time accompanied by an accomplished antiquary, the present Earl ofLiverpool.

[22]Brooke,VisitstoBattleFieldsinEngland,p.170.

[23]MaryII.was twomonthsyounger,butshewasonlya jointsovereign.EdwardVI.neveractuallyreigned.

[24]Davies,YorkRecords,p.218.

[25] The history of this Plumpton arbitration illustrates the difference betweenRichardIII.andHenryVII.Theformerappearsasa justanduprightking,studyingthe good of his subjects; the latter, as a pettifogging tyrant, seeking pretexts andexcusesforrobberyandspoliation.

The disputewas betweenSirRobert Plumpton and his heirs general as to rights ofsuccession.AtlasttherewasanagreementtoabidetheawardoftheKing'sMajesty.Richard III. gave thematter his careful attention, and decided on themerits, solelyactuated by the desire of doing substantial justice. His judgment was given onSeptember16,1483.Impartial justicewasactuallydonebyRichard'saward,and itsconditionswerepeacefullyacquiescedinbybothparties,forseveralyears.

'But,' as theEditor remarks, 'itwas themisfortune of SirRobert Plumpton to havelivedonintothedaysofHenryVII.,who,underthepretenceofarigidenforcementofthe law, sought only themeans to gratify his avarice.' Every defect of title, whichmightfurnishthepretextforasuitorfine,waseagerlycaughtatinordertoswelltherevenue.InthismannertheclaimofthePlumptonheirsgeneralwasre-openedbytheinfamousEmpson, the toolofHenry;andafteryearsofpersecution,SirRobertwasreducedtobeggaryandadebtors'prison.'PlumptonCorrespondence,pp.xc.tocxviii.(CamdenSociety,1839).

[26]London,Gloucester,andWorcester.

[27] 'Erat iste Rex Ricardus in edificiis laudandus, ut Westmonasteriensi,Notinghamiæ,Warwici,EboracietapudMidlam,multisquealiislocis,utadoculummanifestaevidet.'—Rous,p.215.

[28]Rous,p.216.

[29]Stow.HenryTudor,whenheusurpedthecrown,seizeduponthisproperty,andturnedout theHeralds.Theyremainedhouselessuntil1555,when theEarlMarshalpurchased a house on St. Benet's Hill for them, the site of the present Heralds'College.

[30]HenryVIII.wasneverknown toexercise theprerogativeofmercy.EvenpooryoungLordDacrewasamonghisvictims,foratrivialoffence.

[31] 'Richardwasbold inconceivingandreckless infacing theconsequencesofhisacts, of high and brilliant courage, and seductive manners.'—W. Campbell,IntroductiontoMaterialsfortheHistoryoftheReignofHenryVII.,p.xiv.

[32]LordLovellandSirRobertPercy.

PARTII

CHAPTERI

THEAUTHORITIES

The dynasty of the Plantagenets had reigned over England for more thanthree centuries, when the last King of that royal race fell at the battle ofBosworth.Under thePlantagenets,NormansandSaxonswerewelded intoonenation. The House of Commons became a firmly established institution. Thecherished liberties of England took form and shape. The victories of thePlantagenet kings are the most glorious traditions of the English people. Nootherdynastybecamesothoroughlynational,andtheYorkistkingswerealmostpureEnglishmeninblood.[1]Ahaloofromancewouldnaturallyhavegatheredround our last Plantagenet, our youngest reigning sovereign,[2] and the onlyEnglishmonarchsincetheConquestwhofellinbattle,fightingvaliantlyforhiscrownandcountry.

Insteadof thisbeing thecase, theaccusationsofhisenemieshave receivedfullcredence.Hewaschargedwiththecommittalofaseriesofatrociouscrimes,his name has been execrated by posterity, and historians have viedwith eachotherinheapingopprobriumonhismemory.

Rootedprejudice

Yet there areobvious reasons for closely criticising the accusations againstKing Richard, and for examining them with more than ordinary care beforeaccepting themasproved.Forhis successorhadnovalid title to thecrown. Itwas not only the new King's interest, but a necessity of his position, that heshouldcausegravechargestobebroughtagainsthispredecessor,andthattheyshouldbeacceptedastrue.HenryVII.hadthepowerandthewilltosilenceallcomment,andtopreventanydefencefrombeingpublished.EvidenceinfavourofRichardwas destroyed.Authors employed byHenry, and otherswhowere

anxioustopleasehimandhissuccessors,werealonepermittedtowritehistories.Notasyllablewasallowedtobeutteredontheothersideforonehundredandsixty years. The story thus put forward was dramatised by Shakespeare, andbecameso familiar toposterity that evenwritersofourowndayapproach thesubjectwithunconsciousprejudicewhichtheycannotresist.IfRichardperformskindlyacts,andmanysucharerecorded,heistrying'togetunsteadfastfriends.'Ifhepunishestreasonheis 'avenomoushunchback.'Ifarebellionisputdownduring his reign he is an inhuman tyrant.His ability is cunning, his justice iscruelty,hisbraveryisfury,hisgenerosityisartfulness,hisdevotionishypocrisy.

Ingivingsomeaccountoftheoriginalauthoritiesuponwhosetestimonythecharges againstKingRichard rest, I only propose to state general conclusionswithregardtotheminthepresentchapter;becauseproofsandargumentswillbeembodiedinthedetaileddiscussionswhichfollow.

BernardAndré,ArchbishopMorton,andPolydoreVirgilwereactuallyinthepayorunder thedirect influenceof the firstTudorKing. In this trioonlyonewasanEnglishman.JohnRousandRobertFabyanwroteduringHenry'sreign,accepted his version of events, and sought his favour. The continuator of theChronicleofCroylandAbbeyisthesoleindependentsourceofinformation.

Morton'spamphlet

Byfarthemostimportantoftheoriginalauthorities,andtheoneonwhichallsubsequent history has been based, is Archbishop Morton. His narrative iscontained in the 'HistoryofRichard III.,' erroneously attributed toSirThomasMore,whowasinMorton'shouseholdwhenaboy.ThisworkfirstappearedinHardyng's Chronicle, printed by Grafton in 1543. It was embodied in Hall'sChronicle,andcopiedbyHolinshed.Fourteenyearsafteritspublication,anotherandsomewhatdifferentversionwasbroughtoutbyRastellin1557.Rastellwasrelated toSirThomasMore, andhe alleged that his versionwas taken fromamanuscript inMore'shandwritingwrittenabout1513.ALatinversion,writtenlong before its publication, was printed at Louvain in 1566, with variousadditionstotheimaginaryspeeches,andanaddresstoHenryVIII.andtheEarlof Surrey. Sir George Buck[3] and Sir John Harington[4] had heard that theworkwaswritten byMorton.TheLatin version could not have been, for it isaddressedtoHenryVIII.,andMortondiedin1500.

Thehistory,aswehaveit,containslongspeechesanddialogueswhichmusthavebeenfabricatedbythewriter.ThenarrativefromthedeathofEdwardIV.

totheaccessionofRichardwascertainlywrittenordictatedbyMorton,fornooneelsecouldhavebeencognizantofsomeofthefacts.Thetitlegivenbythepublisher ismisleading. It is not a 'historyofRichard III.,' but averydetailednarrativeoftheeventsfromhisbrother'sdeathtohisownaccession,coveringaperiodoflessthanthreemonths.Itendsabruptlyatapointjustbeforethedateof Morton's flight from England. His personal knowledge ceased with hisdeparture, and here the story suddenly comes to an end. He was evidentlyacquainted personally with every detail, and he possessed an exceptionallyaccuratememory.[5] The errors and alterations of dates in the narrativemustconsequently have been made intentionally and with an object. Morton'scharacterandthevalueofhistestimonywillbediscussedmorefullyinafuturechapter. The story of themurder of the young princes at the end of the bookcannot have beenwritten byMorton, for it alludes to eventswhich happenedafterOctober12,1500,thedateofthatprelate'sdeath.Theoutlineofthestoryofthemurderwasnodoubtinspired,asLordBaconshrewdlysuspected,byHenryVII.himself.

RastellassumedthattheEnglishversionofthis'HistoryofRichardIII.'wascomposed by Sir ThomasMore because a copy in his handwritingwas foundamonghispapers.ThepreviouspublicationbyGraftonproves that therewereothercopiesabroad,differingslightlyfromeachother,andthereisnoreasonforassuming that thecopy inMore'shandwritingwas theoriginal. Indeed there isevidencethatitwasnot.Grafton'sversioncontainsagooddealattheendwhichisnotinthenarrativeattributedtoMorebyRastell.Thelatterendsabruptly,asif thewholehadnotbeencopied.Moremerelymadeanunfinishedcopy.TherespectwithwhichthisproductionhasbeentreatedisduetoSirThomasMore'sreputedauthorship,andtothisistobeattributeditscomparativefreedomfromcriticism. It is in reality an unscrupulous party pamphlet, and its authorshipought not to affect its character. Yet the reply to any objection to statementscontainedinithashithertobeenthatitwaswrittenbythegoodandvirtuousSirThomasMore,andthereforemustbetrue.[6]

Internal evidence makes it certain that More did not write it. The authorspeaksofthedeathbedofEdwardIV.asaneye-witness.[7]Morewasthenonlyfive years of age. Hewas born in February 1478. This seems conclusive. SirThomasmade an incomplete copy,when a youngman, of aworkwhichwasattracting a good deal of attention, and of which there were other copies incirculation.ThedateofthecopyissaidbyRastelltobe1513,whenMore'sagewas about thirty-five. The actual compiler of the book, as we have it, is

unknown.But the informationand the inspirationof thewholework,with theexception of the story of the murder of the young princes at the end, isundoubtedlyfromArchbishopMorton.Ihave,therefore,referredtotheworkasbyMorton,andtothestoryofthemurders,whichisclearlynotbyMorton,asbyRastell'sanonymoushistorian.

BernardAndré

HenryVII.began thebusinessofvilifyinghispredecessorveryearly inhisreign. Itwas indeed amatter of the utmostmoment to him, for he appears tohaveconsideredthatabeliefintheallegedcrimesofRichardwasessentialtothesecurity of his own position. He brought over a blind Gascon from France,namedBernardAndré,whomheappointedhispoetlaureateandhistoriographer.AndrébegantowritealifeofHenryVII.in1500.Itisverybrief,withseveralgaps,andheleftitincompletewhenhediedinabout1522.

PolydoreVirgil

But the Italianwhoarrived someyears later inHenry's reignwas farmoreserviceable. Polydore Virgil was the paid historian of the Tudors. He was anative of Urbino, and was sent to England by his patron, the infamous PopeAlexanderVI.,in1501astheassistantcollectorofthetaxcalledPeter'spence.Henryrequestedhimtoundertakethehistory,placingallofficialmaterialsathisdisposal,anddoubtlessindicatingthelinehewastotake.Heprovedanaptpupiland was well rewarded. He was made absentee Rector of Church Langton,received a prebend at Lincoln, another at Hereford, and was appointedArchdeaconofWells.In1513hewasmadeaCanonofSt.Paul'swithahouse,andhehadotherpreferment.Hishistorywascompletedin1534.PolydoreVirgilwasamanoflearning,andhisworkisbasedonoriginalresearch.Buthedidnothesitate to misrepresent facts not only to please his patrons, but in order togratify his own spite andmalignity.[8] In his account of events in the life ofRichard III. he merely recorded the version that would be pleasing to hisemployer.HisimperfectknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguageimpairsthevalueofhisevidencewhenobtained fromoral sources.The taleof theassassinationofyoung Edward of Lancaster by a King of England and his chief nobles ispeculiarlyItalian,andmaybeclaimedbyPolydoreashisoriginalconception.ItisworthyofthisprotégéoftheBorgias.HisstatementsrespectingKingRicharddeserve little credit, unless they are corroborated by independent evidence.Polydore had access to the written statements of Morton, of which he madeconsiderableuse.Healsohadtherunofallofficialdocuments,andheissaidto

have made away with numerous original papers, which may be presumed tohave disproved his assertions.[9]Onemost important document,whichHenryorderedtobedestroyed,hasbeenpreservedthroughafortunateaccident.[10]

These three writers, André, Morton, and Virgil, were employed by theTudors, and considering the sources fromwhence their statements come, littleweight ought to be attached to them. They are the paid, and very well paid,counselandwitnessesofKingRichard'scunningenemy.'Thesagacious,patient,unchivalrous man,' saysMr. Campbell, 'although he rewarded his panegyristswith,forhim,prodigalliberality,estimatedwithmercantilekeennesstheworthwhichtheireulogieswouldbearinhisownage.'[11]

Rous

TheauthorswhowroteduringthereignofHenryVII.,butnotinhispayordirectlyunderhis influence,nextcomeunder review.JohnRous, theso-calledhermitofGuy'sCliff,wasanantiquaryandanheraldicdraughtsman.HeknewRichard personally. He was the author of 'Historia RegumAngliæ,' which hededicatedtoHenryVII.,andinwhichheheapedvirulentabuseonKingRichard,crowdinghisvenomintoapageortwoattheend—anafter-thoughttopleasehisnew patron. He also prepared two pictorial heraldic rolls, representing thepedigree of the Earls ofWarwick. Both were executed during the lifetime ofKingRichard. One is at Kimbolton, the other at theHeralds' College. To thelatterRoushadaccessaftertheaccessionofHenry.Totheformerhehadnot.IntheformerRichardisdescribedas'amightyPrinceandspecialgoodLord,'andas 'the most victorious Prince Richard III. In his realm full commendablypunishing offenders of the laws, especially oppressors of his commons, andcherishing those thatwerevirtuous,by thewhichdiscreetguidinghegotgreatthanksandloveofallhissubjectsrichandpoor,andgreatlaudofthepeopleofall other lands about him.'The latter rollwas still in the hands ofRouswhenRichard fell.The abovepassage is expunged.Theportraits of the twoYorkistKings are takenout.QueenAnneNevill is despoiledof her crown, her son isdeprived of crown and sceptre, and Richard is merely alluded to as Anne's'infelixmaritus.'Thetestimonyofsuchanunblushingtime-serverasRousmustbe rejected as worthless. Yet, in one or two instances, he has inadvertentlyrevealedthetruth,wheretheofficialwritershaveintendedtoconcealit.[12]

Robert Fabyan was a clothier and alderman of London, who recorded theevents of earlier times and of his own day in a chronicle which was written

duringthereignofHenryVII.[13]HewasafulsomeTudorpartisan,anxioustopleasethereigningpowers,andreadytorecordanystoryagainstthefallenKing,even to wholesale falsification of dates. It will be shown further on that, inconcoctingpartofhischronicle,hemusthavebeenindishonestcollusionwithMorton.Fabyandied in1513,andhischroniclewasfirstpublished in1516. ItwasusedbyPolydoreVirgil.

Dr.Warkworth,MasterofJesusCollege,Cambridge,wroteadiarywhichhaschieflybeenrelieduponasevidenceofthedateofthedeathofHenryVI.,[14]butthatquestionwillbefullydiscussedinafuturechapter.

ThemonksofCroyland

Morton,PolydoreVirgil,Rous,andFabyanwillbefoundtobedishonestanduntrustworthynarrators,whocanbeshowntousedeceptiondeliberately,withafull knowledge of the truth. The second continuation of the Chronicle ofCroylandAbbey occupies an entirely different position. There is every reasonforbelievingthatthemonkswhowroteit, thoughthefirstwasprejudiced,andthe second was credulous and easily deceived, intended to relate what theybelieved to be true. This continuation long remained in manuscript, in whichstateitwasseenbySirGeorgeBuck.Itwasnotprinteduntil1684.Itoccupiestwenty-eightfoliopages.[15]

The first part of the continuation bears internal evidence of having beenwritten by one monk who concludes with some local notices respecting theabbeyanditsinmates.Thenanothermonktookupthechroniclingpen,andendshispartinthesameway.ItiscapableofabsoluteproofthatthiscontinuationoftheCroylandChroniclewaswritten by at least twomonks. In referring to thedeathofHenryVI., the firstmonkprays that the tyrantwhocaused itmaybegiventimeforrepentance.Thispartmust,therefore,havebeenwrittenwhilethetyrant inquestionwasalive,whetherEdward IV.,Richard,orLordRivers theConstable(whowasreallytheresponsibleperson)isintended.Thesecondmonksays at the end, that theworkwas finishedonApril 30, 1486, and that itwaswritten in ten days. Edward,Richard andRiverswere all dead inApril 1486.Consequentlythesetwopassagesmusthavebeenwrittenbydifferenthands.

The first of these monks was the more judicious of the two, and he hadprobablyoncemixedintheworld.HementionsacouncillorofEdwardIV.whowasdoctorofcanonlaw,andwhowassenttoAbbevilleonanembassytotheDukeofBurgundy in1471. In themargin there isanote to theeffect that the

samemancompiledthatpartofthechronicle.Ifthisnoteistobereliedon,thefirstmonkhadoncebeenintheserviceofEdwardIV.,buthehadLancastriansympathies like Morton. He refers to the executions after Tewkesbury asvindictive,andhehintsatarumourthatHenryVI.methisdeathbyorderofhissuccessor.His part of the chronicle includes ten pages, and covers the periodfrom1471tothedeathofEdwardIV.

Thesecondmonkseemstohaveknownnothingoftheouterworld,andwasverycredulous.Itiswithhimthatwehavetodointhisinquiry.Herelatestheevents leading to the accession of Richard III. with general accuracy, andcorrectlyasregardsdates,thesamedatesbeingfalsifiedbyMortonandFabyan.Heevengives the truegroundsonwhichRichard's claim to the crown rested,whicharefalsifiedbyMortonandbyPolydoreVirgil,andwhichwereforbiddenbyHenryVII.tobementionedonpainofimprisonment.Thechronicleremainedinmanuscript,andthetruth-tellingmonkwasnotfoundout.Thecontributionofthe secondmonk to the continuationof theChronicleofCroylandAbbeywaswrittenoutintendays,andfinishedinthetimeofHenryVII.,onApril30,1486.Though generally trustworthy it contains several errors. It follows Morton,PolydoreVirgil,andFabyaninstatingthatHastingswasbeheadedonthedayofhisarrest.ItwillbeseeninChapterIII.thatthisisdisprovedbyaninvestigationof dates given by those writers, and by Stallworthe. It followsMorton in thestatementthatLordRiversandhiscompanionswerebeheadedwithouttrial.ThisisdisprovedbyRous.Itassertsthat,afterKingRichard'scoronation,therewasarumour that his nephews had been put to death. There is no othercontemporaneousmention of this rumour, and reasonswill presently be givenfor believing that there was no such rumour. It also states that Richard wascrowneda second timeatYork.Mr.Davies, inhis 'YorkRecords,'has shownthatnosuchcoronationevertookplace.

The interesting question arises how the monk was misled on these fourpoints, when his information was so accurate, and so directly contradictsMorton,PolydoreVirgil,andFabyan,asregardsthedatesofeventsimmediatelypreceding Richard's accession, and as regards the nature of his claim to thethrone.CouldMortonhavebeenathiselbow?Ifhewas,theseerrorswouldbeexplained, for theyare themost tellingpoints inMorton'scase.Weknow thatMorton was sent to Brecknock Castle, in the custody of the Duke ofBuckingham,inAugust1483.Laterintheautumnheescaped,crossedEnglandindisguise,andwasconcealedforsometimeinthefencountrynearEly,beforetakingshipforFlanders.Heevenmentionshisobjectingoingthere.'Ifhewere

intheIsleofEly,'hetoldBuckingham,'hecouldmakemanyfriendstofurtherthe enterprise.'[16]Hewent there toplot and intrigue.The secludedAbbeyofCroyland is a likely asylum for Morton to have selected as a place ofconcealment. A political bishop who had been a principal actor in the recenteventswouldbeaGodsendtothechroniclingmonk;whiletheintriguerwouldbe in his element, sowing the first seeds of his future crop of calumny. Thesecond Croyland monk would be as clay in the potter's hand. He gives us astriking instance of his gossiping credulity. He had been told that the King'sniece,Elizabeth,onceappearedatCourtinadresssimilartothatoftheQueen.InsteadoftheobviousdeductionthatQueenAnnehadkindlyprovidedthegirlwithadresslikeherown,wearetreatedtodarkhintsaboutarivalwhowastosupplanttheQueen,andmodernhistorianshavetakentheoldmonk'snonsenseinall seriousness.Mortonwouldhave foundsuchamanquite ready toacceptwithout further inquiryanystatementhemightmake,and tobe thechannelofanyrumourhechosetospread.

SucharethewitnessesarrayedagainstthelastPlantagenetKingbyhisTudorsuccessors.Itwillbeourbusinesstotestthevalueoftheirtestimony.Theyhaditalltheirownway.Noonewasallowedtoanswerthem.Forthosewhoknewthetruthitwasachoicebetweensilenceandruin.Theaccusedhadnocounsel.WhethertheTudorwritersaretrustworthyornot,therecanbenoquestionthat,aided by these advantages, they served their employers well. They havecompletelysucceededintheirobject.TheyhaveblackenedthememoryofKingRichardIII.foralltime.

The chief evidence in Richard's favour can only now be found in thecontradictions,admissions,inadvertentlapsesintotruth,andsuppressionsofhistraducers.Officialdocumentsandprivatelettersalsotelltheirtale.Falsificationsof dates, and the objects of such falsifications by theTudorwriters, are oftendetectedbymeansof theseunimpeachable sourcesof information.Among theHarleianmanuscriptsthereisabookkeptbyDr.Russell,theBishopofLincolnandRichard'sChancellor,containingallthedocumentsthatpassedtheGreatorPrivySealduringhis reign,aswellascorrespondencewith foreignsovereignsand ambassadors.[17] Thismanuscript has been amine of rebutting evidence.ThereisalsovaluabletestimonyderivablefromtheRollsofParliament,PatentRolls, and from Rymer's 'Foedera.' It is worthy of special note that theundesigned evidence of official documents often exposes the true character ofTudortestimony.

EnoughhasbeensaidtoshowthatthestatementsoftheTudorwriterscallformore than ordinary caution in their use; and that the nearest approach to thetruth,whichisallwecanhopefor,willnotbereachedifanyfactorinsinuationalleged or hinted by them is accepted without being first subjected to veryrigorousscrutiny.

Laterchroniclers

The later chroniclers, such as Hall, Grafton, Holinshed, Stow and Buck,copied from the earlier writers. They cannot be considered as originalauthorities.Hall is littlemore than a translation of PolydoreVirgil, served upwithembellishmentsinventedbyhimself.Stowismuchmoretrustworthy.

Theselaterwritersmustnotberelieduponforfacts.Itwastheirhabittoaddnumerousminordetailstothestoriestheyreceivedfromtheirpredecessors,anditcannotreasonablybedoubtedthattheseadditionswereinventionsintendedtoadd force or interest to their narratives. When they quote from or insertdocuments the case is different. Thus Hall and Grafton give the conversationbetweenMorton and theDuke ofBuckingham atBrecknock, being a copy ofsomeoriginaldocument.BuckgivesthesubstanceofaletterfromElizabethofYorktotheDukeofNorfolk,theoriginalofwhichhehadactuallyseen.Healsoquotes someoldernarrative for the imprisonment anddeathofKingRichard'sillegitimate son. Hall gives the proceedings of the Council when theimprisonment of the Queen Dowager, at Bermondsey, was ordered. In suchcasesonlyoughttheevidenceofthelaterwriterstobeaccepted.

Modernauthors

TherewasareactionagainsttheacceptanceofallthestatementsputforthbyTudorwriters,whichbeganfromthemomentthatitbecamesafetodiscussthesubject. The caricature was too gross, and too coarsely drawn for generalacceptance. As soon as the last of the Tudors had passed away, Sir GeorgeBuck[18] wrote a defence of Richard III. He was followed by Carte in hisHistoryofEngland.[19]Rapin,althoughhefeltobligedtorepeat thestoriesoftheTudorwriters,evidentlyhadnoconfidenceintheiraccuracy,andwarnedhisreaders against them more than once. Stronger views on the subject wereadoptedbyHoraceWalpoleinhis'HistoricDoubts'[20](1768),byBayleyinhis'History and Antiquities of the Tower of London,'[21] by Laing in hiscontinuation of 'Henry's History of England,'[22] by Mr. Courtenay in his'Commentaries on Shakespeare,'[23] by Miss Halsted in her 'Life of Richard

III.'[24] and by Mr. Legge in his 'Unpopular King.'[25] Mr. Thorold Rogersrejects the story of the assassination of Henry VI.; Sharon Turner[26] andJesse[27] acquit the accused King on all the counts except themurder of hisnephews;whileDr.Hook,[28]Dr.StubbsandSirHarrisNicolas[29]areunableto believe all the accusations. The arguments put forward by some of theseauthorsarenotalwaystenable.Buttheyshowthattherehasbeen,fromthetimewhendiscussionwasfirstallowed,arevulsionoffeelingamongwell-informedstudents against the acceptance of these accusations without close scrutiny. ItwasfeltthatthestatementsofTudorwritersmustatleastbeconsideredasthoseofprejudicedandexpartewitnesses.MissHalsted's 'LifeofRichardIII.' isbyfarthemostcompleteandthemostvaluable.HerinterestintheslanderedyoungKingledhertopayfrequentvisitstotheruinsofMiddlehamCastle,thesceneofRichard's boyhood and of his happy married life. Miss Halsted eventuallymarried the dean of the college founded by Richard and lies buried inMiddlehamChurch.

Tudorfablesdiscredited

Ontheotherhand,therehavebeenafewhistorianswhohaveapproachedthequestionsatissueeitherwithoutconsideringtheothersideatallorwithastrongthoughpossiblyunconsciousbias.Humeonlyhadasuperficialknowledgeofthesubject.ThemostauthoritativeandimportantupholderoftheTudoraccusationsisDr.Lingard.[30]Hedefendsthemintheirentirety,andinthishestandsaloneamongthosewhohavereallystudiedthesubject.Mr.Gairdner[31]rejectssomeof the accusations and supports other Tudor storieswith hesitation, and in anapologeticandmoreorlessdoubtfultone.ButMr.Gairdner'sknowledgeofthesubject is soexhaustive,andhispositionasahistorian is so justlyhigh, that Ihavedevoted a separate chapter to the considerationof his viewson the chiefaccusationsagainstKingRichardIII.

TheTudorfablesarenowdiscreditedandaredying,buttheyaredyinghard.

[1]RichardII.wasthefirstofourKings,aftertheNormanConquest,whowaspartlyanEnglishman.HenryV.,EdwardIV.,andRichardIII.werealmostpureEnglishmen.SowasEdwardVI.,andElizabethwasathoroughEnglishwoman.MaryII.andAnnewerehalfEnglish.

[2]Seep.159,note1.

[3] 'Dr. Morton had taken his revenge and written a book in Latin against King

Richard,whichcameafterwardstothehandsofMr.More.ThebookwaslatelyinthehandsofMr.RoperofEltham,asSirEdwardHoby,whosawit,toldme.'—Buck,p.75.

[4]'WrittenasIhaveheardbyMorton.'—Harington'sMetamorphosisofAjax,p.46.Mr.Gairdner has suggested that the book attributed toMore is a translationof onewritteninLatinbyMorton.SeeLettersandPapersillustrativeoftheReignofRichardIII.,&c.Prefacexviii.(n).ItisreallytheEnglishversionthatwasdictatedorinspiredbyMorton.

[5]More'sUtopia,p.20.

[6]SeeforinstanceSharonTurner(iii.462),whoclaimsunquestioningbeliefinthisscurrilousproduction,because'allconfessMore'sabilityandintegrity.'SeealsoJesse(p.156n.andp.500).

In the same spirit Sir JohnHarington defended his own filthy treatise because 'theworthy and incorrupt Master More' was dirty in his History of Richard III. Thesewritersseemtothinkthatfalsehoodbecomestruth,andobscenitybecomesdecencyinthisbook,merelybecauseitsauthorshipisattributedtoMore.SeeMetamorphosisofAjax,p.46.

[7]'AsImyself,whowrotethispamphlet,trulyknow.'ThisisnotinRastell'sversion;butinthecontinuationofHardyng'sChronicle.

[8] Speaking of Polydore Virgil in his Life of Henry VIII. (p. 9), Lord Herbert ofCherburyadds:'inwhomIhaveobservednotalittlemalignity.'ThestoryofCardinalWolsey'singratitudetoFoxowesitsparentagetothespiteofPolydoreVirgil;whomWolseyimprisoned.Itwasquiteuntrue.—Brewer.

[9] 'Polydore Virgil committed as many of our ancient manuscript volumes to theflames aswould have filled awaggon, that the faults of his ownworkmight passundiscovered.'—Caius,DeAntiquitateCantabrigiæ(1574),p.52.

'Polydore caused all thehistories tobeburntwhichby theKing's authority and theassistance of his friends he could possibly come at.'—La Poplinière,Histoire desHistoires,ix.485.

[10]TheActofParliamentexplainingthetitleofRichardIII.tothecrown.

[11] Mr. Campbell's Introduction to theMaterials for the History of the Reign ofHenryVII.

[12]Rouswasoneof theChantryPriests atGuy'sCliff.Hedied in1491, andwasburiedatSt.Mary's,Warwick.

[13]OneproofofthisisthathecallsLordStanleytheEarlofDerby.HewascreatedEarlofDerbybyHenryVII.

[14]RerumAnglicarumscriptorumveterum.Tom.i.(Oxoniæ,1684.)

[15]AliaHist.Croylandensiscontinuatio,pp.549-578.

[16]Grafton,p.130.

[17]Harl.MS.433.

[18]SirGeorgeBuckwasdescendedfromJohnBuck,comptrollerofKingRichard'shousehold,whowasputtodeathafterthebattleofBosworth.SirGeorgeservedwiththeEarlofEssexintheCadizexpeditionof1596.HewasknightedbyJamesI.inJuly1603,andbecameMasteroftheBevelsin1610,apostwhichhehelduntil1622.HediedonSeptember22,1623.HisHistoryoftheLifeandReignofKingRichardIII.,composedinfivebooks,waspublishedin1646,with'GeorgeBuck,Esq.,'asauthor.But the existence of themanuscript in theBritishMuseum,with SirGeorge as theauthor, and in his handwriting, proves the substitution of 'Esquire' for 'Sir' to be amistake.CamdenspeaksofBuckasamanofdistinguishedlearning.

[19]ThomasCarte,HistoryofEnglandto1654inclusive.4vols.folio.1753.

[20] HoraceWalpole,Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III., 4to.1768.

[21]JohnBayley,HistoryandAntiquitiesoftheTowerofLondon,2vols.4to.1821.

[22]Laing,ContinuationoftheHistoryofGreatBritainbyDr.Henry.1795.

[23]J.P.Courtenay,CommentariesonthePlaysofShakespeare,2vols.8vo.1840.

[24]MissHalsted,LifeofRichardIII.2vols.8vo.1844.

[25]AlfredO. Legge,TheUnpopularKing.Life and Times of Richard III. 2 vols.8vo.1883.

[26]SharonTurner,HistoryofEnglandduringtheMiddleAges.5vols.8vo.1830.

[27]JohnH.Jesse,MemoirsofKingRichardIII.8vo.1862.

[28]Dr.W.F.Hook,D.D.,LivesoftheArchbishopsofCanterbury.9vols.8vo.1860-72.HeconsiderstheslanderoftheDuchessofYorkincredible.

[29]SirN.H.Nicolas,PrivyPurseExpensesofElizabethofYork.1830.Heutterlyrejects the story ofRichard having poisoned hiswife, and havingwanted tomarryElizabethofYork(p.liii.)Dr.W.Stubbs,ConstitutionalHistoryofEngland,vol.ii.ThoroldRogers,WorkandWages,ii.212.

[30]Dr.Lingard,HistoryofEnglandtotheRevolution.4thed.1837;6thed.1854.

[31]JamesGairdner,LettersandPapersIllustrativeoftheReignsofRichardIII.andHenryVII.1861-63.MemorialsofHenryVII.1858.HistoryoftheLifeandReignofRichardIII.1878.LifeofHenryVII.1889.ArticleintheEnglishHistoricalReview.1891.

CHAPTERII

EXAMINATIONOFTHECHARGESAGAINSTRICHARDIII

1.TheDeformity.2.MurderofEdwardofLancaster.3.MurderofHenryVI.4.MarriagewithAnneNevill.5.TreatmentoftheCountessofWarwick.6.DeathofClarence.

An indictment, in many counts, was brought against Richard III. after hisdeath, by the authorswhowrote during the reign of his successor, and in theinterests of that successor's dynasty. It will be seen, in the course of thediscussion,withwhatobject theseaccusationsweremade,andwhyabelief inthemwasconsideredtobesoimportanttothesuccessoftheTudorusurpation.Therecklessprofusionofabusewasduetothecompletelicenseofthetraducers.Noonecouldappearfortheaccused.ThebraveyoungKingwasdead,hisbodysubjected to cowardly insults, his friends proscribed, his people silenced.Calumnywas triumphantandunchecked.Yet therewasmethodandsystem intheschemeoftheTudorwriters.TheiraccusationswereallintendedtoleaduptoabeliefinthedeadKing'sguiltwithregardtoonecentralcrime.Ifhewastobedeformed,ifhewastobeanassassinattheageofeighteen,themurdererofhis brother and his wife, a ruthless usurper and tyrant, it was because such amonsterwouldbemorelikelytocommitacrimeofwhichhemustbethoughttobe guilty in the interests of hiswily successor. Itwill nowbe our business toexamine these charges one by one. The first concerns Richard's personalappearance.

Deformity

Itisstatedthathewastwoyearsinhismother'swomb,[1]thathewasbornfeet foremost,[2] with a complete set of teeth,[3] and with hair down to theshoulders,[4] thathewashump-backed, thathisrightshoulderwashigher thanhisleft,[5]thathisleftshoulderwasmuchhigherthanhisright,[6]andthatoneofhisarmswaswithered.[7]

Passing over the obvious fables with the remark that they throw justsuspicion on other statements from the same sources, we come to the hump-back. We do not find this deformity mentioned by any contemporary exceptMorton.Ifithadexisteditiscertainthatsoconspicuousablemishwouldhavebeendwelt uponby all contemporarydetractors. Stow, themost honest of thelaterchroniclers, toldSirGeorgeBuck thathehad talked tooldmenwhohadseen and known Richard, and who said that he was in bodily shape comelyenough.[8]InthetwoportraitsdrawnbyRousnoinequalityisvisible.Richardherehasahandsomeyouthfulface,slightbuildandgoodfigure.TheportraitatWindsor showsa face full of energy anddecision, yet gentle andmelancholy.Theshouldersarequiteeven.

Rous, Polydore Virgil, and Morton are the authorities for the unequalshoulders.Roussays that therightshoulderwashigher.Mortonmakes the leftshoulder much higher. Their contradictory testimony shows the worthlesscharacter of both these authorities. Polydore Virgil merely mentions aninequality.FabyanandtheCroylandmonkdonotsayawordagainstRichard'spersonalappearance.AcuriouspieceofevidencewasdiscoveredbyMr.DaviesofYork,whichbearsonthequestion.[9]Fromthe'YorkRecords'itappearsthat,sixyears afterKingRichard'sdeath, amannamedBurtonwasbroughtbeforetheLordMayoraccusedofcallingthatprince,whosememorywassobelovedinthenorth,'acrouchback.'OneJohnPoynter,whoheardthisremark,toldBurtonthathelied,andstruckathimwithalittlerodhehadinhishand.Itwouldseem,therefore,thatiftherewasanydefectinRichard'sfigure,itwassoslightthatitsveryexistencewasmatterofdisputeamongthosewhocouldwellremembertheKing,while itwas imperceptible toStow's informants.On thewhole,wemayaccept the conclusion ofMissHalsted that Richardwas of slight and delicatebuild, and that the severemartial exercises inwhichhis youthhadbeen spenthad caused the shoulder of his sword-arm to be very slightly higher than theother.

ThestoryofthewitheredarmcomesfromMorton.Thatastuteprelatealwayshadanobjectinmakinghisstatements.ThisparticulartalewasinventedtodrawoffattentionfromtherealchargemadebytheProtectoragainsttheWoodvilles.Itserveditsturn,andmaybedismissedasfalsewithoutanyhesitation.Foritisnotmentionedbyasingleotherauthority.ThevictorofBarnetandTewkesbury,the leader of the brilliant charge at Bosworth, who unhorsed Sir JohnCheney[10]andWilliamBrandon,musthavehadserviceablearms.

TheobjectoftheTudorhistoriansincommencingtheirgrotesquecaricatureof an imaginary monster with these stories of his personal deformity istransparent. They intended to make him detestable from the outset. Theycalculatedthatimprobablecrimeswouldbemorereadilybelievediftheallegedperpetrator was a deformed hunchback born with teeth. They were right.NothinghasmoreconducedtoanunreasoningprejudiceagainstRichard,andtoa firm belief in his alleged crimes, than the impression of his personalrepulsiveness.

Modern writers have also understood this method of treatment. LordMacaulaywascarefultopreparethemindsofhisreadersfortheallegedjudicialcrimesofSirElijahbytellingthemthatlittleImpeywasinthehabitofstealingcakes at school.[11] The great essayist, aswell as the Tudor historians, knewtheir public.The one invented the pilfering story and the others the deformitywiththesamemotive.Ifajudgehadbeenajuvenilethief,orifakinghadbeenadeformed littlemonster, the charges against them in after lifewould bemorereadilyacceptedastrue.Itisillogical,butitishumannature.

Richardwas described as a venomous hunchback[12] andmade to commitseveral atrocious crimes in order to prepare men's minds to receive, withoutincredulity,thestoryofthemurderofhisnephews.Itwasevidentlyanticipatedthat this final draft on their powers of beliefwould be dishonouredunless theallegedmurdererhadbeensteepedincrimefromhisinfancy.

At the early age of eighteen Richard is accordingly accused of havingcommitted a cowardly and inhuman murder in cold blood after the battle ofTewkesbury,onevidencewhichwouldbeinsufficienttohangadog.[13]

YoungEdward'sdeath

Thebattle tookplaceonMay4, 1471.TheyoungDukeofGloucester haddisplayedvalourandgeneralship,andhadwonforhimselfanameinchivalry.On the other side, Prince Edward of Lancaster, who was exactly one yearyounger than Richard, led the main battle of his army, and bore himselfmanfully. Carried away in the rout and closely followed by his victoriousenemies, he was slain on the field of battle. There was one eye-witness whowrote an account of the battle of Tewkesbury.He said that youngEdward ofLancaster 'was taken fleeing to the townwards and slain in the field.'[14] Adrawingaccompaniesthiswriter'sreport,inwhichweseeahorseonitsknees,the rider receivinghis deathblow, the helmet struckoff, and the bright golden

lockssinkingonthehorse'smane.[15]Thiswastheplaintruth.Hefell,fightingbravely, on the battle-field. All contemporaries, without an exception,corroborate this evidence. The next writer was Warkworth, but he was notpresent.Hewrote 'TherewasslainonthefieldPrinceEdward,whichcriedforsuccourtotheDukeofClarence.'[16]BernardAndré,thepaidhistorianofHenryVII., says the same, 'Is enim ante Bernardi campum Theoxberye proeliobelligerens ceciderat.' The Croyland monk says that some of the Lancastrianleaders fell in the battle, others 'by the revengeful hands of certain personsafterwards,'[17] referring to the fact that somewere executed after trial beforethe Earl Marshal and Constable. There is no hint here of the allegedassassinationofEdward.Cominestellsthesamestory,'etfutlePrincedeGallestué sur le champ et plusieurs autres grans seigneurs.' Such is the unanimoustestimonyofcontemporaries.

We now come to the other Tudor writers and their versions of youngEdward'sdeath.Fabyan,writingtopleaseHenryVII., isthefirstwhosaidthatthe Prince was captured and brought before Edward IV., and he added thefollowingtale:'TheKingstrakehimwithhisgauntletintheface,onwhichthePrince was by the King's servants incontinently slain.'[18] Fabyan's baselessgossip came before Polydore Virgil, and the protégé of Pope Alexander VI.conceived the idea of giving it a lurid Borgian colouring, better suited to thelatitudeofUrbinothantothatofTewkesburyandcalculatedtomakeourfleshcreep. It was thus that his ideas foundwords: 'King Edward gave no answer,onlythrustingtheyoungmanfromhimwithhishand,whomforthwiththosethatwerepresent,whowereGeorgeDukeofClarence,RichardDukeofGloucester,andWilliamLordHastings, crewellymurderyd.'[19]This storywas improveduponbyGrafton,Hall,HolinshedandotherTudorchroniclers.Dorsetwasaddedto the list of alleged assassins byHabington,Grafton, andHall.Gloucester ismadetostrikethefirstblowbyHolinshed.Herewehaveastrikingexampleofthe gradual growth of a legend which has eventually become embedded inhistory.[20]ItsoriginalconceptionwasduetoanItalian,nottoanEnglishbrain.ItisthusthatthefablehasbecomeapartofthehistoryofEngland.HonestJohnStowisaloneinrejectingtheItalian'sembellishment.HediscreditstheversionofPolydoreVirgilasapalpablefraud,andmerelyrepeatsFabyan'sstatement.

ItisveryremarkablethatthreeauthoritiespatronisedbyHenryVII.givenocountenance to the fable of Polydore Virgil. Bernard André is in perfectagreementwith thecontemporaries,simplybecauseVirgil'sstoryhadnotbeeninvented when he wrote. Rous is silent for the same reason. He was the

originator of the birth with teeth and with hair to the shoulders. He heapedcalumnyoncalumny,andwouldhaveeagerlyrepeatedtheTewkesburystoryifithadexisted inhis time.Morton's silence is stillmore singular excepton thehypothesisthattheslanderwasnottheninexistence.

Dr. Morton was actually present at Tewkesbury. If young Edward wasmurderedhemusthaveknownit.Yetinaworkpreparedfortheexpresspurposeof enumerating the alleged crimes of Richard he said nothing. He had noscruples.Herepeatsallhecanthinkof,withtheobjectofheapingopprobriumon Richard's memory. But there is not a hint about assassinating Edward ofLancaster.Morton'ssilence,underthesecircumstances,amountstoaproofthatthestorywasafabricationoflatertimes.André,Rous,andMortonwrotebeforePolydoreVirgil, andwhen the Italian's calumny had not yet been invented. ItcannotbethatVirgilfoundoutwhatthelessvigilantAndré,Rous,andMortonoverlooked. If anyoneknewall thedetails of thebattle ofTewkesbury at firsthand, it was Morton. He was there. His silence explodes the fable. It alsoconvictsPolydoreVirgilofhavingfabricatedanexceptionallyfoulslander,witharankscentofitsBorgianorigin:—

'Virgiliiduosunt:alterMaro:tuPolydoreAlter:TuMendax:illePoetafuit.'[21]

Unlessthetestimonyofthosewhowereabsent,andforthemostpartunborn,is to be preferred to that of eye-witnesses, and that of future generations tocontemporaries,thefableofyoungEdward'smurderoughtneveragaintofindaplaceinserioushistory.

DeathofHenryVI

ThechargeagainsttheDukeofGloucesterthathemurderedHenryVI.isaninsinuationratherthananaccusation.Noneofhistraducersstateitasafact.Onesays 'asmen constantly say,' another, 'itwas the continual report,' another, 'asmanybelieve.'Wemust, therefore,first treat thisalleged 'continualreport'asarumouronly,andjudgeofitfromprobabilities.

WeareaskedtobelievethatyoungRichard,aboyofeighteen,whohadjustwongreatmilitaryrenown,arrivedattheTowerintheeveningofonedaywithorders toproceedonactiveserviceveryearly thenextmorning; that,although

fullyoccupiedwithpreparationsforhisdeparture,hefoundtimetoinduceLordRivers,theConstableoftheTower,andhispoliticalenemy,todeliverupchargetohim inorder thathemightassassinateadefencelessand feeble invalidwithhis own hand, a deedwhichmight just aswell have been perpetrated by anyhiredjailer;thatitwasdonewithouthisbrotherEdward'sknowledge,andthat,althoughthedeedmusthavebeendonewiththeknowledgeofLordRiversandhisofficials,ofHenry's tenservantsandthreereaders,yet therewasneveranycertaintyaboutthematter.Rivers,beitremembered,wasnotRichard'sfriend.

This grossly improbable rumour bears the evidence of its origin clearlymarked.ItwasputforwardinthereignandintheinterestsofHenryVII.Itwasarumourmanufacturedbyhispaidwritersandtheirfollowers.Wecanexaminetheprocess.

Mortonsays:'HeslewwithhisownhandKingHenryVI.asmenconstantlysay,andthatwithoutknowledgeorcommandmentoftheKing.'

PolydoreVirgil has the following version: 'KingEdward, to the intent thatthere should be no new insurrections, travelled not long after through Kent,whichbusinessbeingdespatched,totheintentthateverymanmightconceiveaperfect peace to be attained,HenryVI. being not long before deprived of hisdiadem,wasput todeath in theTowerofLondon.Thecontinual report is thatRichardDukeofGloucesterkilledhimwithasword,wherebyhisbrothermightbedeliveredfromallhostility.'

Dr. Warkworth tells us that 'the same night that King Edward came toLondon,KingHarrybeinginwardinprisonintheTowerofLondon,wasputtodeathonthe21stofMayonaTuesdaynightbetweenelevenandtwelveoftheclock,beingthenattheTowertheDukeofGloucester,brothertoKingEdward,andmanyothers.Onthemorrowhewaschested,andbroughttoPaul'sandhisfacewasopen that everymanmight seehim.And inhis lyinghebledon thepavement there, and afterwards at theBlackfriarswas brought, and there bledafresh.'ThisDr.WarkworthwasMasterofSt.Peter'sCollege,Cambridge,from1473to1500.Hekeptaprivatediary,receivinghisfactsfrominformantshesawatCambridge.HisaccountofHenry'sdeathshowsthathewassuperstitiousandcredulous.Hissecond-handreportofthetimeandmannerofthedeathcannotbereceived as of any authority. His mention of Gloucester's presence has beenassumedtobeintended,bythewriter,toimplythattheDukewasconcernedinthe crime. This does not follow and, in a mere private diary, such innuendo

wouldbeoutofplaceandimprobable.Thedateofthe21st,givenbyWarkworthand Fabyan, would be approved by Henry VII. as throwing suspicion on hispredecessor, and would be fixed as the obit of Henry VI. Any subsequentrepetition of that date gives it no additional authority. Such repetition has asmuchoras littleauthorityas isgivento itbytheassertionsofWarkworthandFabyan.[22]

FabyangivesthesamedateasWarkworth,andadds, 'ofthedeathofHenrydiverstalesweretold,butthemostcommonfamewentthathewasstikkedwithadagger,bythehandsofRichardofGloucester.'[23]

Roussays,'Hekilledbyothersor,asmanybelieve,withhisownhand,thatmostsacredmanHenryVI.'[24]

The continuator of the Croyland Chronicle insinuates nothing againstRichard. His words are: 'The body of King Henry was found lifeless in theTower;mayGodpardonandgivetimeforrepentancetothatman,whoeverhewas,thatdaredtolayhissacrilegioushandupontheLord'sanointed.Thedoermay obtain the name of a tyrant, the sufferer of a glorious martyr.'[25] TheantithesisoftyrantandmartyrshowsthatthemonkalludedtoKingEdwardandKingHenry.Theprayerthat 'thedoer'mayhavetimeforrepentanceisaproofthatthepassagewaswrittenduringEdward'slifetime,andthattherewasthenarumour that Henry hadmet with foul play. But it also furnishes a proof thatrumourhadnotthenimputedthesupposedacttoRichard.

Of theseauthorities,Warkworth's informantand theCityChroniclerare theonly two who perceived that in order to give any plausibility to the alleged'continual report,' Henry's death must be made to tally with young Richard'spresenceintheTower.They,therefore,fixeduponMay21,thesingledaywhenRichardwasthere.TheirfabricationisexposedbytheevidenceoftheaccountsforHenry'smaintenance,aswillbeseendirectly;andalsobythecontradictionof Polydore Virgil. That author, who had access to all official sources ofinformation, places Henry's death in the end of May, after King Edward'sprogress through Kent. Thus these authorities do not agree, and are quiteunworthyofcredit.

TruedateofHenry'sdeath

Wearenotaltogetherwithoutthemeansofascertainingthetruth.HenryVI.was not an oldman.His agewas 47. But hewas feeble and half-witted. Hishealth was very precarious, his constitution having been weakened by longillnesses. He inherited the mental and physical imbecility of his grandfatherCharlesVI.ofFrance.Shortlybeforehis liberationby theEarlofWarwick in1470,someruffianhadstabbedhim[26]andthenfled.Henrywassaidtohavebeen convalescent, but, with his feeble hold on life, it is not likely that hisrecoverywaspermanent.Hegraduallysank,anddiedonMay24,orperhapsinthe night of the 23rd. Queen Margaret of Anjou arrived at the Tower as aprisoneronthe21st,justintimetosootheherhusband'slastmoments,andtobewithhimwhenhedied.TheLancastrianleaningsofthefamilyofLordRivers,whowasConstable of the Tower,make it likely that the unhappy queenwasgrantedaccess toherdyinghusband.WeknowthatMargaretwas treatedwithconsideration,andallowed to residewithhermost intimateEnglish friend, theoldDuchessofSuffolk,atWallingford,untilherransomwaspaid.

ThedateofHenry'sdeathisfixedbytheevidenceofhishouseholdaccounts,whicharegivenbyRymer.

'Accounts of the costs and expenses for the custody of King Henry, TheWednesdayafterthefeastofHolyTrinity,June12.'

'To the sameWilliam Sayer for money to his own hand delivered for theexpensesanddietofthesaidHenryandoftenpersonshisattendantswithinthetower, for the custody of the said Henry, namely, for fourteen days the firstbeginningonthe11thofMaylast,asperaccountdelivered14l.5s.'

'ToWilliamSayerformoneydeliveredattimes,namelyatonetime,7s.forthehireof threehired readers for thesaidWilliamandotherattendantswithinthetowerinchargeoftheKingforxivdaysandfortheboardofthesameforthesametime,andonanothertime3s.10d.fortheboardofsaidHenrywithinthesaidtowerasperaccountdelivered10s.10d.'[27]

ItisclearfromtheseentriesthatHenry'saccountsweremadeuponMay11,andthattheywereagainmadeupwhenhedied,fourteendaysafterMay11,thatis,onMay24.[28]Wealsogatherthathewasmaintainedinbecomingstate,atacostof400l.ayear,equivalenttoupwardsof2,000l.ofourmoney,andthathehad ten servants, and three readers to read aloud to him.Mr. ThoroldRogerssays: 'Imake no doubt thatHenrywas usedwell during the nine years of hisresidence in the Tower: nor do I believe that he was done to death afterTewkesbury.The storyofhisassassination in theTower is, I ampersuaded,aTudorcalumny.'[29]'Iconcludethatnaturewhichhadhidhismisfortunesfromhim more than once by a lethargy which seemed almost like death, at lastreleased him in the same merciful fashion from the recurrent sorrows of hislife.'[30]

The only contemporary writer was the author of a letter to the citizens ofBruges,givinganaccountoftheeventswhichledtotherestorationofEdwardIV.SpeakingfrompersonalknowledgehereportedthatHenryVI.diedonMay23,andhisaccuracyisestablishedbytheevidenceoftheaccounts.

ThesearetheplainfactsconnectedwithHenry'sdeath.Theyarefataltothestoryofthemurder.WarkworthandFabyangivethe21stforthedateofHenry'sdeath,becauseGloucesterwas in theToweron thatdayonly.Their assertionsaredisprovedbyPolydoreVirgil,bythewriteroftheletteratBruges,andbytheaccountswhichshowthedateofHenry'sdeathtohavebeenMay23or24.Onthose days Gloucester was at Sandwich, upwards of seventy miles from theTower.ThetaleofHenry'sassassinationbytheDukeofGloucester isaTudorcalumny, and was invented many years afterwards to please Henry VII. It ispossiblethatafalserumouroffoulplaymayhavebeenspreadbytheenemiesofEdward IV., and this seems likely from thewords of theCroylandChronicle.ButtheabsurdaccusationagainsttheKing'syoungbrotherwasconcoctedafterRichardIII.hadfallenatBosworth,andwhenanycalumnyagainstthedeadwaswelcomedandrewardedbyasuccessor,whobelievedthathissecuritydependeduponabeliefinhispredecessor'sinfamy.Habington,inhislifeofEdwardIV.,haspointedouttheabsurdityofchargingRichardwiththeallegedmurder.[31]

The next charge against theDuke ofGloucester is that he forced theLadyAnneNevilltomarryhim,immediatelyafterhehadmurderedyoungEdwardofLancaster,whowasherhusband.[32]Theanswers to thisare thatEdwardwasnotherhusband,[33]thatRicharddidnotmurderhim,andthatRicharddidnotforce Anne's inclinations. No marriage between Edward and Anne ever took

place.TheCroylandmonkalwaysspeaksofAnne,at thistime,asthe 'maiden'andthe'damsel.'

AnneNevillandhermother

Butthereismoretobesaid.Thetwoyoungcousins,RichardandAnne,werebrought up together, and their unionwasmost natural.MissHalsted haswellremarkedthatRichardshowedpeculiardelicacytowardsAnne,inplacingherinsanctuaryatSt.Martin'sbeforethemarriage,whereherinclinationscouldinnowaybeforced.Annewasherhusband'sconstantcompanionateveryimportantcrisis of his life, and there is good reason to believe that themarriage was ahappyone.

A very bitter enemy ofRichard'smemory, in later times, has attempted todrawconclusionstohisdisadvantagefromthemarriagesettlements.Therehadbeennotimetoobtaintheusualdispensations,anditthereforebecameadvisablethatthetrustees,forthesakeoftheoffspring,shouldguardagainstanypossibleinformality in the marriage. A protecting clause was inserted, in case thepropertycouldnotbeheldwithoutarenewalofthemarriageceremony;arisingfromanyallegedinformalityinthenuptials.Thisclause,framedbythelawyers,wastotheeffectthatiftheDukeofGloucesterandtheLadyAnneNevillshouldbe divorced, and afterwardsmarry again, theAct for the partition of propertyshouldneverthelessbevalid,andthatincaseofadivorce,andiftheDukeshalldohiscontinualdiligenceandeffectualdevoirbyalllawfulmeanstobelawfullymarriedtothesaidAnne,heshallhaveasmuchofthepremisesaspertainedtoherduringher lifetime. Itwasmerelya formalclause insertedby the lawyers,andprobablyneverevenreadbyRichardorAnne.

MissStricklandcallsthis 'anominousclauserelatingtoawedlockofafewmonths; proving Anne meditated availing herself of some informality in herabhorredmarriage;butifshehaddonesoherhusbandwouldhaveremainedinpossessionofherproperty.Theabsenceofthedispensationisanegativeproofthat Anne never consented to her second marriage, and that it was neverlegalised may be guessed by the rumours of a subsequent period when thevenomoushunchbackmeditatedinhisturndivorcingher.'

This is a good example of the sort of stuff which rooted and unreasoningprejudiceallowstopassforargument.

ThenextchargeismadebyonlyoneoftheTudorwriters.Rousallegedthat'Richard imprisonedfor life theCountessofWarwickwhohadfled tohimforrefuge.'[34] This is untrue. TheCountess ofWarwick heard of the defeat and

deathofherhusbandatBarnet,whenshelandedinEngland.Shetooksanctuaryat Beaulieu in Hampshire, was attainted, and all her property passed to herdaughters Isabella and Anne, who married the Dukes of Clarence andGloucester. The Countess remained at Beaulieu for two years, from 1471 to1473.WenexthearofherinaletterfromSirJohnPastondatedJune3,1473.'The Countess of Warwick is now out of Beaulieu, and Sir James Tyrrelconveyethhernorthward,mensaybytheKing'sassent,wheretosomemensaythat theDukeofClarence isnotagreed.'[35]Evidently theKinghadgivenhisassenttoarequestofGloucesterthathiswife'smothermightbeallowedtocomeandlivewithherdaughteratMiddleham.Therewasnoprisonbutahomewithherchild.Tyrrel,whowasthenanofficerofEdward'sCourt,wassenttoescortherfromBeaulieutoMiddleham.[36]

There is evidenceofRichard'skindly feeling towardshiswife's family.HeintercededfortheheirsoftheMarquisMontagu,Warwick'sbrother,anditwasat the requestofGloucester that theKingallowed them to inheritpartof theirfather's property.[37]Another indication of theDuke's friendliness, as regardshismother-in-lawandherrelations,isaffordedbytheirconfidenceinhim.LadyLatimer,asisteroftheCountessofWarwick,appointedRichardthesupervisorofherwill,whichwasapositionofgreattrustinthosedays.Suchkindlyofficesperformed for thosewhowere near and dear to theCountess ofWarwick arecogent,thoughindirect,proofsthatthestatementofRousisacalumny.

DeathofClarence

ShakespeareandothershavefurtheraccusedRichardofhavingabettedandaidedinthedeathofhisbrotherGeorgeDukeofClarence.Noserioushistorian,except Sandford, has ventured to bring forward the charge directly. TheCroyland monk, Polydore Virgil, André, Rous, Fabyan are all silent on thesubject.[38] But Morton is equal to the occasion. The passage in which heinsinuates suspicion is a good specimen of the style of this unscrupulousslanderer:

'Somewisemen alsoween that his drift, covertly conveyed, lacked not inhelping forth his brother of Clarence to his death;which he resisted openly,howbeit somewhat, as men deemed, more faintly than he that were heartilymindedtohiswealth.Andtheywhothusdeemthinkthathe,longtimeinKingEdward's life, forethought tobeKing incase that theKinghisbrother (whoselifehelookedthatevildietshouldshorten)shouldhappentodecease(asindeedhedid)whilehischildrenwereyoung.Andtheydeemthatforthisintenthewasgladof his brother's death, theDukeofClarence,whose lifemust needs havehinderedhimso intendingwhether thesameClarencehadkepthimtrue tohisnephewtheyoungKing,orenterprisedtobeKinghimself.Butofallthispointthereisnocertainty,andwhosodivinethuponconjecturesmayaswellshoottoofarastooshort.'

Theobjectof this involvedpassage is to leavea sortofgeneral impressionthatRichard had something or other to dowith the death ofClarence.[39]BythrowingupadustcloudofverbiagethecentralfactthatRichardintervenedinhisbrother'sfavourisobscuredandthrownintothebackground.

The guilt of the death of Clarence rests with Rivers and the Woodvillefaction.Hewasagreatdangertothem,aswillbeseeninthenextchapter,whiletheybenefitedbyhisattainderandgotthewardshipofhisson.AllRicharddidwastoprotestagainsttheexecutionofhisbrother.

[1] Rous, 214. 'Biennio matris utero tentus, exiens cum dentibus et capillis adhumeros.'Thisisfalse,forRichardwasbornthreeyearsafterhisbrotherGeorge,andtherewasanotherchild,namedThomas,betweenthem.

[2]Morton.

[3]Rous.

[4]Rous.

[5]Rous.

[6]Morton.

[7]Morton.

[8]Buck,p.79.

[9]Davies,YorkRecords,May14,1190,p.220.

[10]'Amanofmuchfortitude,andexceedingthecommonsort.'—PolydoreVirgil,p.224.

[11]InMacaulay'sreviewofGleig'sLifeofWarrenHastings.

[12]MissStrickland.

[13]Mr.Gairdnergivestheevidence.'Eachcrimerestsonslendertestimonyenough,thoughanyoneof thembeingadmitted, lendsgreatercredit totheothers.Fromthispointofviewit isnotatall improbablethatRichardwasamurdereratnineteen'(p.13).Richardkilledhisnephews,consequentlyheassassinatedaprisonerwhenhewasnineteen. It thushavingbeen shown thathewasamurdererwhenhewasnineteen,whatmoreprobablethanthathekilledhisnephews?Thismethodofarguinghasbeenperfectlysatisfactorytogenerationsofhistoricalstudents,andappearstobesostill.

[14]FleetwoodChron.p.30.ThisisthenarrativeoftherecoveryofhiskingdombyEdwardIV.,inHarl.MS.no.543,printedbytheCamdenSociety.

[15]ThedrawingisintheabridgmentsenttoBruges,reproducedintheArchæologia,xxi.p.ii.

[16]WarkworthChronicle,CamdenSociety,p.18.

[17]TheCroylandmonkwrote: 'Aswellinthefieldasafterwardsbytherevengefulhands of certain persons, Prince Edward, Devon, Somerset,' &c.: that is PrinceEdwardandDevononthefield,Somersetby'therevengefulhands':bywhichphraseheispleasedtorefertotheEarlMarshal'sCourtwhichwasaconstitutionaltribunal(Chron.Croyland,p.555).'Tumincampotumposteaultricibusquorundammanibus,ipsoPrincipeEdwardounigenitoRegisHenrici, victoDuceSomersetiæ,ComitequeDevoniæacaliisdominisomnibusetsingulismemoratis'(p.555).

[18]Fabyan,p.662.

[19]PolydoreVirgil,p.336.

[20]HallisnotoriousfortheembellishmentoffablesthatwerepassedontohimbyPolydoreVirgil,byaddingnamesandincidentsofhisowninvention.Inthecaseofthe death of the young Earl of Rutland, he first took several years off his age and

madealittlechildofhim,thengavehimatutorandsuppliedthetutor'sname.Withthese properties he got up a very effective scene on Wakefield Bridge. WhenRutland's real age is known, Hall's story becomes absurd, and he is convicted ofintentionalinaccuracy.AgainwhenhedescribedtheburialofHenryVI.,hesaidthatthecorpsewasconveyedtoChertsey'withoutpriestorclerk,torchortaper,singingorsaying.' This is something worse than embellishment, it is absolutely false. Thepaymentsarerecorded(andtherecordsarestillpreserved),forobsequiesandmassessaidbyfourordersofbrethren,forlinencloth,spices,andforwagesofmencarryingtorches.ThestatementsofHallarecertainlyunreliable.InretailingPolydoreVirgil'scalumnyabouttheassassinationofPrinceEdwardatTewkesbury,Hallcannotrefrainfromsimilarinventionsandembellishments.HeaddsthatEdwardwastakenprisonerbySirRichardCroftanddelivereduptotheKinginconsequenceofaproclamationoffering a reward of 100l. a year towhosoever should yield up the Prince dead oralive: accompanied by an assurance that his life should be spared (Hall, p. 301).Habington repeats this and adds, as his own contribution, that 'the good knightrepented what he had done, and openly professed his service abused and his faithdeluded'(LifeofEdwardIV.p.96).Thisstatementisconfutedbythefactthatitwason the battle-field of Tewkesbury that Richard Croft received his knighthood fromKing Edward. This would not have been so if he had 'openly declared his serviceabused.' He afterwards received benefits from King Richard (Paston Letters). Thefable of Fabyanwas embellished and added to by various hands, until it became averyelaborateandhighlyfinishedliecircumstantial.

[21]ThenameofVirgilbornebytwo,OneMaroandonePolydore.ThefirstaPoetwiseandtrue,Thelastalyingslanderer.

[22]Mr.Gairdnermentionsthat thereisaMS.CityChronicleamongtheCottonianMSS.(Vitell.A.xvi.f.133),whichstatesthatHenry'sbodywasbroughttoSt.Paul'son Ascension Eve (May 22), 'who was slain, as it was said, by the Duke ofGloucester.'InMS.Arundel,28,intheBritishMuseum,thereisanoldChronicle,onafly-leafofwhich,attheend,therearesomejottingsrelatingtoEdwardIV.'stimeina contemporary hand, and among others—'eodem die decessit Henricus sextus,'meaningthedayofEdward'sarrivalinLondon.AMS.inHeralds'College(printedbyMr. Gairdner) dates the death 'in vigilia Ascencionis Dominicæ'; a MS. at Oxford(Laud,674)gives thesamedate;aMS. in theRoyalLibraryat theBritishMuseumsays:'ObitusRegisHenrieiSexti,guiobiitintervicesimumprimumdiemMaiietxxiimdiemMaii.'Henry'sobitissetdownMay22.Noneofthesedocumentshaveanydate.TheirstatementsaboutMay21arethesameasthoseofWarkworthorFabyan,fromwhom theymust have been derived. ButWarkworth and Fabyan are proved to bewrongbytheevidenceoftheaccountsforHenry'smaintenance:andbytheevidenceofPolydoreVirgil,aswellasbytheletteratBruges.

[23]Fabyan,p.662.

[24]Rous,p.215.'IpsumsanctissimumvirumHenricumSextumperaliosvelmultiscredentibusmanupociuspropriainterfecit.'

[25]CroylandChron.p.557.

[26] 'Collectarum et mansuetudinum et bonorum morum regis Henrici VI., et excollectione magistri Joannis Blakman bacchalaurii theologiæ et post CartusiæmonachiLondini.'—Hearne,p.202.

[27]Rymer'sFoedera,xi.pp.712,713.

[28]Laing,inhiscontinuationofHenry'sHistoryofGreatBritain,inreferringtotheaccountsfor themaintenanceofHenryVI. inRymer'sFoedera,mistook thedayonwhich they were audited and passed, namely June 12, for the day on which theexpenses were incurred; and concluded that Henry was alive on June 12. This istriumphantlypointedoutbyDr.Lingard.But the triumph is imaginary.Dr.Lingardought to have seen that the date of auditing does not affect the question. The factremainsthatHenry'sboardwaspaid,andthathewasconsequentlyalive,forfourteendaysafterMay11,thatisuntilMay24,whichisfataltothestoryofthemurder.

This is shown by Bayley, who quotes the accounts in hisHistory of the Tower ofLondon,andpointsoutthat theyfurnishsatisfactoryevidenceofHenryhavingbeenaliveat leastuntilMay24 (seconded.p.323).Mr.Gairdnerhassuggested that thepaymentsuptothe24thweretoHenry'sservantswhowerenotdischargeduntilthen,anddonotprovethatHenrywasalive.Butthisisuntenable,fortheyareforHenry'skeepaswell.

[29]WorkandWages,ii.312.

[30]Ibid.ii.313.

[31]'Icannotbelieveamansocunningindecliningenvyandwinninghonourtohisname,wouldhaveundertakensuchabusinessandexecuteditwithhisownhand.NordidthisconcerntheDukeofGloucestersoparticularlyastoengagehimaloneinthecruelty.'—Habington,inKennet,p.455.

[32]Gairdner,p.22.

[33]SharonTurner,iii.p.323.AnnehadbeencontractedtoEdwardofLancasterinJuly1470,shebeingonlyfourteen,andhesixteen;butshewasnevermarriedtohim.ThemarriagewasnottotakeplaceunlesscertainconditionswerecompliedwithbyAnne's father, the Earl of Warwick. The conditions were not fulfilled, and thecontract,ipsofacto,wasnullandvoid.

[34]Rous,p.215.'Durantevitasuaincarceravit.'TheCountessout-livedRichardIII.

[35]PastonLetters,iii.p.92.

[36]Mr.GairdnerquotesaletterfromWilliamDengayntoWilliamCalthorp(ThirdReportofHist.MSS.Commission,p.272),fromwhichitappearsthattheCountessofWarwickwasactuallywiththeDukeofGloucesterinJune1473.—Gairdner'sRichardIII.p.27(n).

[37]Rot.Parl.vi.124.

[38]GloucesterwasinLondonattheopeningofParliamentonJanuary16,1478;butthereisnoevidencewherehewasinFebruary,themonthofClarence'sdeath.Hewas

certainly atMiddleham inMarch.Mr.Gairdner pronouncesGloucester 'guiltless ofhisbrother'sdeath'(p.40).

[39]Morton did this so successfully that his imitators soon began tomake a directaccusation.Theslandergrewandprospereduntilatlastwefindthefollowingpassagein Sandford: 'He was drowned in a butt of malmsey, his brother the Duke ofGloucester assisting thereat with his own proper hands!' He refers to Hall, p. 246.—GenealogicalHistory(London,1707),p.438.

CHAPTERIII

FURTHERCHARGESAGAINSTRICHARDIII

7.ExecutionofHastings.8.ExecutionofRivers,Vaughan,Grey,andHaute.9.The'Usurpation.'10.RefusalofBuckingham'spetition.11.SecondcoronationatYork.12.Poisoningofhiswife.13.IntendedmarriagewithElizabethofYork.14.IntendedexecutionofLordStrange.

Themost elaborate and detailed part of the indictment againstRichard III.refers to the so-called 'usurpation,' including the period from his arrival inLondontohiscoronation.Theeventsoftheinterregnumhadtoberepresentedinsuch a way as that it should appear that Henry Tudor was righteouslysupersedinganunscrupuloususurper.Thiswasamatterofvital importance totheintrudingdynasty.Accordinglymuchartwasdevotedtothepreparationofaplausible story, while careful but not always effectual efforts were made todestroyalldocumentsthatwouldcontradictit.

ArchbishopMorton

TheportionofthehistorypublishedbyGraftonandRastellwasundoubtedlywritten or dictated by John Morton himself. It is on Morton's story that allsubsequenthistorianshavereliedfor their facts;andas it ison thisperiod thatthewholecareerofRichardasasovereignhinges,itisnecessarythatweshouldbearinmindwhatmannerofmanthisMortonreallywas.HewasbornatBeerRegis in Dorsetshire, but the year is very uncertain, and he received his firstinstructionatCerneAbbey.ThenceheproceededtoOxford,andbeganlifeasalawyer, practising in the Court of Arches. He became aMaster in Chancery,increasing his income by taking orders, and was Parson of Bloxworth inDorsetshire.He took theLancastrian side, andwasatYorkwhen thebattleofTowtonwasfought.In1462hefledtotheContinentwithQueenMargaret.Hisfortuneswerethenatalowebb,buttheybrightenedwhentheEarlofWarwickcame toFrance tobetray the causeofEdward IV.Morton attachedhimself toWarwick atAngers,wentwith him toEngland inAugust 1470, escaped fromBarnettojoinQueenMargaretatWeymouth,andwaswithheratTewkesbury.NothingbutillluckhadattendedhisfortunessincehehadjoinedtheLancastrianparty. So he changed sides, obtained a pardon from Edward IV. andwormedhimself into that good-natured monarch's confidence. He became one of thegreatestpluralistsonrecord.'Hewasavariciousandgrasping.'[1]Hereceivedabribe from Louis XI. for inducing his own sovereign to accept dishonourabletermsofpeace,andwasfurtherbribedwithapensionof2,000crownsayear.[2]ThecontrastbetweentheuprightconductoftheDukeofGloucesterandhisowncorruptpracticesonthatoccasionexplainsthewilypriest'smalignanthostilitytoRichard.MortonwasmadeBishopofElyin1479.OnthedeathofEdwardhesawawideopeningforhisambitioninthechancesofalongminority.ThefactsrevealedtotheCouncilbyBishopStillingtonwere,consequently,distastefultohim.HewastheheartandsouloftheconspiracyofHastingsandtheWoodvillefaction against the Protector. He brought Hastings to his death, but escapedhimself. The incorrigible plotter was entrusted to the custody of the Duke ofBuckingham.Byhiscunningartificesheinducedthatweaknoblemantobecomeatraitor,andclaimthecrownforhimself.HeledBuckinghamtohisdeath;butsecured his own safety. He then joinedHenry Tudor's conspiracy, and it wasdoubtlessthroughMorton'sadvicethattheWelshadventurerputforwardaclaimto the crown. Success at length attended the intriguer's schemes. Henry VII.made him Chancellor in 1486, Archbishop of Canterbury in 1487, and, aftermuchimportunity,acardinal'shatwasobtainedforhim,fromtheBorgianPope.

[3]Hebecameenormouslyrich.HerevealedtoHenryVII.'theconfessionsofasmanylordsashisgracelisted.'[4]HewasoneofthemostodiousinstrumentsofHenry's extortions. The argument that thosewho spent littlemust have savedmuch, and that those who spentmuchmust havemuch, was called 'Morton'sfork.'[5]Hediedin1500,hatedandexecratedbyallranksofthepeople.

This is the man from whom history derives the narrative of Richard'saccession.Wemustrememberthecircumstancesinwhichhewroteordictatedhisversion.HewasthenArchbishopofCanterburyunderHenryVII.HehadtotraduceRichard in the interests of hismaster, and at the same time he had toconcealfromHenryhimselfcertainpartsofhisownproceedings,especiallyasregardshisintriguewithBuckingham.

Morton'smisrepresentations

Morton was most unscrupulous in fabricating his story, throwing outmisleadinginsinuations,garblingandsuppressingfacts,makingfalsestatements,and altering dates. He was a leading actor in, and an eyewitness of what hedescribed,hewasanableandcleverman,andhewasintimatelyacquaintedwiththe facts as they really happened.Moreover, we are informed by Sir ThomasMore,who knew him, that he had an extraordinarymemory.[6]Consequentlyeverymistake that is detected in his narrative, every date that is altered,musthavebeeninsertedwithaspecialobject.Itisfortunateforthecauseoftruththathewasmorecareless,andwroteingreaterdetail,thanhecertainlywouldhavedone, if there had been any chance of an answer being put forward by oneequally conversant with the facts. But he knew that he was safe—powerunscrupulouslyenforcedwasonhisside.

MortonopenshiscasewiththeassumptionthattheDukeofGloucesterhadalways intended to supplant his nephew. He asserts that the Duke concertedplanswithBuckinghamandHastingsagainsttheQueenandherrelations;thathethen,secretly,andbydiversmeans,causedtheQueentobepersuadedtoadviseher sonnot tocomewitha large force toLondon;and thatheandother lordswrotetotheQueen'sfriendssolovinglythatthey,nothingmistrusting,broughtthe young prince up in good speed with sober company. Gloucester andBuckingham then went to Northampton and met Rivers there. For all thatappearsinthispartofthenarrative,GloucesterwasinLondon,andcamethencewith Buckingham to Northampton. Gloucester was really in the marches ofScotland, and he could not possibly have carried on all these intrigues at that

distance,betweenApril9whenKingEdwarddiedandthe23rdwhenRiversleftLudlow.HecouldnotevenhaveheardoftheKing'sdeathforseveraldays.Itistruethat,towardstheendofhislampoon,whentellinghisstoryaboutanallegedquarrel betweenGloucester and Buckingham,Morton doesmention the DukebeingatYork,andBuckinghamhavingsentamessengertohimwhomethimatNottingham.[7]But thismessenger could not have been the channel of all theintrigueshedescribes.Therewasnotime.

TheDukemayhave received somehastynotice fromamessenger, but thefirstrealnewsofwhathadbeengoingoninLondoncamefromBuckinghamatNorthampton.

Morton's story about Gloucester's intrigues at this time is therefore afabrication. The truth is exactly the reverse of Morton's version. Richard'sconductwasstraightforwardandloyal.Afterattendingsolemnobsequiesofhisbrother inYorkMinster, he called on the nobility and gentry ofYorkshire toswearallegiancetohisyoungnephew.WhenhearrivedinLondon,heorderedpreparationstobemadeforhisnephew'scoronation,andhesentsummonsestoforty esquires to receive knighthood of the Bath on the occasion.[8] He alsocausedthedressestobewornbyhisnephewathiscoronationtobegotready.[9]These acts were well known to Morton, who passed them over in silence,becausetheywouldtendtogiveatrueimpression,wherehewantedtoleaveafalseone.

HavingthusraisedaprejudiceagainsttheProtector,Morton'snextobjectwasto instil a belief that Hastings worked against the Woodvilles throughout inconcertwithRichard.Inordertocreatethisimpressionhegivestwofalsedates.HemakesyoungRichardleavesanctuaryonJune9.Thetruedatewasthe16th.[10]HeassertsthatLordRiverswasbeheadedonJune13,theverydayofthearrest of Hastings, and he makes a great point of it, observing as a strikingcoincidencethatHastingssuffereddeathontheself-samedayandabouttheself-samehourasRiverswhoseexecutionhehadapproved.[11]Heknewthistobefalse.Riversmadehiswillonthe23rd,andwasnotbeheadeduntilthe25th.[12]Mortonhadamotiveforfalsifyingthedates,anditisobvious.HewantedittoappearthatHastingswasanenemyoftheWoodvillefactiontotheend,thathewasapartytotheremovalofyoungRichardfromsanctuaryandtotheexecutionof Rivers. But why? Clearly because Hastings was not an enemy of theWoodvilles to the end, because he had, with Morton and others, formed acoalition with them, and entered into a conspiracy with them against the

Protector. It was important to conceal this, because it justified the Protector'saction against Hastings; and Morton did so by resorting to a falsification ofdates. He then proceeds to enter into minute details, in describing the scenewhenHastingswasarrestedonFriday,June13.

Morton makes the Protector ask him for a mess of strawberries from hisgarden at Holborn. He then alleges that Gloucester suddenly altered his tone,accused theQueen-Dowagerofwitchcraft,displayedawitheredarmashavingbeeninjuredbysorcery,upbraidedHastingsforhavingJaneShoreasamistress,andorderedHastings to be beheadedon a logofwoodbefore dinner.We arealso informed that Master William Catesby made the mischief between theProtectorandtheLordChamberlain,andthataproclamationwasissuedsettingforththecauseoftheexecutionofHastings.

Thesedetailsenableustoobtainsomeglimmeringofthetruth.Wehavethereminiscences of an eyewitness, whowas also a schemer so dealingwith thefacts as to leave false impressions clothed in the similitude of veraciousrecollections. The tale of the strawberries is doubtless true, and is amasterlytouch designed to give an air of reality to the scene. The withered arm is afabrication intended to conceal the real charge made by the Protector. Thatcharge was contained in the proclamation which Morton mentions as havingbeenwellinditedandwrittenonparchment.Heprofessestogivethesubstanceofit.Theseekeraftertruthwouldverymuchprefertheoriginaltext.Butitwasdestroyed.ItsdestructionisastrongpresumptioninfavouroftheProtector,andjustifiestheconclusionthattherealchargewasaseriousone.ItisincrediblethatCatesbymerely revealed the nonsense about JaneShore's sorcery.Morton hasinserted thisrubbish inorder toconceal therealchargemadeby theProtector.Morton further tellsus that 'Shore'swifewasofallwomen theone theQueenmost hated,' and that she was the mistress of Hastings. She was really themistress of Dorset,[13] the Queen's son, and the motive for bringing in theQueen's alleged hatred, in this place, is to conceal the real position of JaneShore,whichwasthatofasecretagentbetweenthepartyoftheWoodvillesandHastings.

ThefullnessofMorton'sdetailsdefeatshisobject.Hedrawsattentiontothetruthwhichhe elaborately endeavours to hide.Weare thus enabled to deducefrom the garrulity of the designing priest the facts that, probably through hisprompting,Hastings had formed a coalitionwith theQueen-Dowager and herpartyagainsttheProtector,andthatthenegotiationhadbeenconductedthrough

Jane Shore as intermediary. We learn that Catesby revealed the plot to theProtector, who promptly arrested Hastings, and brought a charge of treasonagainsthim.

Falsificationofdates

Morton would have us believe that Hastings was beheaded on the spotwithout trial.Thisversionof the story is also toldbyFabyan, andadoptedbyPolydore Virgil. It was told to the second Croyland monk, who wrote thatHastingswasbeheadedonJune13.[14]ItwasaversionindustriouslyspreadbyMorton,asachargeoflawlesscrueltyandindecenthasteagainsttheProtector.Itcanbeprovedtobefalse.

Morton's story is that Hastings was hurried out of the council room andbeheaded on a log of wood in the court of the Tower, that the Protector andBuckinghamappeared to thecitizens in rustyarmour,pretending that theyhadbeeninmortaldangerfromHastings,andthattheProtectorsworehewouldhavetheheadofHastingsbeforehedined.

This isagrossly improbablestoryon the faceof it;butBishopMorton,onthe accession of Henry VII., was evidently very anxious that it should beaccepted,forhemusthavegivenitpublicityataveryearlydate.Itwassuppliedto the credulous oldCroylandmonk, andwas accepted by Fabyan,whomusthaveknownittobefalse,withsuchzealthatheaddedafewextratouchestothestory.FabyanwasacitizenofLondonandknewthetruth.YetheclearlyimpliesthatthedeliveryofyoungRichardandtheexecutionofRiverstookplacebeforethe arrest of Hastings, adopting the falsifications ofMorton. He also falsifieddates in order to reconcile the alleged date of the execution of Hastingswithother events, followingMorton in this also. This justifies the conclusion thatFabyanandMortonwereincollusion;fortheybothwereawareofthetruthfrompersonalknowledge,andtheybothperverteditinthesameway.[15]

Thereisothertestimonyonthispointwhichisquiteabovesuspicion.SimonStallworthe,aprebendaryofLincoln,wrotealetterfromLondontoSirWilliamStonor,agentlemanofOxfordshire,onSaturdayJune21,1483,[16]inwhichhesaid that 'onFriday lastwas theLordChambleyn[Hastings]heddedsoneafternoon.' As Saturday was the 21st, Friday last was the 20th. We here haveevidencethatLordHastingswasnotbeheadeduntilaweekafterhisarrestand,as there was no indecent haste, we may assume that there was a trial andsentencebyapropertribunal.ThestoryofMortonaboutthehurriedexecutionon the13th,and the logofwood, is therefore false. Ithasbeensuggested thatwhenStallworthewrote'Fridaylast,'hedidnotmeanFridaylast,buttheFridaybeforeFridaylast.ThistheoryisexplodedbytheverynextlineinStallworthe's

letter.Hetheresaysthat'onMondaylast'youngRichardcameoutofsanctuary.This is certainly the correct date. But it contradicts bothMorton and Fabyan,though it is corroborated by the Croyland Chronicle. If 'Monday last' meant'Monday last,' 'Friday last'must be taken tomean 'Friday last' inStallworthe'sletter,andnotanyotherdatethattheexigenciesofcalumniatorsmayrequire.

Theevidence that thestoryof thehastyexecutionofHastings is falsedoesnot rest solelyonStallworthe's letter.MortonandFabyanareconvictedoutoftheirownmouths.

Thisisapointwhichshouldbeclearlyunderstood.Itmustbeborneinmindthatwehavecertainfixeddates.HastingswascertainlyarrestedonJune13.Itisalso certain that Thursday, June 26,was the date of Richard's accession: it isfixed by the year book. Dr. Shaw's sermon was preached on the previousSunday, that is June 22. Fabyan, as well as Stallworthe, tells us that theexecution of Hastings took place on the previous Friday. These are fixedbeacons,andwillleadustothetruth.Theywillalsoenableustodetectthefalselights thrown out byMorton and Fabyan. They both knew the truthwell, butthey had to manipulate the dates so as to make it appear that Hastings wasexecutedonthe13th.Itmustbeborneinmindthat,onFabyan'sownshowing,theexecutiontookplaceontheFridaybeforeShaw'ssermonwaspreached.

In order to give a plausible appearance to the assertion that Hastings wasbeheadedonthe13th,Fabyantriedtogetridoftheweekbetweenthe13thandthe20th.HethoughthewasboundtorecognisethefactthattheexecutionwasontheFridaybeforeShaw'ssermon,sohebroughtthesermonbackaweektoo.ButShaw'ssermonwaswellknowntohavebeenpreachedontheSundaybeforetheaccession.Sohehad tomoveback theaccessionalso,andheplaced itonJune20.HereFabyan'sdishonestyisdetected,forthe20thwasnotaThursday,andthatthe26thwasthedateoftheaccessionisbeyonddispute.

Mortonwas,ofcourse,inthesamedifficultyasregardshisdates.Buthewasfar better practised in themanipulation of evidence. Such an old handwouldcommithimselftodatesaslittleaspossible.Hewouldfearthemasathieffearsadetective.Hegivesonlyone,andheselectstherightdayoftheweek,whichFabyandidnot.But this isquiteenoughtoconvicthim.Hechosethe19thforthedayofRichard'saccessionwiththeverysameobjectasFabyan,togetridofthegapbetweenthe13thandthe20th;wellknowingthattherightdatefortheaccessionwasthe26th.

We can now perceive the truth, both through the direct testimony ofStallwortheandthroughthedetectionofthedishonestyofMortonandFabyan.Lord Hastings was arrested on June 13 on a charge of treason, tried andsentenced. He was executed, after a decent interval, on Friday, June 20. TheadmissionofMortonthataproclamationwasissued,announcingthedetailsoftheHastings-Woodvilleconspiracy,isimportant.Thisdocument,andallothersrelatingtothebusiness,weredestroyedinthesamewayastheActofParliamentrecordingRichard'stitlewasdestroyed.TheobjectofmakingawaywiththeActwas to conceal the truth. The disappearance of all documents relating to theexecutionofHastingscanonlybeexplainedinthesameway.

ButwhatmustwethinkofMortonandFabyan,whoarethusprovedtohavebeenguiltyofsuchafraud?TheirevidenceagainstRichard,onallotherpoints,mustbeheldtobeutterlyworthless.

TrialofRivers

ThetrialofLordRivers,withGrey,VaughanandHaute,followedonthatofHastings.Theyhadbeenchargedwithtreasonabledesigns,immediatelyafterthedeath of King Edward, on the very clearest evidence. But the long delay inbringing them to trial justifies the belief that their capital punishmentwas notintended,iffreshchargeshadnotbeenbroughtagainstthem,arisingoutoftheHastings conspiracy.Mortonbrings forward the sameaccusation in their case,and he gives a false date for their execution. He would have us believe thatRivers and his companions were also put to death 'without so much as theformalityofatrial.'SoheappearstohavetoldthesecondCroylandmonk.Buthis untruthfulness is exposed by the evidence of another Tudorwitness.Rousinadvertentlyletoutthetruth,notknowingtherewasanyreasonforconcealingit.HecertainlydidnotdosooutofanygoodwillforKingRichard.Therewasatrialand theEarlofNorthumberlandpresidedat it.Hewasnot thesole judge,but the President acting with other judges.[17] He probably sat as aCommissioner to execute the office of Lord Steward, with a jury of northernPeers, to tryRivers.Morton falsified the date of the executions,making themearlierbytwelvedays.Oneobjectofthisfalsificationhasalreadybeenpointedout. It also served to indicate such haste in the executions aswouldmake theabsenceofanytrialappearprobable.

TheovertactsofRiversandhisassociatesshowthattheircondemnationwasjust; and their punishmentwas necessary for the safety and tranquillity of thecountry. Itwasa righteous retributionfor thedeathofClarence,bywhose falltheWoodvilleshadsolargelyprofited.

Mortonnext proceeds to falsify the title ofKingRichard III. to the crown.This point is of great importance andmerits close attention. The statement ofRichard's title to the crownwasdrawnup, andadoptedby theLordsSpiritualandTemporalandCommons,afterconsideringalltheevidencebetweenJune8and25.ThedocumentwasafterwardsembodiedinanActofParliamententitledthe'TitulusRegius,'withwhichthewritersemployedbyHenryVII.musthavebeenwellacquainted.WhenHenrycametothethrone,heorderedthisActtoberepealed without quoting the preamble, with a view to its purport beingconcealed.Hecausedittobedestroyed,andthreatenedanyonewhokeptacopywithfineandimprisonmentduringhispleasure.Thereasonhegaveforthiswasthat'allthingsinthesaidActmaybeforgot.'Inspiteofthisthreatthetruthwas

told by theCroylandmonk, but his chronicle remained inmanuscript, and hewasnot foundout.Henry's conduct affords a strongpresumption that the titlewasvalid.Buthedidmore.HegrantedanillusorypardontoBishopStillington,whowastheprincipalwitnesstothetruthofthemainstatementinthe 'TitulusRegius.'Thiswasdonewiththeobjectofkeepingsilenceonthesubjectofhisreal offence, whichwas telling the truth. Henry then arrested him on anothertrumpedupcharge,andkepthimincloseandsolitaryimprisonmentinWindsorCastleuntilhisdeathinJune1491.

TheseproceedingsshowtheimmenseimportanceattachedbyHenryVII.toasuppressionofthetruthrelatingtoRichard'stitletothecrown.ItiscertainthatiftheallegedpreviouscontractwithLadyEleanorButlerwasfalse,thefalsehoodwould have been eagerly exposed, and therewould have been no occasion toinventanyother story.On theotherhand, if theallegedpreviouscontractwastrue, the evidencewould have been suppressed and another storywould havebeen invented and promulgated.The evidencewas suppressed, and a differenttalewasputforward.Theconclusionis inevitable that thepreviouscontractofEdwardIV.withLadyEleanorButlerwasafact.

ThetrueclaimtotheCrown

By a mere accident the original draft of the 'Titulus Regius' was notdestroyed.ItwasdiscoveredlongafterwardsamongtheTowerrecords.Itstenorwas given in the continuation of the Croyland Chronicle.[18] Richard's titlerested on the statement thatEdward IV.was alreadymarried toLadyEleanorButler,adaughterofthefirstEarlofShrewsbury,[19]whenhewentthroughtheceremonywithLadyGrey.Itiscertain,therefore,thatthisandthisonlywasthestatement made in inspired sermons and speeches at the time; for it was theofficial case of thosewho advocatedRichard's accession. It is impossible thatoneground for theclaimshouldhavebeenput forwardofficially, andanotherwhich was not only different but contradictory, in the sermons and speechesdirectedtobemadeatthesametime.

Nowall thiswaswellknowntoMorton,andtoPolydoreVirgil,whentheyconcocted their stories. They had free access to all official sources ofinformation.Buttheyclearlybelievedthattheevidencehadbeensoeffectuallyplacedoutofreach,thatitwassafeforthemtoadoptwhattaletheychose.They,therefore,statedthatDr.ShawpreachedasermonatPaul'sCrossonJune22,inwhichhecalumniatedtheDuchessofYorkbymaintainingthatEdwardIV.and

Clarencewereherchildrenbysomeotherman,andthatGloucesterwastheonlylegitimatesonoftheDukeherhusband.Theobjectwastothrowthereaderoffthe scent respecting Edward's own connubial proceedings, by bringing aninfamousandveryabsurdchargeagainsthismother.ThisisclearlythelinethatPolydoreVirgilwasinstructedtotake,forhealludestothecommonreportthatEdward'schildrenwerecalledbastards,anddeclares it tobe 'voidofall truth,'thattherewassuchareport.Hegoesfurther,allegingthattheDuchessofYorkcomplainedoftheinjurydoneher,andthatDr.Shawdiedofsorrowforhavinguttered the slander.[20]With the 'TitulusRegius' before us, itwill be allowedthatthiswitnessdidnotstickattrifles.

Morton'sfabrications

ButMortonwasnot tobeoutdonebytheItalian.Heputs theslanderabouttheDuchessofYorkintoDr.Shaw'smouth,andhealsomakesthepreachertellanother tale which would make bastards of Edward's children. According toPolydoreVirgilthereportthatthepreachermadebastardsofEdward'schildrenwas'voydofalltruthe.'AccordingtoMortonthepreachersaidthatEdwardwaspreviouslymarriedtoawomannamedLucy.Itwillbeseenthattheseauthoritiescontradict each other. Morton proceeds to knock down his own ninepin, bytellingus thatLucyconfessed shewasnevermarried to theKing.NoonebutMortoneversaidshewas.

Mortonfartheralleged thatwhenEdwardIV.proposedtomarry thewidowof Sir J. Grey he was opposed by his mother, who represented that he wasalready contracted beforeGod toElizabethLucy.Morton knewperfectlywellthat this never happened, and thatEdwardwent through amarriage ceremonywithLadyGreywithout theknowledgeofhismotheror anyoneelse.HehasonlyintroducedthenameofElizabethLucyasaherringdrawnacrossthescent.HisgreatobjectwastoconcealthenameofLadyEleanorButler.

The absurdity ofMorton's fabrications respecting thewomanLucywill beappreciatedwhenwe remember that she actually had two children byEdwardIV.[21]WeareaskedtobelievethatDr.Shaw,inpreachingasermoninsupportofRichard's right to the throne, put forward a statementwhich, if true,wouldmaketwochildrenlegitimate,whoselegitimacywouldatoncebaranyclaimonthepartofRichard.

These misrepresentations discredit the authority of Polydore Virgil andMorton.OfcoursetherecanbenodoubtthatDr.Shawinhissermon,ifindeed

heeverpreachedit,andtheDukeofBuckinghamifheevermadeaspeechattheGuildhall, simply explained to the people the contents of the petition statingRichard'stitle,whichwasabouttobepresentedtohim:namelythatEdwardIV.waspreviouslycontracted to theLadyEleanorButler,and that thechildrenbyLady Grey were consequently illegitimate. The invention of the infamousslanderagainsttheDuchessofYorkbyMortonandPolydoreVirgil,thecarefulexclusionofLadyEleanor'snameandofanyallusiontoher,andtheelaborateeffortsofHenryVII. todestroyall tracesof the evidence arevery significant.They amount to a proof that theButler contractwas a reality, and that (if thechildren of Clarence were incapacitated by their father's attainder) KingRichard'stitlewassoundandjust.

TheCroylandmonk andRous do notmentionDr. Shaw's sermon. FabyantellsusthatthepreacherstatedthatKingEdward'schildrenwerenotlegitimate,thus contradictingPolydoreVirgil,whodeclares that the preacher nevermadeany such allegation. But Fabyan does not mention the slander against theDuchessofYork.ThisisafurtherproofthatitwasinventedbyMorton.Virgil,in adopting it, had, however, been instructed to avoid all allusion toEdward'sownmatrimonialaffairs.

HavingmisrepresentedDr.Shaw'ssermononSundaythe22nd,Mortongoeson to say thaton the followingTuesday theDukeofBuckinghamwent to theGuildhall and made a speech to the people. On Wednesday, according toMorton, the Lord Mayor and aldermen came to Baynard's Castle, withBuckinghamanddiversnoblemen,besidesmanyknightsandgentlemen.

This isanotherfalsificationofdatesmadeasusualwithapurpose.NothingreallyhappenedonWednesday.OnThursdaythe26th,MortonsaysthatRichardIII.wenttoWestminsterHallinroyalstate.WhatMortonhasdoneistotransfertheeventsofThursdaytoWednesday,andtomakeaslittleaspossibleofthem,in order to draw off attention from a very momentous event. No one wouldgather from Morton's narrative that on Thursday, June 26, the ConventionParliament, as itwouldhavebeencalled in laterdays, consistingof theLordsSpiritual andTemporal and theCommons,whichhadbeen summoned for the25thandactuallymet,proceeded toCrosbyPlacewith thepetitionembodyingRichard'stitle,andurgedhimtoacceptthecrown.[22]Mortonignoresallthis,inorder that his readers may be kept in ignorance of the solemn and deliberateproceedings which accompanied Richard's acceptance of the crown. PolydoreVirgildoesthesame.

Buckingham'streason

We next come to the treason of theDuke of Buckingham. Itsmotivewasmisrepresented byMorton, with the object of creating a belief that the DukeadvocatedthecauseofHenryTudor.AlongconversationbetweenBuckinghamandMortonatBrecknockisrecordedbyGrafton.Itisverycharacteristic,andisnodoubtauthentic,sofarasthatitwaswrittenorcommunicatedbyMorton.Butwhetheritevertookplaceasnarratedisquiteanothermatter.ThisconversationsetsforththeargumentsbywhichthemischievousoldintriguerallegedthatheinducedBuckinghamtorebel,andthepretendedobjectoftheinsurrection.

ItisassertedbyMortonandPolydoreVirgilthatthecauseofBuckingham'sdiscontentwastherefusalofRichardIII.togranthimthemoietyoftheBohunlands. It isadded thatBuckingham's suitwas rejectedby theKing,withmanyspitefulwords, and that therewas ever afterwards hatred anddistrust betweenthem. This can be proved to be false. Richard grantedBuckingham's petition,andmadehimagrant[23]ofthelandsundertheroyalsignmanual,givinghimthe profits from the date of signature, until the formality was completed byauthorityofParliament.

BuckinghamandMorton

This story must have been fabricated to conceal the true motive ofBuckingham'streason.HeprobablyaspiredtothethroneasthenextheirofthePlantagenetsafterRichardandhisson, inaccordancewiththe 'TitulusRegius.'He had himself concurred in declaring the children of Edward IV. to beillegitimate, and thoseofClarence tobe incapacitated.Next cameRichard III.andhisdelicateson,ofwhomhewoulddisposeiftherebellionwassuccessful.He ignored the sisters of theKing and their children.[24] This completed thedescendantsofthesecondsonofEdwardIII.Thelegitimatedescendantsofthethird soncame to an endwithHenryVI.Buckinghamhimself represented thefifthsonofEdwardIII.

AssailedbytheinsidiousflatteryofMorton,hewasprematurelyhurriedintoarashattemptwhichcosthimhislife.WhenMortonrecordedtheconversationwithhisvictimmanyyearsafterwards,hewasArchbishopofCanterbury,HenryVII.wasKing,anditwasadvisable,inordertogratifythenewsovereign,thatRichard should be accused of murdering his nephews, and that Buckinghamshouldbemadetogiveuptheschemeforhisownaggrandisement, inordertorisk his life for the sake of an unknown adventurer in Brittany. It will beadmittedthatthisisagrosslyimprobablestory.

It iscertainlyastounding that thechildishnonsensewhichMortonputs intoBuckingham'smouthshouldhavebeengravelyacceptedas truebysubsequenthistorians.Weare first told thatwhenBuckinghamheardof themurderof thetwoinnocents,towhichheneveragreed,heabhorredthesightoftheKingandcouldnolongerabidewiththeCourt.SohetookhisleaveatGloucesterwithamerry countenance but a despiteful heart.According to this, themurders tookplace in July, forBuckingham leftGloucesteronAugust1.ThemoredetailedstorydirectlycontradictsMorton,andplacesthemurdersintheendofAugust.Botharefalse,butthisisoneoutofmanyinstancesoftheutterrecklessnessoftheseslanderers.BuckinghamisthenmadetosaythathestoppedatTewkesburyfor two days to think. The result was that he came to the conclusion that heoughttobeKing,notonthegroundofhisdescentfromthefifthsonofEdwardIII.,butbecausehismotherwasadaughterofEdmund,DukeofSomerset.HismotherwasthefourthdaughterofthatDuke,whohadnottheremotestrighttothe throne, and never put forward a claim. If there had been such a claim,Buckingham would not have first found it out, by thinking for two days at

Tewkesbury. After this mental effort he continued his journey towardsShrewsbury,andmetMargaretLadyStanley,themotherofHenryTudor,ontheroad. She told him that she was the daughter of John Beaufort, Duke ofSomerset, Edmund's elder brother. This, we are asked to believe, was quite anew idea to Buckingham.We are to suppose that he knew nothing about hisrelationsbeforehiscogitationsatTewkesburyandhischatwithLadyStanley,and that the receipt of the information made him give up his own ambitiousplans altogether. He is made to propose to his fellow-traveller that her sonshould be king and that he should marry the eldest daughter of Edward IV.Buckingham, after examining the evidence, had just concurred in a solemndeclaration that this daughter was illegitimate. But he now evolved from hisinnerconsciousnessthediscoverythattheevidencewasderivedfromsubornedwitnesses. The Duke then took his leave of Margaret, and proceeded withMorton to Brecknock Castle. Margaret's steward, Reginald Bray, conveyedmessages between the conspirators, and an insurrectionwas arranged.MortonacknowledgesthatheoriginallyadvisedBuckinghamhimselftoclaimthecrownat Brecknock, on which the Duke related the above wonderful story. Tocomplete the absurdity of this childish romance, it must be remembered thatMorton was travelling with Buckingham, all the way from Gloucester toBrecknock.

Amanwhocouldbeguiltyoffabricatingsuchafableiswhollyunworthyofcredit in his reckless accusations against King Richard, though his minuteknowledgeoftherealfactsrendersanyinadvertentadmissionsmostimportant.Such are the statements that witnesses and other evidence were produced toestablish the illegitimacy of King Edward's children,[25] and that Richardintended to treat his nephews with kindness and consideration.[26] But it isincredible that Buckingham should have contemplated the idea of setting hisownclaimaside for thesakeofanobscureadventurer inBrittanywhohadnoclaimatall;whilethepretencethatBuckinghamwashorrifiedatthemurderoftheyoungprincescontradictsHenry'sownclumsy fable.ThewholepretendedconversationmusthavebeenanafterthoughttopleasetheTudorusurper.

Thesecondcoronation

The next accusation against Richard refers to his conduct at York, and isderived from the secondCroylandmonk,who too readily accepted the gossipthat was current when he wrote, and which was pleasing to the TudorGovernment.It isallegedthatRichardappropriatedtohisownusethetreasurewhichhisbrotherhadamassed,andhadcommittedtothecareofhisexecutorsafterhisdeath.Thisstatement,asMr.Gairdnerhasshown,[27]iscontrarytothefact.Thewholepropertyhadbeenplacedunderecclesiastical sequestrationbytheArchbishopofCanterbury,becausetheexecutorshaddeclinedtoact,andnofurther steps had been taken. It was also stated, on the authority of the sameCroylandmonk,thatRichardwentthroughtheceremonyofasecondcoronationat York.[28] The deduction intended to be drawn, and which often has beendrawn, was that his title was so doubtful that he hoped a double coronationmightstrengthenit.ButtherewasnosecondcoronationatYork.Nothingofthekindevertookplace.

OneislothtorefertothemalignantslanderinvolvedintheinsinuationthatKingRichardpoisonedhiswife.PolydoreVirgilsays: 'ButtheQueen,whethershewasdespatchedwithsorrowfulnessorpoison,diedwithinafewdaysafter.'The wretched wasp of Guy's Cliff adds his sting: 'DominamAnnam reginamsuamintoxicavit.'[29]

Richard and Anne were cousins, and companions from childhood. Theirunion had been a happy one in their hospitable Yorkshire home. In all theimportant events of his lifeRichard had always had the companionship of hiswife.Theyhadbeentogetherinsorrowandinjoy.Anne'sillnesswasalingeringdecline, during which she was assiduously watched and cared for by herphysicians, andbyher sorrowinghusband,whodeeplymournedher loss. Shewasburied,asaQueen,inWestminsterAbbey.Itistruethatnowriterhasdonemorethaninsinuatethiscalumny.ButmostoftheTudorslanderstaketheformofinsinuations. 'It isacharge,'wroteSirHarrisNicolas, 'whichisdeservingofattention for no other reason than as it affords a remarkable example of themanner in which ignorance and prejudice sometimes render what is calledhistorymorecontemptiblethanaromance.'ThesamemaybesaidofmostoftheTudorstoriesaboutRichardIII.

ElizabethofYork

Therumour thatKingRichardhadan intentionofmarryinghis illegitimateniece Elizabeth is unsustained by any evidence,[30] and is contrary to allprobability.SuchaprojectwouldhavestultifiedtheActofParliamentonwhichhistitletothecrownwasbased.TheKingwasapoliticianandwasnotentirelydeprived of his senses. He could not have entertained an idea so absurd. Butthere is evidence that the scheme was favoured by the girl herself and hermother,andthisfullyaccountsfortheexistenceoftherumour.Theiragesweresuitable,theKingbeingthirty-twoandhisnieceinhertwenty-firstyear;andinaletter to theDukeofNorfolkElizabethexpressedastrongwish tobecome thewife of her uncle.[31] The Church of Rome granted, and still grants,dispensationsforsuchmarriages.But,bethishowitmay,Richardhimselfcannever have contemplated amarriagewith his niece. 'Thewhole tale,' says SirHarrisNicolas,'wasinventedwiththeviewofblackeningRichard'scharacter,togratify themonarch inwhose reign all the contemporarywriterswho relate itflourished.' As soon as the rumour came to Richard's ears he publicly andemphaticallydenieditstruth.

IntriguesofLadyStanley

TheTudorwriterstellvariousstoriesaboutHenry,whileinBrittany,havingpromisedtomarryElizabeth;andthisisusedasanargumentthathemusthavebelieved her brothers to be dead, for if they were alive, there would be lessobjectinthemarriage.Lookingatthesourcewhencethesestoriescome,thereisno reason whatever for accepting them as true. They are derived from theapocryphal conversation between theDuke ofBuckingham and theBishop ofElyatBrecknock.InordertoconcealtherealobjectofBuckinghamandhisownduplicity,Morton, as has been seen, fabricated a story about his dupe havingconspiredwithHenryTudor'smothertosethimupasaclaimanttothecrown,and a suitor for the hand of Elizabeth of York. It is likely enough that theintriguing wife of Stanley did conspire with Buckingham in the hope ofadvancingher son's interests,and that sheopenednegotiationswith theQueenDowager. Her design in the latter intrigue would be to secure theWoodvilleinterest for supporting the contemplated rising. She despatched her stewardReginaldBraytoBrecknock,herconfessorUrswicktoBrittany,andherdoctorLewistoWestminsterSanctuary.Hertreacheroushusbandwasfeigningloyaltyallthetime,andwasinzealousattendanceontheKing.ShewasfoundoutandcontemptuouslyforgivenbyRichard.But thestoryofacontemplatedmarriageatthattimebetweenHenryTudorandElizabethwasanafterthoughtofMorton,at a time when Henry and Elizabeth were actually married. The story wasrepeated by PolydoreVirgil, and retailed,with the customary embellishments,byHallandGrafton.

It is scarcely necessary to notice the imputed intention ofKingRichard toavenge the treacheryofLordStanleyonhissonLordStrange,whowas in theroyalcampatthetimeofthebattleofBosworth.Heremainedunharmed.Thisisthefact.WeareaskedtobelievethattheKingintendedtobeheadhim,butcouldnot spare the time before the battle began. There was plenty of time, but nointentionofusing it for suchapurpose.Theproofof this is thatLordStrangewasnotinjured.Theevidencefortheallegedintentiontobeheadhimrestssolelyon the assertions ofmenwhowrote long afterwards, and the value of whosetestimonywearenowprettywellabletoestimate.

[1]Hook,v.p.409.

[2]HewasthenMasteroftheRolls.

[3]AlexanderVI.,1492-1503.

[4]Tyndale,ThePracticeofPrelates,p.305.ParkerSociety.

[5]LordBacon,HenryVII.

[6]Utopia,p.20.

[7]Mortonwasintimatelyacquaintedwiththerealfacts.Hemakesnomistakes.Hismis-statements are all prepared designedly and with an object. He even knew thename of Buckingham's messenger, and that of Gloucester's servant to whom heappliedforasecretinterviewwithhismaster.—P.134,ed.1821.

[8]Ellis'sOriginalLetters,secondseries,i.p.147.

[9]WardrobeAccounts.

[10]Stallworthe's letterof June21 (Exc.Hist. pp.14-10).TheCroylandmonkalsogivesthesurrenderofyoungRichardafterthearrestofHastings(p.566).

[11]HemisledHoraceWalpole(p.49),andDr.Lingard(iv.p.227)onthispoint.ButDr.Lingardwasquitereadytocontinueinhiserror.Hisaccountisasfollows:—'OnthesamedaythatHastingssuffered(andthetimeshouldbenoticed)RatcliffeenteredPomfretCastleattheheadofanumerousbodyofarmedmen,seizedRivers,GreyandVaughan,observednojudicialforms,andstruckofftheheadsofthevictims.'Hecallsthe Yorkshire troops that came to London 'the ruffians who had murdered theprisonersatPontefract.'This isnotverytemperate language.Dr.Lingardafterwardsfound that thiswasallwrong.Buthewouldnotalterhiserroneous text.Hemerelyaddedanoteinalateredition,showingthatheknewRiverstohavebeenstillaliveonthe23rd,and thatRousnamed theEarlofNorthumberlandaspresidingat the trial.Yetheretainstheassertioninthetextthattherewerenojudicialforms!

[12]Croyland,p.567.PolydoreVirgilgivesthecorrectdate;andtheCroylandmonkalsoplacestheexecutionofRiversafterthearrestofHastings.

[13]Rymer,xii.p.204.

[14] 13 die mensis Junii veniens in Turrim ad consilium, jussu Protectoris capitetruncatusest.—CroylandChron.Gale,i.566.

[15]TheCroylandChroniclerisquitefreefromsuspicionofintentionalfalsification.HewasinformedthatHastingshadbeenbeheadedonthe13th,thedayofhisarrest,andhestatedwhathebelievedtobethefact.He,therefore,madenoattempttomakethisfitinwithothereventsbyfalsifyingdates,aswasthecoursetakenbyMortonandFabyan.ThemonkplacesthedeliveryofyoungRichardandtheexecutionofRiversinproperorderoftime,andgivesthecorrectdateforRichard'saccession.

[16]Excerpt.Hist.p.16.

[17]'Eorumprincipalisjudex.'—Rous,p.213.

[18]SirGeorgeBuckascertainedthetruththroughhavingaccesstothemanuscriptofthe Croyland Chronicle. The writer simply mentions the pre-contract with LadyEleanorButler;but theChroniclewasnotprinteduntil1084.Speedwas the first toprintthefulltextofthe'TitulusRegius'inhisHistoryofGreatBritain,1611.

[19]ThefirstEarlofShrewsburyhadalargefamilybytwowives,butthenamesofallhisdaughtershavenotbeenrecorded.Dugdalementionsnone.CollinsgivesJanemarried toJamesLordBerkeley.TherewerealsoElizabethwifeofJohnMowbray,DukeofNorfolk,andothers, includingEleanor.Buck ismistaken insupposing thatEleanor's first husband was Sir Ralph Butler, Lord Sudeley. His wife was AliceDeincourt,andhewastooold.Eleanor'shusbandmayhavebeenanunrecordedsonofRalphButler,LordSudeley,whodiedwhenayoungmanbeforehisfather.ShemusthavemarriedEdwardIV.,whenawidow,inorbefore1464.ShediedatNorwich,andwas buried in the church of the White Friars Carmelites.—Weever's FuneralMonuments,p.805.

[20]Mortonsaysthat'withinfewdaysafterhewitheredandconsumedaway'(p.103).

[21]I.ArthurwasmarriedtoadaughterandheiressofEdwardGrey,ViscountLisle,the brother-in-law of LadyGrey. Shewas thewidow of EdmundDudley. In 1533Arthur was created Viscount Lisle. He had three daughters, and from the second,Frances wife of John Basset of Umberleigh, co. Devon, General Monk wasdescended.ArthurViscountLisledied,withoutmaleheirs,in1541.

II.ElizabethwifeofThomas,eldestsonofGeorgeLordLumley,whodiedbeforehisfather.FromherdescendsthepresentEarlofScarborough.

[22]LetterfromKingRichardtoLordMountjoy.

[23]ThetextofthegrantisgivenbyDugdale,withtheKing'ssignetandsignmanual,givenat hismanor atGreenwichon July13, 1483.A list of themanors follows.—Dugdale'sBaronage,i.168.

Mr. Gairdner argues that, in spite of this grant, the Duke had reason to doubt thefulfilmentofthepromisewhenParliamentmet.Iamunabletofollowhim.TheKinghaddoneallthathepossiblycoulddountilParliamentmet,andhehadputhisgoodfaith and sincerity beyond doubt by giving Buckingham the profits beforehand, inanticipationof the approval ofParliament.What couldhepossiblydomore?Therewas no shadow of a pretext for any such doubt on the part of Buckingham.—Gairdner'sRichardIII.,p.136.

[24]He also had to ignore the children ofHenry Bourchier, Earl of Essex, by thePrincessIsabel,asisterofRichardDukeofYork.

[25]Morton,inGrafton,p.126.

[26]Ibid.p.127.

[27]RichardIII.p.146,quotingfromRoyalWills,pp.345-347.

[28]Rous,p.217.Drake'sEborac.p.117.ThefableisfullyexposedbyMr.DaviesinhisYorkRecords.

[29]Rous.

[30] This rumour never reached Fabyan or Rous. It is mentioned by the Croylandmonk.

[31]OntheauthorityofSirGeorgeBuck.Hiswordsareasfollows:—'WhenFebruarywaspast, theLadyElizabeth, beingmore impatient and jealousof the success thaneveryonekneworconceived,writesa letter to theDukeofNorfolk intimatingfirstthathewasthemaninwhomshemostaffied,inrespectofthatloveherFatherhadeverbornehim.Thenshecongratulateshismanycourtesies,incontinuanceofwhichshe desires him to be amediator for her to theKing in the behalf of themarriagepropounded between them, who, as she wrote, was her only joy andmaker in theworld,andthatshewashisinheartandthought,withalinsinuatingthatthebetterpartofFebruarywaspast,andthatshefearedtheQueenwouldneverdie.Allthesebeherown words written with her own hand, and this is the sum of her letter, whichremaineth in theautographororiginaldraftunderherownhand, in themagnificentcabinetofThomasEarlofArundelandSurrey.'(Buck,p.128.)

SirHarrisNicolas(PrivyPurseExpensesofElizabethofYork,p.1),asanadmirerofElizabethofYork,wasmuchtroubledbythisletter.HeattackedSirGeorgeBuckas'onewhoseviolentprejudicesdonotsufficientlyaccountforthemendacityforwhichhiswork is remarkable.' But this is unjust. Buck no doubtwas prejudiced, but notmore so than the Tudor chroniclers. He blunders and is uncritical, yet there is noreasontoimpugnhisgoodfaith.NordidSirHarrisNicolashimselfthinkthatthecasewassufficientlydisposedofbyabusingSirGeorgeBuck.Hemadevariousattemptstoexplainawaytheletter,butnonesatisfactoryorevenplausible.Dr.Lingarddidnotdoubttheauthenticityoftheletter(v.pp.355-359,ed.1823,iv.p.252,ed.1849).Itisnotnowknowntoexist,butthatprovesnothingifBuckwroteingoodfaith.

Mr.Gairdner approaches the subjectmore calmly. 'Positive testimony like this,' hesays,'isnottobelightlysetasideasincredible.YetBuck,ifnotaltogetherdishonest(and I see no reason to think him so), was certainly by no means an impartialhistorian.At the same timeBuck'sabstractof the letter isveryminute, andsuchaswouldseemtofollowprettycloselytheturnsofexpressioninagenuineoriginal,andheexpresslydeclaresthemanuscripttobeanautographororiginaldraft.IfitbenotaforgerypalmedoffuponBuckhimself, Iaminclined to think itwaswritten,notbyElizabeth,butbyhermotherwhobore thesameChristianname.Everywordmightjust aswellhavecome fromher, except thementionof the father,whichmaybeamistake;andthereisnothinginconceivableinheranxietythatRichardshouldmarryherdaughter.'Headds'thatElizabethcouldhavebeeneagertoobtainthehandofherbrother's murderer is really too monstrous to be believed.'Why then is it not 'toomonstroustobebelieved'thatthemothershouldhavebeeneagertoobtainthehandofherson'smurdererforherdaughter?Itisclearthatthegroundsforacceptingtheletterare too strong forMr.Gairdner tobeable to reject them.Yet thatElizabeth shouldwish to marry her brother's murderer appears incredible to him. The conclusion isinevitable. Richard was not her brother's murderer, if the letter was authentic (seeGairdner'sLifeofRichardIII.pp.256-257,andnotep.257).

CHAPTERIV

THEMAINCHARGEAGAINSTRICHARDIII

15.MurderofthePrincesintheTower.Acquittal.

Inattemptingan impartial considerationof thequestionof the fateofKingEdward's sons, itmust always be remembered that themain argument againsttheir uncle ismade to rest upon the truth of his previous alleged crimes.Thisargument is destroyed if Richard was not a venomous hunchback born withteeth, if he was not a cold scheming and calculating villain who had alreadycommitted two atrociousmurders, drowned his brother in a butt ofmalmsey,poisonedhiswife,andwadedthroughthebloodofinnocentmentoanusurpedthrone.Acarefulstudyoftheevidenceestablishesthefactthattheseaccusationsarefalse,andthattheywereputforwardbythewritersunderanewdynastyinorder to blacken the character of the last Plantagenet King, and to make theaccusationthathemurderedhisnephewsmoreplausible.ForitwasamatterofthemostvitalimportancetoHenryVII.,notonlythattheboysshouldhavebeenmurdered,butthatitshouldbebelievedthatthecrimewasperpetratedbeforehisaccession.

Wehave to dealwith a differentman altogether. The realRichard,who isaccusedofthemurderofhisnephews,wasnotpreviouslysteepedincrime.Theaccusationmustnowbeconsideredasbeingbroughtagainstanordinaryprinceofthefifteenthcentury,ifnotbettercertainlynotworsethanhiscontemporaries.Thisatoncedestroysthechiefpointsoftheevidenceagainsthim.HisaccusersrightlyfeltthatitwasnecessarytoblackenRichard'scharacter,andthistheydidcoarselyenough,butverysuccessfully.Theyknewthat,withoutthispoisoningofthewells,thecaseagainsthimlostallitsforce.'Nemorepenteturpissimus.'

Wemust now approach the question relating to the fate of the two youngsonsofEdward IV.,withouthavingconstantlybeforeourminds thegrotesquecaricatureportrayedbytheTudorwriters.Althoughitisnotpossible,especiallyatthisdistanceoftime,toaccountfortheworkingsofanyman'smind,orforthe

motiveswhichmaycontrolhisactions,itisyetnecessarytoconsiderthisphaseofthequestion,withasmuchlightaswecanbringtobearuponit.

It is not disputed that Edward IV. always evinced unshaken love andaffectionforhisyoungbrother,andshowedthemostabsoluteconfidenceinhimatthetimeofhisdeath.Richardreturnedthisaffectionwithdevotedloyalty.HehadnolovefortheWoodvillefaction,buthemusthavefeltsomeregardforhisbrother'schildren,beingsuchamanaswebelievehehasbeenprovedtohavebeen. This feeling of regard would decrease the strength of any motiveproducing a desire to destroy them for his own ends. But there was no suchmotive.Theboyshadbeendeclared tobe illegitimate,afteranexaminationofevidence,bytheunanimousvoiceofParliament.WhentheCardinalArchbishop,surroundedbyhissuffragans,placedthecrownofSt.EdwardonRichard'shead,he proclaimed the belief of theChurch, and released from their oaths allwhounder a misapprehension had sworn allegiance to Edward V. The boy, as aclaimanttothethrone,hadceasedtobedangerous.

UnanimityatRichard'scoronation

ItshouldbeborneinmindthatParliamentwasunanimousinrecognisingthetitleofRichardIII.ExceptinghalfadozenLancastrianexileswhowereequallyopposed to any member of the house of York,[1] the whole peerage was atRichard's coronation except thosewhose absence is accounted for by extremeage or youth, or by the calls of duty.[2] Even the Woodville faction hadsubmitted, and was represented at the coronation by Viscount Lisle and theBishop of Salisbury.HenryTudor'smother bore the train ofRichard'sQueen,andhisuncleLordWelleswasalsoat thecoronation.TherewasabsolutelynopartyfortheillegitimatesonsofEdwardIV.atthetimeoftheirallegedmurders,andconsequentlynodanger tobeapprehendedfromthem.If thestoryhadputthemurdersafterBuckingham'srisingitwouldhavebeenalittlemoreplausible.But it placed them twomonths before the rising, when the King had not theshadowof a suspicion that anyoppositionwas contemplated.Setting aside allnatural or religious feeling, and even assuming Richard to have been theimpossiblemonsterdepictedbyTudorwriters,hecertainlyhadnomotiveforthecrime.

Butitmaybearguedthattheworkingsofmen'smindsareinexplicable,andthatRichardmayhavecommitted thecrime fromamotivewhichwouldseeminsufficienttoanyreasonableman.Todecideuponthispropositionwecanonly

turn to a consideration of his conduct as regards other persons in the samerelationshipandpositionasthetwoboys,andwhowerelikelytocauseRichardasmuch or as little trouble. Therewere seven such persons, namely, the fivedaughtersofEdwardIV.andthetwochildrenoftheDukeofClarence.TheKingtreatedhisnieceswithkindnessandconsiderationasnear relations,when theycameunderhisprotection.TheyoungEarlofWarwick,sonofRichard'selderbrotherClarence,wasafarmoreformidablerivalthanthesonsofEdward.Theformer was incontestably legitimate; while the latter had been declared to beillegitimatebybothHousesofParliament.RichardknightedthesonofClarence,placedhimattheheadofthenobility,andmadehimamemberofcouncilandofhis own household. We, therefore, know that Richard did not look upon thechildrenofhiselderbrothersasenemiestobedestroyed,butasrelationstobecherished.

TheprincesaliveinRichard'stime

Wefind, then, that the twoyoungsonsofEdwardIV.went toresidein theroyallodgingsoftheTowerinJune1483.ThestatementputforthbyHenryVII.is that they were murdered there in the following August. But there are twopieces of evidence, one of them positive evidence, that they were alivethroughoutthereignofRichardIII.

In theorders forKingRichard'shouseholddatedafter thedeathofhisownson,childrenarementionedofsuchhighrankthattheyweretobeservedbeforeallotherLords.Theonlychildrenwhocouldoccupy suchapositionwere thesonsofEdwardIV.andthesonofClarence.Theconclusionmustbethatallhisnephewsweremembersofhishousehold,andthattheywereonlysenttoSheriffHuttonandtotheTowerwhendangerthreatenedtherealmfromtheinvasionofHenryTudor.

TheotherpieceofevidenceisfoundinawarrantinRymer's'Foedera,'datedMarch 9, 1485, to the following effect: it directsHenryDavy 'to deliver untoJohn Goddestande, footman unto the Lord Bastard, two doblets of silk, onejacketofsilk,onegownofcloth,twoshirts,andtwobonets.'[3]Thereareotherwarrantstopayforprovisions.Dr.Lingard[4]triedtodestroythesignificanceofthese warrants by suggesting that they referred to John of Gloucester, anillegitimatesonoftheKing.ButthisboyismentionedinRymer's'Foedera,'andis designated as a bastard sonof theKing[5] simply andnot as a lord, for nosuchtitlebelongedtohim.Edward,ontheotherhand,althoughhewasofficially

calledabastard,wasalsoalord.InhiscasethedesignationofLordwascorrect.Inthe'WardrobeAccount'hewascalledtheLordEdward;aftertheaccessionofhisuncle.[6]TheroyaltitlesofWalesandCornwallwerenolongerconsistentorproper,andhadindeedbeentransferred,induecourse,totheKing'sson.ButtheearldomsofMarchandPembroke,conferredonhimbyhisfather,stillbelongedto Edward. He would properly be styled the Lord Bastard, while John ofGloucestercouldnotbeandwasnot.Therewasonlyone'Lord'Bastard.[7]Thewarrants,therefore,showthatEdwardwasaliveandwelltreatedinMarch1485,fourmonthsbeforethedeathofRichardIII.

These two pieces of evidence are in keeping withMorton's statement thatKing Richard had declared his intention of maintaining his nephews inhonourable estate.But there is strong collateral evidence pointing to the sameconclusion. If there had been foul play, it is scarcely credible that themothercouldhavebeeninducedbyanypromisestothrowherremainingchildrenontheprotectionofonewhohadalreadyviolated themost sacred tiesas regardshertwosons. It is,however, justpossible thataveryunfeelingandselfishwoman(thoughElizabethwasneither),wearyofconfinementinsanctuary,mighthavebeeninducedtomaketermswiththemurdererofhersons,inordertoobtainacomfortableprovision forherself.But shedidmore than this.Shesent forherother son, who was safe in France, advising him to return home and submithimself to the King. It is incredible that she could have done this unless sheknew that the twoboyswere alive andwell treated.She remainedon friendlytermswithRicharduntilhisdeath,andherdaughtersattendedthefestivitiesathisCourt.StillstrongerevidenceinthesamedirectionisaffordedbythelettertotheDukeofNorfolk,whetheritwaswrittenbytheKing'snieceElizabethorbyher mother, as Mr. Gairdner suggests. The writer could not have spoken ofRichard as her 'joy andmaker in theworld,' or have said that shewas 'his inheartandthought,'ifhehadjustmurderedthebrothersofoneandthesonsoftheother.Thethingisquiteimpossible.

The conduct of their mother and sister is a strong corroboration of thepositive evidence that the young princeswere alive andwell throughoutKingRichard'sreign.

Theallegedrumours

Ontheotherhand,thereisnoevidencewhateverthattheyweredead;beyondrumours of which we only hear long afterwards.We are told that there were

rumoursthattheyhadbeenmurdered,andrumoursthattheywerealive,andhadbeentakenabroad.Rumoursbutnoevidence.

If they had been smothered the bodies would have been exposed to allaysuspicion,andwouldhavereceivedChristianburial.Tohide themwouldhavebeenanactofincrediblefolly.

There remain then, for consideration, these rumours which are alleged tohaveprevailedduring the reignofKingRichard to theeffect thathisnephewshad been murdered. It is maintained that if these rumours were generallybelieved, Richardmust have been guilty, because if he had been innocent hewouldhavetakensomestepstodisprovetherumours,andhetooknosuchsteps,orrather—nosuchstepsarerecordedbyhisenemies.

Thepointsforinvestigationarewhethersuchrumoursactuallyexisted,andifso, whether they were so general as to reach the King's ears and make itadvisablethatanythingshouldbedonetorefutethem.

ItisallegedthattheserumourstookshapeduringtheKing'sprogresstoYorkinthesummerandautumnof1483.Thereisnoevidencethattheyprevailedatthis or any other time during Richard's reign.[8] The authority for a rumouraboutthefateofthetwoboysinthesummerof1483istheCroylandChronicle;andtherecanbenodoubt that thestatementwasmadeingoodfaith;althoughthewritermayhavebeendeceived.

The passage in the Croyland Chronicle is to the effect that the princesremainingincustodyintheTower,thepeopleinthesouthandwestofEnglandbecameanxiousfortheirliberation,thatmeetingswereheldonthesubject,andthatproposalsweremadetoarrangetheescapeofthedaughtersofEdwardIV.sothat,ifanythinghappenedtohissons,theremightstillbeheirsofhisbody.ItwasalsoreportedthatthesonsofEdwardweredead,thoughitwasunknownbywhatviolentmeanstheymettheirend.[9]SofartheCroylandmonk.

Nodoubt therewere partizans of the defeated factions ofHastings and theWoodvilleswhowere ready to spread any rumours injurious to theKing.Thequestion iswhether the rumourswhich reached theearsof theCroylandmonkwere ever generally credited by the people, so as to call for action from theGovernment. Is it true that they led to loud murmurings from meetings andassemblages of the people in the south and west of England, such as would

attractgeneralnotice?TheonlyproofofferedisthatanofficernamedNesfieldwasordered towatch theapproachesof theSanctuaryatWestminster,andseethat no one left it secretly.But thiswas a precautionwhichwould have beentaken under any circumstances. Polydore Virgil alleges that Richard himselfspread a report that his nephews were dead; and this is magnified andembellished by Grafton and Hall, according to their wont. The statement isgrosslyimprobableinitself,iswhollyunsupported,andisentirelyunworthyofcredit.

Thereis,then,noevidencethattheserumoursexisted,beyondthepassageintheCroylandChronicle.Butthereisstrongreasonforrejectingthemonk'sstory.If the rumours had really existed, and if in consequence thereweremutinousassemblages of the people preliminary to an insurrectionary movement, thevigilantandenergeticyoungKingwouldhavemadeallnecessarypreparationstomeetthedanger.Nothingismorecertaininhishistorythanthathewastakenabsolutely by surprise when he received tidings of an outbreak in Kent onOctober11,1483.Itwasaconcertedrising,secretlyarrangedbyBuckingham.ThisDuke had taken leave of theKing atGloucester onAugust 2 before theallegedactionofRichardatWarwickwithaviewtothemurders,whichwasonAugust8.According to thestory,Buckinghamcanhaveknownnothingof themurderswhenhearrangedhisplot.ConsequentlyitisnotpossiblethattherisinginKent,arrangedbyBuckingham,canhavehadanythingtodowiththeallegedmurderoftheyoungprinces.

YettheCroylandmonkhadcertainlybeentoldthattherewasarumourthattheboysweredead.Ifithadnotreachedhimasgeneraltalk,itmusthavecomedirect tohim fromsomemalignant enemyof theKing.Was there suchamanlurking in the fen country round Croyland?We know thatMorton had takenrefugeinthefencountry(IsleofEly)atthisverytime.Ifthatschemerwasatthechronicler'selbow,therumourisfullyaccountedfor.ItprobablyoriginatedwithMortonwhilehewaslurkinginthefens,andceasedtoexistwhenhesailedforFlanders. His own narrative, as we have received it, comes to an abruptterminationwhileheisconversingwiththeDukeofBuckinghamatBrecknock.Ifithadbeencontinued,weshoulddoubtlesshavehadahighlycolouredversionof the rumourmentioned in the Croyland Chronicle.Morton and his slanderswentabroadtogether.TherumourthattheyoungprinceshadbeenputtodeathappearednomoreinEnglandduringRichard'slife.ButassoonasMortonwentto France, it appeared there. In the autumn of 1483 Morton left England. InJanuary1484,themurderoftheprinceswasallegedasafactbytheChancellor

ofFranceinaspeechtotheStates-GeneralatTours.'Regardez,jevousprie,lesévénements qui après la mort du Roi Édouard sont arrivés dans ce pays.Contemplez ses enfants, déjà grands et braves, massacreé impunément, et lacouronnetransportéeal'assassinparlafaveurdespeuples.'[10]TheChancellormayhavereceivedthisstatementfromanotherLancastrianexile,butit ismostlikely that it came from Morton. Louis XI. had hated Richard because heopposedthepeacewhichtheFrenchKingboughtfromEdwardIV.,andbecauseherefusedtheFrenchbribeswithcontempt.[11]ThishatredwasinheritedbytheLadyofBeaujeuwhobecameRegentonthedeathofLouisXI.inAugust1483.Any calumny was seized upon as an opportunity for reviling the King ofEngland;andwithMortoninFrancetherewouldbenodearthofsuchwares.

TheinsulttotheKingofEnglandutteredbytheFrenchChancellormaynothavereachedRichard'sgovernment.Ifitdid,itmusthavebeenapologisedfororexplainedaway,forsomemonthsafterwards,inSeptember1484,KingRichardgranted a safe-conduct for an embassy from the French Regency to treat ofpeace.[12] The calumny was clearly received by the French Chancellor fromMorton,orsomeotherunscrupulousoutlaw,andnotfromanygeneralrumour.Foritisstatedasafact;thetruthbeingthatitwasneverknownwhatbecameofthe two boys, or pretended to be known until after the alleged confession ofTyrrelin1502.

Fabyan,writinginthetimeofHenryVII.,talksofarumour,andofitshavingbeenthecommonfamethatKingRichardputhisnephewstosecretdeath.ThiswasmerelywhatHenryVII.wantedtobethe'commonfame';andnoonedaredtogainsayit.IntheyearafterhisaccessiontheusurpingTudororderedittobegivenoutthattheboysweremurderedbytheiruncle,andhispaidagentshadtorepeatthestatement.Andrésaidtheywerekilledwithasword.[13]Rousstatedthat they were put to death by somemeans unknown.[14] Polydore followedRous. Comines, naturally enough, told the story officially promulgated inEngland.ButHenryneverdaredtomaketheaccusationpubliclyinhisfirstso-calledParliament,andtherecanhavebeenonlyonereasonforthissilence.Theboyswerethenalive.

Henry'schroniclers,however,testifythatnothingwasknown,andthusprovethe falsehoodof theFrenchChancellor's statement,while furnishingadditionalproof thatnogeneral rumourexistedduringRichard's reign that theboysweredead.

ItisnottobesupposedthatSirWilliamStanleywouldhaveentertainedforamomentthebeliefthatPerkinWarbeckwasasonofEdwardIV.unlessheknewthattheprinceswerealivethroughoutRichard'sreign.Noonehadbettermeansof knowing. The story put forward byHenryVII. tells us that it remained indoubtwhethertheboysweredestroyedornotinRichard'sday.PolydoreVirgilmentions a rumour that they had escaped abroad. PerkinWarbeck's storywasbelievedbyagreatnumberofpeople,whichcouldnothavebeenthecaseiftherumourofthedeathoftheprinceshadbeengenerallycredited.

Baselessrumours

No question arose before King Richard's death. Many persons must haveknown thathisnephewswerealiveandwell treated.Theirmotherandbrotherknew, and they were silenced by imprisonment. Sir William Stanley and hisfellow-sufferersknew, and theywerebeheaded.AfterHenry's accession, thereweredozens,ifnothundreds,ofpeoplewhoknewthetruth.Theyhadachoicebetweensilenceandruinordeath.Thetruthmighthavebeen,andprobablywas,mentionedinprivatecorrespondence;buteventhatwouldbeveryperilous,andscarcelyanycorrespondenceofthatdatehasbeenpreserved.Inoneletterinthe'PlumptonCorrespondence,' the dislike ofHenry's illegal attainders is referredto, butwith bated breath.Among themass of the people therewas no certainknowledgeofwhathadhappenedtotheboys.Ofcoursemanybaselessrumoursthen became current. The statements accusingRichard, and the assertions thattheserumoursreceivedpopularcreditduringhisreign,merelyindicatewhathissuccessorwantedtobebelievedonthesubject.

[1] Earls of Oxford, Devonshire, and Pembroke, Lords Rivers, Dynham, andBeaumont.LordCliffordwasaminor,andinhidinginYorkshire.

[2] Lord Dudley in extreme old age, Earls of Shrewsbury and Essex, and LordHungerford minors, Lords Greystoke and Ogle in the Marches, Lord Mountjoy atCalais,LorddelaWarreabroad.TheEarlofWestmorelandwasdangerouslyill.

[3]Bayley,AntiquitiesoftheTowerofLondon.(8vo.ed1830,p.343n.)

[4]iv.p.580(5thed.1849).

[5] Rymer, xii. p. 265. 'Pro filio bastardo regis.' 'Cum summa dilecti filii nostribastardi Johannis de Gloucestriæ ingenii vivacitas, membrorumque agilitas, et adomnes bonosmoresmagnam et indubiam nobis de futuro ejus servitio bono spem,gratiâ divinâ promittant.' This warrant granted the wardship of Calais to John of

Gloucester,sosoonasheshouldhavereachedtheageoftwenty-one.

[6]Archæologia,i.p.367.

[7]SirRichard,K.G., the second son,wasnot thena lord.The titleofYorkwasaroyalone,likethatofWales,andhecouldnotholditwhenprovedtobeillegitimate.ThoseofNorfolkandNottinghamcamefromhisintendedwife,AnneMowbray,andwhenshedied,theywenttoherheirsHowardandBerkeley,bycreationoftheKingonJune8,1483.YoungRichard,aswellasEdward,wasaKnightoftheGarter,butEdwardwastheonly'LordBastard.'

[8] A letter from the King to theMayor of York, dated April 11, 1485, is on thesubjectofthesuppressionoffalsereportsandlies.Butthisreferstothefalsereportthat Richard intended to marry his niece. Davies, York Records. Drake incorrectlyplacesthisletterin1484.Drake'sEbor.p.119.

[9]'VulgatumestdictosRegisEdwardipueros,quogenereviolentiinteritusignoratur,decessisseinfata.'

[10]Journal desEtats-Généraux deFrance tenus en 1483-84 (Documents Inédits),quotedbyGairdnerinhisRichardIII.p.160.

[11]HeacceptedapresentofhorsesfromLouisasamatterofcourtesy.

[12]Rymer'sFoedera,xii.p.234.

[13]'Nepotesclamferroferirijussit.'—André.

[14]'Itaquodexpostpaucissimisnotumfuitquamortemartirizatisunt.'—Rous.

CHAPTERV

HENRYTUDORINTHEDOCK

MurderofthePrincesintheTower.Conviction.

VictimsafterBosworth

HenryTydder,aliasTudor,mustnowtakehisplaceinthedock.Letusfirstseewhatmannerofmanthisfortunateadventurerwas.In1485hewastwenty-eightyearsofage.Heisdescribedasamanofslenderbuild,aboutfivefeetnine

incheshigh,withasaturnineexpression,greyrestlesseyes,yellowhair,andverylittle of it. Having passed his life as a fugitive and conspirator, cunning anddissimulationhadbecomeasecondnaturetohim.ThevictorygainedforhimatBosworth,bythefoulesttreachery,placeddespoticpowerinhishands.HisfirstactsweretheillegalandunjustexecutionsofWilliamCatesby,[1]ChancelloroftheExchequer,ofJohnBuck, theComptrollerof thelateKing'sHousehold,ofWilliamBracher,YeomanoftheCrown,andofhisson.Theseexecutionswereinviolationofalllaw.Theyweresimplymurders;forHenryTudorhimselfhadnolegalstatus,andwasinfactanattaintedoutlaw.Catesbywasthefaithfulandloyalminister of aKingwho studied thewelfare of his subjects, andwas theSpeakerofthebestParliamentthathadsatsincethetimeofEdwardI.Hewasan able anddiligent public servant.Thiswashis only crime.Nothing tangiblehaseverbeenallegedagainsthim,except thathedidhisdutybyreporting themeditated treason of Hastings. If the fables ofMorton and his colleagues areaccepted, theexecutionsofRivers,GreyandVaughanweredoubtfulacts.ButtheexecutionsofCatesby,Buck,andtheBracherswereheinouscrimes.RichardwastheChiefoftheState,thoughitmaybeheldthathismeasureswereunjust.Henry was an outlawwithout legal authority of any kind, and his executionswere ruthless murders. Thus did this adventurer wade through the blood ofinnocent men to his usurped throne.[2] His next proceeding was to send SirRobertWilloughbytoSheriffHutton,togetpossessionofyoungEdwardEarlofWarwick,theheirtothethrone,andofthelateKing'snieceElizabeth.

HenryTudorthenmarchedtoLondonandseizedthegovernment.HebecameresponsibleforthesurvivingmembersoftheroyalfamilyofEngland,legitimateorotherwise.Whatdidhedowith them?TherewereEdwardandRichard, theillegitimate sons of Edward IV., there was Edward the legitimate son of theDukeofClarence,andnowtherightfulKingofEngland,andtherewasJohn,theillegitimatesonofRichardIII.Theyallfellintohispower,andhealonebecameanswerablefortheirlives.Thereistoomuchreasontosuspectthattheyallmetwithfoulplayathishands.

HenryTudor,onusurpingthecrownofEngland,necessarilyfoundhimselfinaverydifficultposition.Hismother'sclaim,asheiresstoanillegitimatesonofthethirdsonofEdwardIII.,wasworthlessinitself,forevenifthedescenthadbeen legitimate, shemust come after all the descendants of the second son ofEdwardIII.Moreovertheclaim,suchasitwas,hadnotyetdescendedtoHenryTudor and never did, for his mother survived him. He wisely refrained fromstatingsuchaclaimasthis,althoughheallegedavaguehereditaryrightofsome

sort,whichhedidnottrytoexplain.Thereremainedtherightofconquestwiththe aidofFrenchmercenaries, andheventured toput it forward.Buthe soonsawthathewouldhavetofindsomeotherproptosupporthisusurpation.

CharacterofHenryVII

Henry must certainly have been a man of great ability, with an acute butnarrowmind, marvellous powers of dissimulation and of self-deception, withconsiderabletactandskillinguidingandinfluencingthosearoundhim.Hewasessentially un-English.Hewas a near relation ofLouisXI., and hemade thatmeantyranthismodel.HehatedEnglishfreedom,andthatintimatecontactwiththe people which made the Plantagenets popular. He loved mystery. Hesurroundedhimselfwithanarmedguardwhichconstantlywentaboutwithhim,a thing never done before by former kings.[3] He originated a tribunal withdespotic powers, consisting of a committee of his Council, the infamous StarChamber.Heestablished'acloseandsecret,atyrannicalandoftenamostcruelgovernment.'[4] He extorted money by means of those illegal 'benevolences'which had been abolished by the patriotic Parliament of Richard III. He waspenurious,greedy,andmean.Hewas the firstEnglishKingwho increasedhisrevenueby forfeituresenforced through legalchicanery.Hebegan thepracticeof setting agents to ferret out any claimwhich the Crown couldmake, and asubservientjudgewouldaffirm.Forhelovedtheformsoflaw,whichapparentlysoothedhisconscience.Hewasverysuperstitious.Whenhisowninterestswerenotconcernedhewasnotdevoidofnaturalaffectionandherecoiledfromcrime.Yethebecamecapableofanyfouldeedifhedeemeditnecessaryforhisownsecurity.Buthemeditatedacrimeformonthsandyears,andstoodtremblingonthebrinkforalongtimebeforehesummonedupcouragetoact.Eventhenhemuchpreferredtheformsoflaw,thinkingthatifhesharedthedeedwithothers,theguiltbecamealimitedliability.

Henryhadthewisdomtoseethat,althoughhisclaimofconquestandvagueassertionofrightbydescent[5]mightservefora time,hemustestablishsomebettertitletosecureanystabilityforhisthrone.Hehadobtainedhispositionbythe favour of a treacherous faction, and was confirmed in it by a pretendedParliamentofhisadherents,manyofthemstillunderattainder.Unlikethegrandceremony ofKingRichard's coronation,when thewhole peeragewas present,thatofHenrywasverythinlyattended.Hefeltthatsomestepmustpromptlybetaken,withaviewtostrengtheninghisposition,andreconcilingthenationtohisusurpation.

TherewasElizabeth, the lateKing'sniece,whosepersonhehadsecured.IfshewasmadequeenitmightpropitiatethepowerfulYorkistparty.Butshewasillegitimate,andconsequentlyyoungWarwickwastherightfulKing.Therewasanothermore fatal difficulty, a knowledgeofwhichwas sharedwith thegirl'smother, if notwith the girl herself. All evidence of the illegitimacymight bedestroyed. Henry caused the Act of Parliament recording and legalising KingRichard'stitletobeexpunged.HeorderedtheoriginalActtoberemovedfromtheRollsandburnt.Everypersonwhopossessedacopyorremembranceofit,was commanded to deliver up the same, under a penalty of fine andimprisonment at the tyrant's pleasure.[6] Henry granted a general pardon toBishopStillington inorder to avoidprosecutinghim for theoffenceofhavingbornewitnesstotheillegitimacy.Forhefeareddiscussion.Hethentrumpedupsome other charge, threw the Bishop into prison, and that unfortunate prelatenevercameoutalive.

Butthiswasnotenough.TherewasotherworktobedonefromwhichHenrylong recoiled. Yet without its perpetration he could not safely be married toElizabeth,andtherecouldbenosecurityforhisusurpation.Indeed,hispositionwouldbe renderedevenmoreprecariousby thedestructionof theevidenceofillegitimacy.Hehadusurpedathronetoretainwhichhesawthatthecommittalofmorethanonecrimewasindispensable.

MeanwhileHenry had summoned the so-called Parliament of his outlawedadherents.Hegothisownattainderreversed.HethencausedanactofattaindertobepassedagainstthelateKingandmanyloyalnoblemenandknights,whosepropertyheseized.Hehad theeffrontery toaccuse themof treason tohim,bydating the commencement of his reign from the day previous to the battle ofBosworth. No more shameless act of injustice is recorded in the annals oftyranny.Thebitoflegalchicanerybywhichanattemptwasmadetoexcuseit,showsthecharacteroftheman.

LOYALMENWITHTHEKINGATBOSWORTH

ILLEGALATTAINDERSBYORDEROFHENRYTUDORPASSEDINTHESO-CALLEDPARLIAMENTOF1485

RichardIII.,KingofEngland,K.G.}

JohnHoward,DukeofNorfolk,K.G.}SlainatBosworth.

ThomasHoward,EarlofSurrey,K.G.PrisoneratBosworth.

FrancisViscountLovell,K.G.SlainatStoke.

WalterLordFerrers,K.G.}

JohnLordZouch.}SlainatBosworth.

SirJamesHarington.(ClerkoftheCouncil.)AtBosworth.

SirRobertHarington.AtBosworth.

SirRichardCharlton.AtBosworth.

SirRichardRatcliffe,K.G.SlainatBosworth.

SirWilliamBerkeley,K.B.(KnightoftheBathattheCoronation.)

SirRobertBrackenbury.(ConstableoftheTower.)SlainatBosworth.

SirThomasPilkington.(Brother-in-lawoftheHaringtons.)SlainatStoke.

SirRobertMiddleton.

WalterHopton,Esq.(TreasureroftheHousehold.)

WilliamCatesby,Esq.(ChancelloroftheExchequer.)MurderedatLeicester.

RogerWake,Esq.

WilliamSapcote,Esq.,ofHuntingdonshire.

HumphreyStafford,Esq.PuttodeathbyHenryVII.

WilliamClarke,Esq.,ofWenlock.

WalterSt.Germain,Esq.

WalterWatkin,Esq.(Herald.)

RichardRevell,Esq.,ofDerbyshire.

ThomasPulter,Esq.,ofKent.

JohnWelch,Esq.,otherwiseHastings.

JohnKendall,Esq.(SecretaryofState.)SlainatBosworth.

JohnBuck,Esq.(ComptrolleroftheHousehold.)MurderedatLeicester.

JohnBatte,Esq.

WilliamBrampton,Esq.,ofBurford.

(FromthePlumptonCorrespondence,p.48.)

Thisodiousmeasureoutragedthefeelingsofallpartiesinthecountry.'Therewasmanygentlemenagainstit,butitwouldnotbeforitwastheking'spleasure,'wrote Sir Robert Plumpton's correspondent from London.[7] The monk ofCroylandwrote against the outrage, exclaiming 'OGod!what security are ourkings tohavehenceforth that in thedayofbattle theymaynotbedesertedbytheirsubjectswho,actingontheawfulsummonsofakingmay,onthedeclineofthatking'sparty,asisfrequentlythecase,bebereftoflifeandfortuneandalltheir inheritance.'[8] Nor was this insult to King Richard's memory, and thelawlessrobberyofhisloyalsubjects,forgottenbythepeopleofEngland.Theywereresolvedtosecurethemselvesagainstarepetitionofsuchproceedings.Tenyears afterwards the tyrant had the mortification of being obliged to give hisassenttoanActformallycondemningtheattainderofKingRichard'sofficers.[9]

It is very significant that, although in theActofAttainderKingRichard isreviledforcrueltyandtyranny,heisnotaccusedofthemurderofhisnephews.Thisismostremarkable.HenrygotpossessionoftheToweratonce.HearrivedinLondononAugust28.Iftheyoungprincesweremissing,itiscertainthatintheActofAttaindertheusurperwouldhavepromptlyaccusedKingRichardof

havingmurderedthem.Buthedidnotdoso.Therecanonlybeoneexplanationofthisomission.Theyoungprinceswerenotmissing.

Henry'sgreatdifficulty

HerethenwasHenry'sgreatdifficulty.ThisfullyaccountsforthelongdelayinmarryingElizabeth.Hewasafraid.Hewasreadytocommitanycrimewiththeformsoflaw.HedidnotholdwithLordRussell,that'killingbyformsoflawwastheworstkindofmurder.'Butarecoursetolawwasimpossibleinthiscase.Whatever hewas to do,must be done in profound secrecy.Yet his timid andsuperstitiousnatureshrankfromacrimetheresponsibilityofwhichhecouldnotsharewithothers.Itsperpetrationhad,hesaw,becomeabsolutelynecessaryforhissecurity.Hehesitatedformonths.Allevidenceoftheillegitimacyhadbeenhiddenoutofsight.Nomandaredtomentionit.Helongstoodonthebrink.Atlengthheplungedintoguilt.HemarriedElizabethonJanuary18,1486,nearlyfivemonthsafterhisaccession.Thediewasthencast.ItbecameamatteroflifeanddeathtoHenryVII.thatthebrothersofhiswifeshouldceasetoexist.

Tudorvictims

Wemustnowapplythesametests toHenryasweappliedtoRichard.HadHenrysufficientmotiveforthecrime?Itisimpossiblethatamaninhispositioncouldhavehadastrongermotive.Hehaddeniedtheillegitimacy,andhadthusmadehiswife'sbrothershismostformidablerivals.Hecouldnot,hedarednotlet them live, unless he relinquished all he had gained. The second test weapplied toRichardwashis treatmentof thosepersonswhowere inhispower,and who were, as regards relationship, in the same position as the sons ofEdward IV. Let us apply the same test to Henry. John of Gloucester, theillegitimate son of Richard III., fell into the hands of Henry. At first the boyreceived amaintenance allowanceof20l. a year.[10]Buthewas soon thrownintoprison,onsuspicionofaninvitationhavingreachedhimtocometoIreland,and he never came out alive.[11] This 'activewell-disposed boy,'[12] as he isdescribedinthewarrantinRymer's'Foedera,'fellavictimtotheusurper'sfears.HisrighttothecrownwasatleastasgoodasthatofHenryTudor.Hewastheillegitimatesonofaking.Henrywasonlythegreat-grandsonofanillegitimatesonofayoungersonofaking.TheEarlofWarwick,whowastherightfulheirtothecrown,wasalsoinHenry'spower.Thetyranthesitatedforyearsbeforehemadeuphismindtocommitanotherfoulcrime.Buthefinallyslaughteredtheunhappy youth under circumstances of exceptional baseness and infamy, tosecure his own ends. His next supposed danger was caused by the Earl ofSuffolk,anothernephewofKingRichard.Theill-fatedprincewasdeliveredintoHenry's hands under a promise that his life should be spared. He evaded thepromisebyenjoininghissontokillthevictim.Thatsonpromptlycomplied,andfollowed up the death of Suffolk by putting five other descendants of thePlantagenetroyalfamilytodeath.TheseTudorkingscannotstandthetestsweapplied toRichard III.,whichhepassedunscathed.TheconductofRichard tothe relationswhowere under his protectionwas that of aChristian king. TheexecutionsofwhichHenryVII.andhissonwereguiltywereanimitationofthepolicyofTurkishsultans.

IftheyoungprinceswereintheTowerwhenHenrysucceeded,hisconductin analogous cases leaves no doubt of their fate. It was the fate of John ofGloucester,Warwick, Suffolk, Exeter,Montagu, Surrey,Buckingham, and theCountess of Salisbury.[13] They may not have been made away with beforeHenry'smarriage,nor forsomemonthsafterwards.The tyranthad thewillbutnotthecourage.Hehesitatedlong,asinthecaseofyoungWarwick.Forreasons

whichwillappearpresentlyitislikelythattheboysweremurdered,byorderofHenryVII.,betweenJune16andJuly16,1486,threeyearsafterthetimeallegedbytheofficialTudorhistorians.

ImprisonmentoftheQueenDowager

Then,forthefirsttime,the'commonfame'wasorderedtospreadthereportthatKingRichard 'hadput themunder suerkepyngewithin the tower, in suchwise that theynever cameabrodeafter,' and that 'KingRichardput themuntosecretedeath.'[14]ButHenry feareddetection.Themotherknew that thiswasfalse.IftheboysweremurderedinJuly1486,thatmothermustsoonhavebegunto feel uneasy. Shewas atWinchesterwith her daughterwhen her grandchildArthurwasbornonSeptember20,1486,andwaspresentatthebaptism.ButshewasinLondonintheautumn,andbeforemanymonthshersuspicionsmusthavebeen aroused. She must be silenced. Consequently, in February 1487 'it wasresolved that the Lady Elizabeth, wife of King Edward IV., should lose andforfeit all her lands and possessions because she had voluntarily submittedherselfandherdaughterstothehandsofKingRichard.Whereattherewasmuchwondering.'[15]Shewas ordered to reside in the nunnery ofBermondsey.[16]OnceshewasallowedtoappearatCourtonaStateoccasion.[17]Thepretextforherdetentionwasnottherealmotive,forHenryhadmadegrantsofmanorsandother property to his mother-in-law soon after his accession,[18] when herconductwithregard toKingRichardwasequallywellknowntohim.Therealreasonwaskeptsecret,aswellitmightbe.Mr.Gairdnercallsthisproceeding'averymysteriousdecisiontakenabouttheQueenDowager.'[19]Verymysterious,indeed,ontheassumptionofHenry'sinnocence.ButnotsoifthemotherknewthathersonswerealivewhenRichardfell,andcouldnowobtainnotidingsofthem. If the boys ceased to live in July 1486, it was high time for Henry tosilencetheawkwardquestionsoftheirmotherinthefollowingFebruary.Hedidsobycondemningher to life-long seclusion in anunnery.Henrywas terrifiedthataladywhoknewsomeofhissecrets,andprobablysuspectedmore,shouldbe at large. In the end of the following year, and not till then, Henry's wifeElizabeth was at length crowned on November 25, 1487. The King and hismotherbeheld theceremony froma stage,but there isnomentionof thepoorQueen'smother.

PolydoreVirgil'sstory

Yearspassedon.PerkinWarbeckpersonatedyoungRichard,andnoonehadsuchgoodreasonasHenryforknowingthathewasanimpostor.ButthetyrantdarednottellhowheknewthatPerkinwasa'feignedboy,'ashecalledhim.Atlength, in1502or thereabouts, thefirstdetailedstoryof themurderof the twoprinces was put forward, after the execution of Sir James Tyrrel. It may be

consideredasHenry'sofficialstatement,andwasevidentlycommunicatedtohispaidhistorianPolydoreVirgil,inwhosehandsittookthefollowingform:

'Richard lived in continual fear, for the expelling thereof by any kind ofmeans,hedeterminedbydeathtodespatchhisnephews,becausesolongastheylived he could never be out of hazard. Wherefore he sent warrant to RobertBrakenbury,LieutenantoftheTower,toprocuretheirdeathwithalldiligencebysomemeans convenient. Then he departed toYork.But theLieutenant of theTower of London, after he had received the King's horrible commission, wasastonishedwith the crueltyof the fact, and fearing lest, if he shouldobey, thesamemightonetimeorotherturntohisownharm,didthereforedeferthedoingthereofinhopethattheKingwouldsparehisownblood,ortheirtenderage,oralter that heavy determination. But any one of these points were so far fromtaking place, seeing that themind therein remained immovable, as that whenKing Richard understood the Lieutenant to make delay of that which he hadcommanded, he anon committed the charge of hastening that slaughter untoanother, that is to say James Tyrrel, who, being forced to do the King'scommandment,rodesorrowfullytoLondon,andtotheworstexamplethathathbeenalmosteverheardof,murderedthosebabesoftheissueroyal.ThisendhadPrinceEdwardandRichardhisbrother,butwithwhatkindofdeaththesesillychildrenwereexecutedisnotcertainlyknown.'

Thiswas thestoryput forwardbyHenryafterTyrrel'sdeath.Hemayhaveaddedsomeotherparticularsafterwards.[20]Itisindeedprobablethathedid.Amuch more detailed fable appeared in the history attributed to More, and inGrafton,bothbythesamehand.Ithasbeenseenalreadythatthestatementsofthiswriterareunworthyofcredit,anditisverydifficulttodistinguishwhatpartswere authorised by Henry,[20] and what parts were fabricated by the writerhimself.Hisstoryisasfollows:

'At the time when Sir James Tyrrel and John Dighton were in prison fortreason in 1502, they made the following confession. Taking his way toGloucester inAugust1483,KingRichardsentoneJohnGreenwitha letter toSirRobertBrakenbury,ConstableoftheTower,orderinghimtoputthechildrentodeath.SirRobertplainlyansweredthathewouldnotputthemtodeath;withwhich answer John Green returning, recounted the same to King Richard atWarwick.

'ThesamenighttheKingsaidtoasecretpageofhis,"WhoshallItrusttodo

mybidding?""Sir,"quoththepage,"thereliethoneonyourpalletwithoutwhoIdarewell saywilldoyourGrace'spleasure, the thingswere righthard thathewouldrefuse."ThiswasSirJamesTyrrel,whosawwithenvythatRatcliffeandCatesbywere risingabovehim inhismaster's favour.Goingout toSir James,whowas reposingwith his brotherThomas, theKing said "what Sirs are youabedsosoon?"then,callingSirJamesintohischamber,hebraketohimsecretlyhismindinthismischievousmatter.Tyrrelassented,andwasdespatchedonthemorrowwitha letter toBrakenbury, todeliver toSirJamesall thekeysof theTower for one night. After which letter delivered and the keys received, SirJames appointed the night next ensuing to destroy them, devising before andpreparing themeans.The princeswere in charge ofWill Slaughter (orSlater)called "BlackWill,"whowas set to serve them and see them sure. Sir JamesTyrrel devised that they should be murdered in their beds; to the executionwhereof he appointedMiles Forest, one of the four who kept them, a fellowflesh-bred in murder before time. To him he joined his horse-keeper, JohnDighton, abig, broad, square, strongknave.They smothered the children, andTyrrelordered themurderers tobury themat thestair foot,metelydeep in theground,underagreatheapofstones.ThenrodeSirJamesingreathastetoKingRichard, and shewed him all the manner of the murder, who gave him greatthanks,andassomesay,thenmadehimknight.ButtheKingallowednottheirburialinsovileacorner,becausetheywereKing'ssons.WhereuponapriestofSirRobertBrakenburytookthemandsecretlyinterredtheminsuchaplaceas,bytheoccasionofhisdeathwhichonlyknewittheverytruthcouldneveryetbeverywellknown.VerytruthisitandwellknownthatatsuchtimeasSirJamesTyrrelwasintheTowerfortreason,committedagainstKingHenryVII.,bothheandDightonwereexaminedtogetherofthispoint,andboththeyconfessedthemurder to be done in the samemanner as you have heard.God never gave amore notable example of what wretched end ensueth such despiteous cruelty.MilesForestatSt.Martin-le-Grandpiecemealmiserablyrottedaway.SirJamesTyrrel died on Tower Hill. Dighton, indeed, yet walketh alive, in goodpossibilitytobehangederehedie.'Graftonsays: 'JohnDightonlivedatCalaislongafter,no lessdisdainedandhated thanpointedat, and theredied ingreatmisery.'TheversioninKennet[21]makesboth'DightonandForestdieinamosthorriblemanner,rottingawaybydegrees.''Thus,asIhavelearnedofthemthatmuchkneweandlittlecausehadtolyewerethesetwoprincesmurdered.'Thislast sentence is audacious. These informers, if they ever existed outside thewriter's imagination,hadverystrongcauseto lie.Theythuscompliedwith thewishes of the reigning powers, and furthered their own interests. The truth, iftheyknewit,wouldhavebeentheirruin.

ThestorypublishedbyRastell

Suchisthedetailedaccusationwhichwasfinallyputforward.ItcontradictsthestoryofMorton,inhisallegedconversationwithBuckingham,whosaysthatthe princesweremurdered long before theKing reachedWarwick, andwhileBuckinghamwas still atCourt.On the faceof it there isnoconfession in thislongstory.Itisaconcoctedtale,and,indeed,thisisfullyadmitted.Itismerelyrepresentedtobethemostprobableamongseveralotherswhichwerebasedonvariousaccountsof theallegedconfession. If thereeverwasaconfessionwhyshouldtherebevariousaccountsofit?ThesilenceofFabyan,andofPolydoreVirgil, who must have heard of the confession if it had been made, seemsconclusiveagainstthetruthofthestoryofaconfession.

Eventhisselectedtale,aswehavereceivedit,isfullofgrossimprobabilitiesandinaccuracies.Forinstance,Tyrrel,whoissaidtohavebeenknightedforthemurder,hadbeenaknightfortwelveyears,andwasalsoaKnightBanneretofsomestanding.[22]Thefirst thingthatstrikesoneis that, if thestoryhadbeentrue,HenrymusthaveheardthemainfactswhenhecametoLondon,afterthebattleofBosworth.ForSirRobertBrackenbury'ssupersessionduringoneday,withthedeliveryofallthekeystoSirJamesTyrrel,mustinevitablyhavebeenknown tohis subordinates.All theofficialsof theTowermusthaveknown it,andmust also have known that the boys disappeared at the same time.Manypersonsmusthavebeenacquaintedwithwhathappened.Someof themwouldcertainly have been eager to gain favourwithHenry by telling him,when heenquired about the missing princes. Yet there is no accusation in the Act ofAttainderagainstRichardorTyrrel,anditispretendedthatnothingwasknownuntil1502.Thisprovesthatthestorywasasubsequentfabrication.

There is another proof that the talewas false. It is alleged that Tyrrel andDighton both confessed. Yet Tyrrel was beheaded for another offence indefianceofHenry'splightedword,andDightonwasrewardedwitharesidenceatCalais and, aswill be seen presently, a sinecure in Lincolnshire. These areproofsthattherewasnosuchconfessionaswasallegedandwasembodiedinthestorywhich,asitnowstands,mustbeafabrication.Foriftheconfessionswereever made, Tyrrel and Dightonmust have been tried and convicted for theseatrociousmurders, and duly punished. It has been suggested thatTyrrel couldnotbeproceededagainstbecausehisstatementwasunderthesealofconfession.Itisclearfromthestorythatthiswasnotso.ThestorytellsusthatTyrreland

Dightonwere subjected to examination, and that it was in thatway that theirconfessionswereobtained.InpointoffactDightondoesnotappeartohavebeenarrestedatall.ThenamesofthosewhowereconcernedinTyrrel'sbusinessaregivenbythechroniclers,andDightonisnotoneofthem.[23]

It seems unnecessary to dwell on the absurdities and contradictions in thestoryitself.Theyhaveoftenbeenexposed,andindeedtheyareadmittedbyMr.Gairdner,whomerelycontendsthatthestorymaybetrueinthemain,althoughthedetailsmaynotbecorrect.ButitisworthwhiletorefertothecontentionofSharonTurner,Lingard and others, that the storymust be true, on the groundthatthepersonsmentionedinitwererewardedbyKingRichard.

Allegedrewardstomurderers

They maintain that 'Brakenbury and Tyrrel received several grants, Greenwas made receiver of the Isle of Wight and of the castle and lordship ofPorchester,Dightonwas appointedBailiff of themanor ofAyton, Forestwaskeeper of thewardrobe at Barnard Castle.' But it is not pretended that 'BlackWill'wasrewardedbyRichard.WeshallpresentlyseethathewasbyHenry.Allthis can easily be answered. Brackenbury and Tyrrel wereYorkist officers ofrank,andsuchgrantswouldhavebeenmadeto theminanycircumstancesfortheirdistinguishedservices.Asregards theothers,either thegrantsweremadeprevious to the alleged date of the murders, or there is no evidence to showwhethertheyweremadebeforeorafter,orinanywaytoconnectthemwiththecrime.ThestatementthatGreenheldthereceivershipsoftheIsleofWightandPorchester is derived from an entirely unsupported note by Strype.[24] Therewas a man named Green who was Comptroller of Customs at Boston, andanother who was appointed to provide horse meat and litter for the King'sstables.But thedatesof theseappointmentswereJuly24and30,1483,beforetheallegeddateofthemurders.

AmannamedDightonwasmadeBailiffofthemanorofAyton[25];butthereis nothing to show that this appointmentwas after themurder, or that hewasTyrrel's horse keeper, or that Tyrrel ever had a groom of that name. It willpresentlybeseenthattheJohnDightonofthemurderwasprobablyaclergymanandnotagroom.

ItisallegedofMilesForestthathewasoneoffourjailersintheTowerwhohadchargeoftheprinces,thathewasaprofessionalmurderer,andthatherottedaway miserably, in sanctuary at St. Martin's-le-Grand. These assertions arecertainlyfalse.MilesForestwaskeeperofthewardrobeatBarnardCastle[26]inthevalleyoftheTeesinDurham,244milesfromtheTowerofLondon.Therehe lived with his wife Joan and his son Edward. A footman serving atMiddlehamCastle,namedHenryForest,wasperhapsanotherson.[27]Thereisnot the slightest reason forbelieving thatForest entereduponhis appointmentafterthedateoftheallegedmurders;butmuchtodisprovethisassumption.Hedied inSeptember1484, and, as hiswife and son received a pension for theirlives,hemusthavebeenanoldandfaithfulservantwhohadheldtheofficeformanyyears.

Dr. Lingard suggests that the pensionwas granted because Forest held the

post for such a short time, assuming that hewas one of themurderers in thestory. This is certainly a very odd reason for granting a pension![28] SomeauthorshavethoughtthatitwasBaynard'sCastle,theresidenceoftheDuchessofYorkinLondon,whereForestwaskeeperofthewardrobe.Butthenamesinthemanuscriptarequiteclear.

MilesForestwasa responsibleoldofficial ina royalcastle, livingwithhiswife and grown-up sons in the far north of England; where he died and hisfamilyreceivedapensionforhis longservice.Weareaskedtobelievethathewas,atthesametime,anotoriousmurdererwhowasalsoajailerintheTowerofLondon,andthathediedinsanctuaryatSt.Martin's-le-Grand.

Genesisofthestory

How Forest's name got into the story concocted from the pretendedconfessionitisnotpossible,atthisdistanceoftime,tosurmise.Buttheauthorofitwasquiteunscrupulous,andtheaboveconsiderationsjustifytheconclusionthatForest'snamewasusedwithoutanyregardfortruth.Therewasadesiretogivenamesandotherdetails inordertothrowanairofverisimilitudeoverthefable.WeseethesameattemptintheuseofthenameofDighton.HewasnotTyrrel'shorse-keeper,norprobably theactualmurderer,butadifferentperson,aswillbeseenpresently.ButtherewasaJohnDightonlivingatCalaiswhenthestorywasmadeup,whowasknowntobeconnected,insomemysteriousway,with the disappearance of the princes. So the author of the story hit upon hisnametododutyasastrongsquareknavewhodidthedeed.ThenameofForestwas doubtless adopted owing to some similar chance. The name of neitherDeighton nor Forest occurs in the authorised version as given by PolydoreVirgil.

HenryatfirstonlyaccusedTyrrelofthemurders;butitseemslikelythathesubsequently put forward some further details. There is an indication of theGreenepisodeinPolydoreVirgil.ItisthereforeprobablethatitwassanctionedbyHenry'sauthority,aswellasthedetailsrespectingtheintermentofthebodies.All the rest aboutDightonandForest, and themode inwhich their crimewascommitted, is an impudent fabrication, as regards Richard, based upon theauthorised story which is given by Polydore Virgil. The Italian was suppliedwiththestatementsanctionedbyHenry,andhedistinctlytellsusthatthemodeofdeathwasnotdivulged.

Ifthemodeofdeathwasnotdivulged,theallegedconfessionofTyrrelandDighton cannot have taken place. For this is the very thing they would haveconfessed.

Thereremainsacircumstantialstorywhichmayreallyhavebeenconnectedwithasecrettragedy.Ithasaverysuspiciouslookofhavingbeenparodiedoutof something which actually happened. It is unlikely to have been pureinvention.ThefearofdetectionmusthavebeenalwayshauntingHenry'smind.Hewouldbe torturedwith theapprehensionthat thevaguerumourshehadsetafloat againstRichardwere not believed; and thiswould be an inducement topromulgateamoredetailedandcircumstantialstory.HecouldnotanddarednotaccuseTyrrelwhilehewasalive,forareasonwhichwillappeardirectly,butas

soonashewasdeaditwouldbesafe todoso.At the timewhenhegotridofTyrrelhissonArthurhadjustdied.Theman'smindwouldbefilledwithfearofretributive justice. Then the terror of detection would increase upon him. Hewould long to throw off suspicion from himself, by somethingmore decisivethanvaguerumour.Thenotionofimputinghisowncrime,initsrealdetails,tohispredecessor,isquiteinkeepingwiththeworkingsofasubtleandingeniousmind such aswe knowHenry's to have been.Hence, Tyrrel,Green,Dighton,BlackWill,mayhavebeentheaccomplicesofHenryVII.,notofRichardIII.AssoonasTyrrelwasdisposedof,thecircumstantialstorymightbedivulgedashisconfession,merelysubstituting thenameofRichard for thatofHenry,and thenameofBrackenburyforthatofDaubeney.[29]

Murderoftheprinces

Withthiscluetoguideus,letusseewhatlightcanstillbethrownonthedarkquestionofthemurders.SirJamesTyrrelofGippinghadbeenaknightofsomedistinction.HehadbeenonacommissionforexercisingtheofficeofLordHighConstableunderEdwardIV.HehadbeenMasteroftheHorseandwascreatedaKnight Banneret at Berwick siege. King Richard made him Master of theHenchmenandconferredmanyfavoursonhim.Buthewasnotoneofthegoodmenand truewho stoodby their sovereign to the end.Hisnamedropsout ofhistoryduring those last anxiousmonthsbeforeBosworth.Hewasnodoubt atrimmer.ButhecouldnotescapetheconsequencesofhislongserviceundertheYorkist kings. Henry Tudor deprived him of his Chamberlainship of theExchequer, and of his Constableship of Newport, in order to bestow thoseappointments on his own friends.[30] Tyrrel had towait patiently in the coldshade.Buthewasambitious,unscrupulous,andreadytodoagreatdealforthesakeof thenewKing'sfavour.HerewasareadyinstrumentforsuchamanasHenryTudor.

The die had been cast. The usurper had married Elizabeth of York andenteredupontheyear1486.Therewasadarkdeedwhichmustbedone.Henrysetoutonaprogress toYork, leavingLondon in themiddleofMarch.On the11thof the samemonth, JohnGreen received from thenewKingagrantof athirdofthemanorofBenyngtoninHertfordshire.[31]ForthisfavourGreenhad,nodoubt,toperformsomesecretservicewhich,ifsatisfactorilyexecuted,wouldbemorefullyrewarded.Thisgrantwasasmallretainingfee.Weknowfromthestorywhat that servicewas.We also know from the story thatGreen did notsucceed.HenryVII.returnedfromhisprogressinJune,onlytofindthatGreenhadfailedhiminhisneed.ThenHenry(notRichard)maywellhaveexclaimed'WhoshallItrusttodomybidding?''"Sir,"quothasecretcouncillor'[32](calledapageinthestory),'"therewaitethwithoutonewhoIdarewellsaywilldoyourGrace's pleasure." So Tyrrelwas taken into favour, and undertook to performHenry'sworkwiththeunderstandingthathewastoreceiveasufficientreward.HebecameaknightoftheKing'sbody.[33]OnJune16,1486,SirJamesTyrrellateofGippingreceivedageneralpardon.[34]Thereisnothingextraordinaryinthis. It was an ordinary practice, in those days, to grant general pardons onvarious occasions.But itmarks the datewhenHenry found 'onewithout'whowasreadytodohispleasure.Tyrrel,asthestorytellsus,wasgivenawarranttotheLieutenantoftheTower,conferringonhimtheneedfulpowers.Themurders

were then committed, as the story informsus, byWilliamSlaughter orSlater,called'BlackWill,'withtheaidofJohnDighton.Slaterwas,nodoubt,thejailer.MasterDighton,however,wasnotTyrrel'sgroom.AJohnDightonwasapriest,andpossiblyachaplainintheTower.Hemayhavebeenonlyanaccessoryafterthe fact, in connexion with the interments. The bodies, as we are told in thestory,wereburiedatthestairfoot,'metelydeepintheground';wheretheywerediscoveredinJuly1674,[35]188yearsafterwards.Thetaleabouttheirremoval,[36]andthedeathofthepriest,wasnodoubtinsertedbyHenry,topreventthatdiscovery.OnJuly16,1486,SirJamesTyrrelreceivedasecondgeneralpardon.[37] This would be very singular under ordinary circumstances, the secondpardonhavingbeengrantedwithinamonthofthefirst.Butitisnotsosingularwhen we reflect on what probably took place in the interval. There was anoffencetobecondonedwhichmustbekeptaprofoundsecret.ThusweareabletofixthetimeofthemurderofthetwoyoungprincesbetweenJune16andJuly16,1486.Onewasfifteenandahalf,theothertwelveyearsofage.

Relationssilenced

Henry had at length found courage to commit the crime. He may haveexcused it to himself from the absolute necessity of his position. It had beenperpetrated in profound secrecy. If the mother, brother, or sisters suspectedanything, they could be silenced. They were absolutely at his mercy. Henrycaused the mother to be stripped of her property, immured in Bermondseynunnery, and left dependent on him for subsistence. She was thus effectuallysilenced. The Marquis of Dorset, half brother of the murdered boys, wascommittedtotheTowerduring1487;buthesucceededinconvincingthetyrantthattherewasnothingtofearfromhim,andwaseventuallyreleased.Theeldestsister was Henry's wife and at his mercy—the wife of a man who, as hisadmirersmildly put it, 'was not uxorious.' Shewaswithin twomonths of herconfinement.Doubtlessforthatreasonhermotherkeptallmisgivingstoherself.Henrymarried the next sister, Cicely, to his old uncle LordWelles,[38] whowould ensure her silence. She was married in that very year, and sent off toLincolnshire. The three youngest were children, and in due time could bemarriedtohisadherents,orshutupinanunnery.[39]Otherswhoknewmuch,andmusthavesuspectedmore,weresilentinpublic,fortheirfortunes,perhapstheirlives,dependedontheirsilence.

Yettheguiltytyrantcouldhaveknownnopeace.Hemusthavebeenhauntedby the fear of detection, however industriously he might cause reports to bespreadandhistoriestobewritten,inwhichhispredecessorwaschargedwithhiscrimes.Thentherewasthehorrorofhavingtodealwithhisaccomplices.Herefortune favouredhim.Greendied in the endof 1486[40]; thoughhushmoneyseemstohavebeenpaidto'BlackWill'forsometimelonger.[41]JohnDightonwas presented by Henry VII. with the living of Fulbeck near Grantham, inLincolnshire,onMay2,1487.[42]ButhewasexpectedtoliveontheothersideoftheChannel.SirJamesTyrrelreceivedamplerecompense.HeseemstohavebeenappointedtotheofficeofConstableofGuisnesimmediatelyafterthedateof his second general pardon.[43] He was next sent as ambassador toMaximilian,KingoftheRomans, toconcludeaperpetual leagueandtreaty.In1493TyrrelwasoneoftheCommissionersfornegotiatingtheTreatyofEtapleswithFrance. InAugust1487hereceivedagrant for lifeof theStewardshipoftheKing'sLordshipofOgmoreinWales.ButHenry,althoughhewasobligedtoreward his accomplices, was anxious to keep them on the other side of theChannel as much as possible. Dighton had to reside at Calais. Tyrrel was

required tomakeanexchange,givinguphisestates inWales to theKing,andreceiving revenues from the county of Guisnes of equal value.[44] In 1498Henrystilladdressedhimashiswell-belovedandfaithfulcouncillor.

ArrestofTyrrel

The long-sought pretext for getting rid of Tyrrel was found in 1502. TheusurperdreadedtheEarlofSuffolk,KingRichard'snephew,asaclaimanttothethrone. He heard that Tyrrel had favoured the escape of the ill-fated youngprincetoGermany.HenrywouldbeterrifiedattheideaofTyrreltakingthesideofanotherclaimant,andpubliclydenouncinghismisdeeds.Heorderedthearrestofhisaccomplice,butTyrrelrefusedtosurrenderthecastleofGuisnes.Hewasbesieged by the whole garrison of Calais. Henry then ordered Dr. Fox, theBishopofWinchesterandLordPrivySeal,oneofhismostintimateassociates,tosendapromiseundertheprivyseal,totheeffectthatTyrrelshouldcomeandgoinsecurityifhewouldconferwithSirThomasLovell,Henry'sChancelloroftheExchequer,onboardashipatCalais.Tyrrelshouldhaveknownhismasterbythistime.ButevenhehadnotgaugedthefulldepthofTudorperfidy.Hewasdeceivedbythe'pulchrisverbis'ofBishopFox.[45]Whenhecameonboardhewastoldthathewouldbepitchedoverboardunlesshesentatokentohissontodeliverupthecastle.Thetokenwassent,andtheKing'spromiseunderhisprivysealwas broken. Tyrrelwas safely locked up in a dungeon of the Tower andbeheadedwithouttrialandingreathasteonMay6,1502.

At length Henry could breathe freely. Green and Tyrrel were dead. Slaterdoesnot appear again, so itmaybe assumed thathe alsohadbeengot ridof.Only Dighton remained. He had to reside at Calais on the proceeds of hissinecure in Lincolnshire, and to be useful as a false witness.We know fromRastell and Grafton that he did live and die at Calais. The identity of namessuggests theprobability thathewasabrotheror sonof theJohnDightonwhowasBailiffofAytonManor.

The story told in the publications of Grafton and Rastell was generallyaccepted as true; although, even after the lapse of somany years, theremusthavebeenmanyoldpeoplewhoknewittobefalse.Thesepeoplehadthechoicebetweensilenceandruin.Astheydiedoff,thebeliefinthestorybecamemoreandmoreuniversal.Thisfable,appearingfirstinGrafton,wasthefinaltouchtothe hideous and grotesque caricature which was portrayed by the TudorhistoriansanddramatisedbyShakespeare.Thehistoryofitsreceptioninallitsabsurdandimprobabledetails,oftheineradicableprejudicewhichcouldkeepitaliveforfourcenturies,andlongaftersoundmethodsofcriticismhadbeguntobeappliedtootherhistoricalquestions,formsacuriouschapterintherecordof

humancredulity.

DeathoftheEarlofWarwick

Henry Tudor suffered for his crimes. The secret removal of his wife'sbrothers andofheruncle's illegitimate son failed to complete thecatalogueofthem.YoungEdwardEarlofWarwickwasanotherstumblingblockinhisway.But again his superstitious mind recoiled from guilt which his judgmentrecommended.Ifhiswifehadbeenlegitimate,therewouldhavebeennodangerto Henry from the Earl of Warwick; that young prince would have been farremoved from the succession. His wife's illegitimacy made her cousin therightful heir, and hence another crime seemed necessary. Henry put off theperpetration of this crime for years. Ferdinand of Spain refused to allow amarriagebetweenhisdaughterandHenry'ssonArthur,untiltherightfulheirtothecrownofEnglandhadbeenputoutof theway.Thisrefusalat lengthgaveHenry a motive for the crime which outweighed his superstitious fears. Hecommitted it in awaywhichwas thoroughly characteristic.He caused PerkinWarbecktobegivenaccesstotheEarlofWarwickintheTower,andsomeofthejailersweretoldtosuggestanattemptatescape.Aninformer,namedRobertCleymound,wasemployedtolistentotheconversationsofthetwolads,andtoreport that an escapewasmeditated by them.Thiswasmade a capital chargeagainsttheyoungprince.Hewassubjectedtoamocktrial,sothatHenrymightindulgeinhishopeoflimitedliabilityformurder,andwasthenslaughteredonNovember 28, 1499.Amanwhowas capable of committing such a cowardlymurderinsuchawaywascertainlyascapableofthecrimeofwhichhefalselyaccusedKingRichard.

AssoonasRichardIII.wasdead,EdwardEarlofWarwickbecamedejureKingofEngland,notonlyastheacknowledgedheirtothedeadKingbutalsoasthenearestinsuccession,andasthelastmalePlantagenet.Hisexistencewas,atthattime,aseriousdangertotheusurper,whodidnotloseadayinsecuringthepoor lad's person. If, as Henry afterwards caused it to be proclaimed, thedeclarationoftheillegitimacyofthechildrenofEdwardIV.wasfalse,thentheEarlofWarwickceasedtobedangerous;andtherewasnoobjectincondemninghimtoperpetualimprisonment.Itwasauselessactofinjusticeandcruelty.Butif Henry knew that, in spite of his attempts to destroy all evidence of theillegitimacy,theawkwardfactremained,hisinjusticeandcrueltyareexplained.TheyaffordonemoreproofofthetruthofDr.Stillington'sevidence,whichledtotheaccessionofKingRichard.

Warwickwasnowputoutoftheway,inobediencetotheKingofSpain.Butremorse gnawed the tyrant's heart. His father confessor, though doubtless anastute courtier, failed to soothe his conscience.He sought the help ofwizardsand quacks. But his superstitions gave him little consolation. The SpanishAmbassadornoticedthechangethathadtakenplaceinHenry'sappearancesincethemurderofyoungWarwick.DonPedrodeAyalahadbeeninScotlandduringthe interval. TheKing had come to lookmany years older in a singlemonth.Darkthoughtswerehauntinghismind.Hiseldestsondied,andananonymouswriter has recorded that he showed some feeling, and exchanged words ofconsolation with his wife.[46] This is quite in keeping with one side of hischaracter.TheothersideisshowninhisharshtreatmentofCatharineofAragon,in his monstrous proposal tomarry her when his wife died, in his disgustinginquiriesrespectingtheyoungQueenofNaples,andinhisrevoltingofferforthehandofJuana(la loca).But thenecessitiesofhispositiongavehimlittle timefor the indulgence either of such grief as hewas capable of feeling or of theotherlesscreditablesentimentsthatarerevealedinhiscorrespondence.Hisson'sdeathmusthaveseemedtohimtheNemesisofhiscrimes.Yetwithinamonthhe was beheading Tyrrel, and fabricating a story to account for thedisappearanceofhiswife'sbrothers.

Wecanneverknowhowmuchthatwifesuffered.Nodoubtshewaskeptinignoranceofthefateofherbrothers.Butsheknewtheywerenotkilledbyheruncle.Shesawhermotherimmuredinanunneryforlife.Shesawherbrother,theMarquisofDorset,committedtotheTower.Shesawthesister,nearesttoherin age, hurriedlymarried to oldLordWelles. Shemust have suspectedmuch,evenifsheknewnothing.Shecouldnothavebeenkeptinignoranceofthecruelimprisonment of her young cousinWarwick. Shemust have shuddered at hismurder. She would have been less than human if she did not loathe theperpetratorof thesedeeds, even thoughhewas the fatherofher children.Theunhappy wife was released from companionship with the murderer of herrelationsonFebruary11,1503.

DeathoftheEarlofSuffolk

Another crime was contemplated by the miserable usurper, to make hispositionsafe.ButhecouldnotgettheEarlofSuffolkintohisclutcheswithoutgivingasolemnpromisetosparehislife.Heevadedthepromisebyadvisinghisson to commit the crimeafterhisdeath.[47]Murderousdesigns thusoccupiedhismind,evenonhisdeath-bed.

YetoneofHenry's lastactswasanactof restitution.He restored inblood,and to all his estates, the sonofhis accomplice,Sir JamesTyrrel, onApril 6,1507,feelingnodoubtthatthegreatercriminalofthetworemainedunpunished,exceptbyhisownremorsefulconscience.

Henrybecamehaggardandrestless.Prosperousandsuccessfulas theworlddeemed him, we may rely upon it that his crimes were not unpunished. Hiscowardlynaturewaspeculiarlysusceptibletothetorturingpangsofremorse.Hedied,fullofterrors,prematurelyoldandwornout,attheearlyageoffifty-two,on April 21, 1509. He was successful as the world counts success. Heaccumulated riches by plunder and extortion. He established a despoticgovernment.Heclearedhispathofrivals.Wearetoldthatheinauguratedanewera—eraof'benevolences'andStarChamberprosecutions.Inallthesethingshesucceeded.He, and thewritersheemployed,werepre-eminently successful asslanderers. They succeeded in blackening for all time the fame of a far bettermanthanHenryTudor.

Thingsunexplained

Hitherto we have been engaged in the investigation of positive evidence.Thereis,however,anothersidetothequestion—anegativeside.Wemustnowexamine Henry's omissions. According to his story he found the two boysmissingwhenhearrivedinLondonafterthebattleofBosworth.IfHenry'sstorywas true, itmusthavebeenwellknowntoeveryofficial in theTower thatSirRobertBrackenburygaveupcharge toSir JamesTyrreland that theboyshadneverbeenseensince.IfHenrymadeanyenquirieshemusthaveheardthis,andthewhole storywould have come out.Whywere notTyrrel,Dighton,Green,andBlackWillarrested,tried,andhanged?WhywasnotKingRichardaccusedofmurderinghisnephewsintheActofAttainder?Itisveryimprobable,thoughjustpossible, thatHenrymighthavefailed toascertain thedetailsof thestory,assuming it to have been true, when he first arrived. Still, if the boys weremissing,itiscertainthathewouldhaveaccusedRichardoftheirmurderintheAct ofAttainder.His omission to do so amounts to a strong presumption thattheywerenotmissing.Accordingtothestory,TyrrelandDightonconfessedthemurder in1502.Whywere theynot triedandexecuted for it?Thismusthavebeendoneifthereeverwasaconfession.Itwasclearlynotmadeunderthesealof confession, according to the story, but under the pressure of officialexamination.Tyrrelwasactuallybeheaded,ingreathaste,onafrivolouscharge,and his capture was a breach of a royal promise given under the privy seal.Surelythiswouldhavebeenavoidediftherehadbeenanyotherway,andtherewas another way. There was every possible reason for trying him for thesehorriblemurdersandexecutinghimforthem.Whywasnotthisdone?Therecanbeonlyoneanswer.Therewasnoconfession.Henry's treatmentofDighton isstillmoreextraordinary.It isallegedthathealsoconfessedthemurder.Yethewasnotonlyunpunished,butallowed to liveat large inCalais.Whenwefindthat Henry gave rewards to Tyrrel, Dighton, Green, and Black Will, theconclusion is inevitable that there was no confession to the King in 1502,becauseitwasquiteunnecessary.TheconfessionwasduefromHenryhimself.

AnotheromissioninHenry'sconductisequallyincriminating.IfthechildrenofEdwardIV.were legitimate,whywasnot theActofRichardIII.published,which alleged their illegitimacy, and its falsehood fully exposed by evidence?Whywassuchextraordinaryanxietyshowntoconcealitscontents,andviolencethreatenedagainstanyonewhopreserveda recordof them?Whywereabsurd,improbable, and contradictory tales invented, in substitution of the statements

madeinRichard'sAct?Therecanbeonlyoneanswer.ThestatementsintheActweretrue.

InnootherwaycanHenry'scrueltreatmentoftheyoungEarlofWarwickbeaccountedfor.IfElizabethwasthelegitimateheiressofYork,thentherecouldbenodangerfromWarwick,andnoreasonformolestinghim.Hewassimplyaharmless youngprince, far removed from the succession.But ifElizabeth andhersisterswerenotlegitimate,thecasewasverydifferent.WarwickwasthendejureEdwardV.Therewaseveryreasonforausurpertoimprisonandkillhim.TheLambertSimnel insurrection isexplained in thatcase. ItwouldhavebeenwithoutmotiveifWarwickcameafterfiveothersinthesuccessiontothecrown.Here againHenry's conduct can only be explained in oneway.Warwickwasimprisoned and killed for the same reason that Richard's Act of Parliament,declaringhistitle,wasdestroyed.

The conduct of Henry adds weight to all the other evidence. It cannot bereconciledwithhisinnocence.Itcanonlybeexplainedbyhisguilt.

[1] William Catesby was the son of Sir William Catesby of Ashby St. Leger inNorthamptonshire,byPhilippa,heiressofSirWilliamBishopston.Hewasalearnedman,wellversedinthelawsofhiscountry.OnJune30,1483,hebecomeChancelloroftheExchequer,andwaschosenSpeakerofKingRichard'sParliament.LordRivershadsuchconfidence inhis integrity thathenominatedhimexecutorofhiswill.Hiswife was Margaret, daughter of William Lord Zouch. He made his own will onAugust25,1485,leavinghiswifesoleexecutrixanddividinghispropertyamonghischildren.HisunjustattainderwasafterwardsreversedinfavourofhissonGeorge.

[2] Yet Dr. Lingard tells us that 'Henry was careful not to stain his triumph withblood.'Thisisastrangeassertion,whenitisdirectlyfollowedbytheadmissionthathe did stain his triumphwith blood.Of all his prisoners,' he continues, 'three onlysuffereddeath,thenotorious[whynotorious?]CatesbyandtwopersonsofthenameofBrecher,whoprobably hadmerited that distinction by their crimes' (iv. p. 260).This is a pure assumption, unwarranted by any evidence whatever. If the word'loyalty' had been substituted for 'crimes,' Dr. Lingard would have been nearer thetruth. All that this historian's praise amounts to is that Henry refrained fromcommittingamassacre,suchashecausedtobeperpetratedonasubsequentoccasion,whenWarbeck'sfollowerslandedinKent.

Mr.Gairdnersays:'Whethertheseexecutionswerejustisanotherquestion,savethattheministersofabadkingmust take the responsibilityevenofhisworstdeeds' (p.311).He evidently sees thatHenry's conduct is indefensible; and he has elsewhereadmittedthatRichardwasnotabadKing.

ThemoreimpartialHuttonsays:'ThusthefirstregalactperformedbyHenrywasanactoftyranny'(Bosworth,p.148).

[3]'FormenremembernotanyKingofEnglandbeforethattymewhichusedsuchafurnitureofdailysoldiers.'—Hall,p.425.

[4]Gairdner.

[5]'DejurebellietdejureLancastriæ.'

[6]Rot.Parl.vi.289a.ThemonkofCroylandhadacopy,butluckilyforhim,hewasnotfoundout.

[7]PlumptonCorrespondence.LetterdatedDecember13,1485(p.49).

[8]TranslationbyMr.GairdnerinhisHenryVII.(p.38).

[9]11HenryVII.cap.1(1496).ItwasenactedthatnopersonservingtheKingandSovereignLordofthelandforthetimebeingshallbeconvictedofhightreason,norsufferanyforfeitureorimprisonment.Inthepreviousyeartheusurper,alsonodoubtfrom fear of public opinion, had paid 10l. 1s. to JamesKeyley for King Richard'stomb(Excerp.Hist.p.105).

[10]GranttoJohnofGloucesterofanannualrentof20l.duringtheKing'spleasure,fromtherevenuesofthemanorofKingstonLacey,parceloftheDuchyofLancasterin the county of Dorset. March 1 1486.—Materials for a History of the Reign ofHenryVII.i.

[11]'Aboutthesametimetherewasabase-bornsonofKingRichardIII.madeaway,havingbeenkept long inprison.'—Buck,p.105, fromChron.MS. in4to. apudDr.Rob.Cotton.

[12]Rymer,xii.p.265.

[13]Acritic, after reading thiswork,objected thatpartialitywas shownby the factthat while the older writers are blamed for blackening Richard's character in otherways,inordertomakethechargeofmurderingtheprincesmoreplausible,preciselythe same thing is done with Henry VII. But the other charges against Henry areproved and acknowledged facts. Those against Richard have been disproved. Theolderwritersarejustlyblamedforinventingcalumnies.

[14]Fabyan.

[15] Polydore Virgil. Lord Bacon observes, in his Life of Henry VII., 'whichproceeding,beingevenat that time taxed for rigorousandunduemakes itprobabletherewas some greatermatter against her, which theKing, upon reason of policy,wouldnotpublish.'Undoubtedly,therewas;sheknewtoomuch.

[16] Dr. Lingard (iv. 279 and 286n) and Nicolas (p. lxxviii) bring forward anegotiationwiththeKingofScots,inNovember1487,inwhichHenryproposedthatJamesIII.shouldmarrytheQueenDowager,asaproofthatheneverdeprivedherofliberty.Ifhesuspectedher,theyargue,hewouldnothavegivenhertheopportunityof

plottingagainsthim,whichhersituationasQueenofScotlandwouldhaveaffordedher.AlthoughHenrymayhavemomentarily entertained the ideaofgetting ridof awomanwhoknewtoomuchbythisexpatriation,hesoonchangedhismind.Shewassafer in his power. The negotiations were broken off, and Jameswas killed in thefollowingyear.

[17]ShewaspresentwhenherdaughtergaveaudiencetotheFrenchAmbassadorinNovember1489(LelandColl. iv.249).Henryallowedherapensionof400l.ayearfromFebruary19,1490.Herwill,datedApril10,1492,iswitnessedbytheAbbotofBermondsey.Shehereconfirmsthefactoftheseizureofherpropertybyherson-in-law.Herwordsaredecisiveonthatpoint. 'WhereasIhavenoworldlygoods.'SirH.Nicolastriedtoaccountforthisbysuggestingthatsheonlyhadalifeinterestinherincome.Butthiswillnotexplainsosweepingastatementasthatshehadnoworldlygoodsatall(p.lxxx).

Mr.Gairdner says: 'HenryVII. found it advisable to shutuphismother-in-law inamonastery, and had not the slightest scruple in taking her property away from her'(RichardIII.p.88).

[18]LettersPatent,March4,1486.

[19]Gairdner'sHenryVII.

[20]'TheKing'smannerofshowingthingsbypiecesandsidelightshathsomuffleditthatithathleftitalmostamysterytothisday.'—LordBacon.

[21]i.501.

[22]HewasmadeaKnightBanneretatthetakingofBerwick,in1482.

[23] Theywere SirWilliamCourtenay, oneWelborne, andTyrrel's son,whowerepardoned;SirWalterTyrrelandSirJohnWyndhambeheaded;aShip-masterhangedat Tyburn, a Poursuivant named Curson, and a Yeoman named Matthew JonesexecutedatGuisnes;allonsuspicionofhavingaidedtheEarlofSuffolktoescape.

[24] InRennet'sEngland, i. p. 552.Mr.Gairdner, referring to this note by Strype,says:'IownIcannotfindhisauthority.'—RichardIII.p.164.

[25]Harl.MS.433,fol.55.

[26]Harl.MS.433,fol.78and187.

[27]Ibid.433,fol.118.

[28]v.577.

[29]TheEarlofOxfordwasappointedConstableoftheTowerforlife,onSeptember22,1485.WemayhopethatOxford,whodidnotreside,hadnoguiltyknowledge.

[30]MemorialsofHenryVII.i.pp.41,95.

[31]MemorialsofHenryVII.i.p.384.

[32]WasthisMorton?Buckhadheardso.

[33]MemorialsofHenryVII.ii.p.251.

[34]Ibid.i.p.460.

[35]Sandford,v.p.404.

[36]'Thelatterpartofthetale,whichdeclarestheirintermentbythepriestandtheirremovalbyRichard'sorder,wasevidentlyfabricatedbyHenry,topreventthehazardofasearch.'—Hutton'sBosworth,p.169.

[37]MemorialsofHenryVII.i.p.486.

[38]LordWelleswasahalfbrother,onthemother'sside,ofHenry'smother.

[39]Annewaseleven.InduetimeshewasmarriedtothesonoftheEarlofSurrey.Katherine was only seven. When she was twenty she became the wife of theLancastrianEarlofDevonshire.Bridget,theyoungest,wasfive.ShewasimmuredinanunneryatDartford,assoonasshewasoldenough.

[40]MemorialsofHenryVII.i.p.617.

[41]As lateas1488 there isagrantof fivemarks,atEaster, 'bywayof reward,' toWilliamSlater.Ifthiswasthejailer,hereceivedhushmoneyfortwoyearsaftertheperpetrationofthemurders.Heisnotheardofagain.MemorialsofHenryVII.('WritsunderthePrivySeal.EasterTerm3Hen.VII.'),ii.p.298.

[42]MemorialsofHenryVII.ii.p.148.

[43]ThisappearsfromgeneralpardonshavingbeengrantedtotheformerConstable,to theChaplain, and to twenty-four soldiersof thegarrisonofGuisneson the samedate,July16.Nodoubt thesepardonswereontheoccasionof theappointmentofanewConstable,andthereturnofpartofthegarrisontoEngland.

[44]MemorialsofHenryVII.ii.pp.188,251.

[45]This is an ugly story.Dr.RichardFoxwas originally an agent ofMorton andotherconspiratorsabroad.ThisdiscreditableworkbroughthimtoParisearlyin1485,wherehebecameknowntoHenryTudor.Amansoemployedcouldnothavebeenagoodpriest.HecamewithHenrytoEnglandashisSecretary,andwasofcoursewellrewarded.HebecameBishopofWinchesterandLordPrivySeal;andappearstohavebeenmunificent and diligent as a prelate. By his 'pulchris verbis' he treacherouslydrewTyrrelintotheclutchesofSirThomasLovell.ThisappearsfromaletteroftheEarlofSuffolktotheEmperorMaximiliandatedatAix-la-ChapelleonMay12,1502.SohurriedweretheproceedingsagainstTyrrelthathewasactuallybeheadedsixdaysbeforethedateofSuffolk'sletterannouncinghistreacherouscapture.BishopFoxhasbeenmucheulogised.Butnoonecouldbeforyears in the innercounselsofsuchamanasHenryVII.withoutbeinginsympathywithhisways,whichcertainlydonotdeserveeulogy.

[46]Leland'sColl.v.p.373.Fromananonymousmanuscript.LettersofRichardIII.

andHenryVII.,B.P.i.Pref.p.29.

[47]LordHerbertofCherbury,LifeofHenryVIII.p.36. 'OurKingexecutingwhathisfatherathisdepartureoutoftheworldcommanded,asBellayhathit.'

CHAPTERVI

MR.GAIRDNER'SRICHARDIII

Itwillbeinteresting,inconclusion,toexaminethecriticaltreatmentofthesequestionsbythelatesthistorianwhohaswrittenonthesubject.[1]Mr.GairdnerarguesinfavouroftheTudorportraitofthelastPlantagenetKing,butonlytoalimitedextent.

The thick and thin believers in the Tudor caricature, such as Hume andLingard, aroused doubts inmanyminds.Mr.Gairdner is themost formidableenemytothememoryofthegallantyoungKingthathasyetappeared,becauseheis,beyondcomparison,thebestinformedauthorthathasevertreatedofthispartofhistory,hasconscientiouslystriventobefairandimpartial,andhasstatedbothsidesofthequestion,whileretainingabeliefinRichard'sworstcrimes.Hispredecessors, who have taken his view, simply adopted all the statements ofTudorwriters as facts, and have depicted a cool, calculating, scheming, cruel,andmost revoltingvillainwithouta redeeming feature.They thusportrayedatleastapossiblemonster.ButMr.Gairdner,whilestrivingtobefairandjust,stillclingstowhathecalls'tradition,'thatistotheTudorstoriesofcrimes,toldmanyyears after the time. The two things are incompatible, so that he produces amonster which would be impossible anywhere. His Richard III. is a prince,headlong and reckless as to consequences, but of rare gifts and with manyredeeming qualities. He was wise and able, brave, generous, religious,fascinating,andyethadcommittedtwoverycowardlyassassinationsbeforehewasnineteen,murderedhisdefencelessnephews,andgratuitouslyslanderedhismother.Suchamonsterisanimpossibilityinreallife.EvenDr.JekyllandMr.Hydearenothingtoit.

Letus seehowMr.Gairdnerarrivedathis two-sidedmonster.Heexplainshismethod in his preface.He demurs to the view of the lateMr.Buckle that

commonlyreceivedopinionsshouldbedoubteduntiltheyarefoundtostandthetestofargument.[2]Helaysitdownthatnoattempttosetasidetraditionalviewscanbe successful until the history of the particular epochhas been re-written,andthenewversionexhibitsamoralharmonywiththefactsofsubsequenttimesandoftimespreceding.[3]

'Tradition,' Mr. Gairdner tells us, is an interpreter and nothing more, andseldomsupplies anythingmaterial in thewayof facts.[4]Yethe adds that theattempttodiscarditislikeanattempttolearnalanguagewithoutamaster,andhe thinks that a sceptical spirit is amost fatal one in history. It is difficult tofollowhimwhenheannouncesthat,inspiteofthisviewoftradition,hisplanistoplacethechiefrelianceoncontemporaryinformation,andthatthistreatmentofhistoryshouldbeadheredto.[5]

'Tradition,' inRichard's case,means theembellishmentsof later chroniclerswriting longafter theevents, in the interestsofanotherdynasty.UnfortunatelyMr. Gairdner does not always adhere to contemporary evidence, but prefers'tradition.'

InthecaseofRichardIII.Mr.Gairdnerthinksthatitisnotclearlyshownthatthe story would be more intelligible without 'tradition,' and that the said'tradition'isnotwellaccountedfor.

LetusendeavourtotestthesetwopropositionsbythelightofMr.Gairdner'sownadmissions.

HisRichardstoodhighingeneralestimationwhenDukeofGloucester.[6]AsKingthepeopleshowedhimmarksofloyalty.[7]Inthenorthundoubtedly,andperhapswith the common people generally, hewas highly popular, and therewas every evidence of devoted loyalty and personal popularity at the time ofBuckingham'srising.[8]Hewasanableruler,[9]hehadtheconfidenceevenofhis enemies in his justice and integrity,[10] he was generous not only to thewidowsandchildrenoffallenenemies,buteventothewivesofrebelsinopenrevolt,[11]hisgenerousactsweredonegraciouslyandinnogrudgingspirit,[12]there was nothing mean or paltry in his character,[13] his manners wereingratiating,andhehadgreatinfluenceoverothers.

Apersonsodescribedisveryunintelligibleiftheassassinationsandinfamiesof'tradition'havetobeadded.Richard'scharacterisfarmoreintelligiblewithout

them; and 'tradition' is perfectly accounted for by the necessities of the newdynasty,whosewell-paidwriterscreatedit.

Mr.Gairdneracknowledgesthat'tradition'seldomsuppliesanythingmaterialin thewayof facts.Yethemaintains that traditionalviewscannotbesetasideunless the history of the particular epoch is re-written, and the new versionexhibits a moral harmony with the facts of subsequent times and timespreceding.

Ofcoursecertainpassagesinhistorywouldhavetobere-writtenwhentheywerefoundtobeerroneous.Butthetruthorfalsehoodofaparticularaccusationcannotbeaffectedbyfactsofsubsequent timesor timespreceding.Its truthorfalsehood is not established by moral harmony with something else, but bycontemporaryevidence.

My detailed remarks onMr. Gairdner's views respecting Richard's allegedcrimesareintendedtoshowthathisconclusionsaremistakenwhentheydeviatefromhisownplanofplacingthechiefrelianceoncontemporaryevidence;andthatascepticalspirit,inthespecialcaseofRichard,isabsolutelynecessaryifthetruthistobereached.

Mr. Gairdner assumes that Richard murdered his nephews, and, on thestrengthof his guilt in committing that crime, he argues that the criminalwascapableofanythingduringhisformerlife,andonthisgroundbelievesinsomeof theotherallegedcrimes.Theearlieraccusersappear toargue in thereverseway.Theyaccumulatedeveryaccusationtheycouldthinkof,withreferencetoRichard'sformerlife,inordertomakethemaincrimemoreprobable.

Though Mr. Gairdner's sense of justice obliges him to make so manyadmissionsthattherevoltingmonsterofearlierhistoriesalmostdisappearsinhishands, yet in some respects he goes backwards. For he still clings to theassassinationsofyoungEdwardandofHenryVI.,twohorriblestoriesinventedby later chroniclers. Surely the sound arguments of Sharon Turner and othersought tohavebeenallowed finally to expunge these revolting fables fromourhistory.

However,inMr.Gairdner'sbookthevenomoushunchback,bornwithteeth,entirelydisappears.Hegivesus,inhisplace,aprince'whosebodilydeformity,though perceptible, was probably not conspicuous.' In his latest version, heabandonstheassassinationintheKing'stentbyhischiefnobles.HethinksthatRichard is unduly blamed about the murder of Henry VI. because it wasprobably sanctioned by others. He pronounces Richard to be guiltless of thedeathofClarence.HeadmitsthatAnnewasnotmarriedtoyoungEdward,andthat there is some reason tobelieve that she regardedRichardwith favour.HegivesnocountenancetotheinsinuationthatAnnewaspoisonedbyherhusband.Heisinclinedtocreditthepre-contractofEdwardIV.withLadyEleanorButler,andadmitsthestrengthoftheevidenceforitstruth.Heconsidersitremarkable

thataman(LordRivers)whosufferedbytheProtector'sordercouldappeal tohim to be supervisor of his will. This would certainly be very remarkable ifGloucester and Rivers had been accomplices in two cowardly murders. Suchmonstersdonotusuallyplaceconfidenceineachother.But thesimpletruthisnot remarkable.Rivers felt thathehadfailedandmustpay thepenalty,butheplacedfullanddeservedconfidenceinRichard'shonourandintegrity,aswellasinhisgenerosity.

Mr.GairdnerhasthusremovedmuchoftheTudorgarbagefromthepictureofKingRichard,buthewillnotsweepofftherest.HisresearchesshowhimthattheaccusationsoftheTudorwritersareirreconcilablewiththeresultsofmoderninvestigations.Buthispreconceivedconvictions,althoughmuchshaken,arenotyet swept away.The inevitable result is that the life and character ofRichardbecome a puzzle to him. Generous, kind, and patriotic acts continue to berecordedoftheyoungKingthroughouthislife,whicharecertainlynottheactsofanhabitualassassin.Thosewhoareforcedtoacknowledgethefacts,andyetcling to a belief in the fictions, find themselves in a tight place. This isMr.Gairdner'sposition.HewillnotgiveupalltheTudorfables,andclingstosuchshredsofthemasitseemstohimpossibletoretain.Yethisownresearchesforcehim to abandonmuch and to apologize for the rest. Theman's acts cannot bemade to harmonize with the Tudor calumnies. The consequent contradictionsnecessitate theexplanation that 'Richardwasnotyetevenahardenedcriminal'(p. 46); while some of the events which cannot be disputed are 'certainlyremarkable'(p.91),andothers'almostinconceivable'(p.214).

Mr.GairdnercannotquitegiveupthefableofthemurderofyoungEdwardat Tewkesbury.He admits that it was not countenanced by any contemporarywriter, that itwasfirst toldbyFabyanmanyyearsafter theevent,and that thefinalembellishment,accordingtowhichyoungGloucesterwasaparticipatorinthe crime, was a tradition of later times. Yet in his history, he preferred thetraditionoflatertimestothestoryofFabyan,althoughhethoughtthelatterhadevery appearance of probability, and he preferred both to the unanimoustestimony of contemporaries.[14] There is no reason for this topsy-turvycriticism,exceptthatwhatMr.Gairdnercallsa'tradition'accusesRichard,whileFabyanandthecontemporariesdonot.

Hisargumentsinfavourofthemurdergiveninhis'LifeofRichardIII.'werethatRichardmayveryprobablyhavebeenamurdereratnineteen,ifanyoneofhis other allegedmurders be admitted; and that hewas capable of a cowardly

assassinationbecausehecondemnedprisoners todeath inhis judicialcapacity.Onthesegroundsaloneheurgedthattheaccusationisnottoberejected.Hedidnotmaintain that it is true,but that itcannotsafelybepronouncedapocryphal.HealsoadmittedthatRichardoughtnottobearthewholeresponsibility,ashewasonlyanaccessory.ThisisverydifferentfromthedownrightcondemnationofHumeandLingard.[15]Thefable isevidentlydoomed.But therecanbenosharingofresponsibility.IfRichardstabbedhisyoungcousinhewasacowardlyruffian,whetherotherruffiansdidthesameornot.Ifhedidnot,nowordscanbestrongenoughtoexpresstheinfamyofhisItalianslanderer.

Mr. Gairdner has since shifted his ground,[16] and, adoptingWarkworth'sversion, has admitted that young Edward was slain in the field, calling forsuccourtotheDukeofClarence;buthecannotbringhimselftoacquitRichardaltogether,andsuggeststhathewastheslayer,becausenomeanerpersonwouldhavetakentheresponsibilityofslayingsovaluableaprisoner.Asifthesefine-drawndistinctionsweremadeintheheatofadesperatemêlée.Butevenso,thetwoboysbeingaboutthesameageandweight,itwasafairfight.Therewasnocrime.YetMr.Gairdnerstillcallsita'murder'!Ofcoursethereisnoauthorityorground whatever for bringing Richard in at all, if Warkworth's version isadopted.Verilythefictionisdyinghard!

There is no reason for considering the Duke of Gloucester to have beencapableofassassinatinghiscousinbecauseitwashisdutytositinjudgmentonprisonersasLordConstable.ThetrialofrebelsbeforeacourtconsistingoftheEarl Marshal and the Lord Constable was perfectly legal and constitutional.Speakingof trialby jury,Chief JusticeFortescue laid it down that inEngland'somecasesmightbeprovedbeforetwoonly,suchasfactsoccurringonthehighseas,andproceedingsbeforetheEarlMarshalandtheLordConstable.'Itwasaconstitutionaltribunal,and,althoughveryyoung,hisofficeofConstablemadeitincumbentonGloucester to sit in judgment.TheEarlMarshal, being anolderman, would probably take the leading part. Mr. Gairdner says that it was asummarytribunalandthatallwhowerebroughtbeforeitwerebeheaded.Itwasaconstitutional tribunal,andonly thirteenprisonerswerecondemned todeath.As many as twelve of the leaders were pardoned, if not more, and all thesubordinate officers and soldiers. In comparison with Lancaster and Tudorproceedings under similar circumstances,[17] the tribunal at Tewkesbury waslenient.[18]

AlthoughitdoesnotaffectRichard,aseriousaccusationagainstEdwardIV.

shouldherereceiveattention,namely,thathisenemieswhohadtakenrefugeinTewkesburyAbbeymight, inMr.Gairdner'swords, 'havesaved themselvesbyflight ifEdwardhadnotsworn inchurchuponthesacraments topardonthem.As to the executions being vindictive, I should verymuch like to knowwhatother character they can possibly bear except that they were perfidious also.'Theymaybecalledvindictiveifallexecutionsfortreasoninacivilwararetobesocalled,butnot,asMr.Gairdnerevidently intends, inanyspecialsense.Thestingoftheaccusation,however,isintheallegedperfidy.

Here isHabington's version of the accusation referred to byMr.Gairdner.'KingEdwardwithhissworddrawnwouldhaveenteredthechurchandforcedthefugitivesthence.Butapriestwiththeeucharistinhishandwouldnotlethimuntilhehadgrantedtoallafreepardon.Butthispardonbetrayedthem,forontheMondayaftertheyweretakenoutofthechurchandallbeheaded.'

Therearesomeassertionssocontrarytoallreasonableprobabilitythat theycannotbeaccepted,afterhavingbeenexaminedwithanycare.Thisisone.Thefugitiveshadtakenrefugein theabbeybecausetheyweretoocloselypursued,andescapewasnotpossible.Howcould theyhave saved themselvesby flightwhenTewkesburywasoccupied,andtheabbeysurroundedbyEdward'sarmy?WeareaskedtobelievethattheKingsworeonthesacramenttopardonall,andnextdaybeheadedall.Whyshouldhecommitthiswhollyuselessactofperjury?Therewasnoobject,nothingtogainbyit.Evenifherefrainedfromtakingthefugitives out of the church,which the story has it that he did do next day, hecouldsoonhavestarvedthemout.Itisuntruethatallwerebeheaded.Thestorythat he took such an unnecessary oath, intending to break it next day, is tooabsurd for acceptance. As the result proved, the King intended to have theprisonerstriedbeforetheEarlMarshal'sCourt,tocausesomeofthecondemnedto undergo their sentence, and to pardon others.Hemay possibly have told apriest that somewould be pardoned.Thiswould soonbe turned, by partisans,intoallbeingpardoned.Inpointoffactmanywerepardoned.

IndiscussingtheallegedmurderofHenryVI.,Mr.Gairdneradmitsthat 'anafter age has been a little unjust to Richard in throwing upon him the wholeresponsibilityofactsinwhichothersperhapsparticipated.'Butthisamountstoasurrenderofthewholepointatissue.RichardeitherstabbedHenryVI.withouthisbrother'sknowledge,asthestoryattributedtoSirThomasMoretellsus,orhe did nothing.The boy of eighteen either obtained the custody of theTowerfrom his political enemy Lord Rivers, without the King's knowledge and

consent,went toHenry's room,and stabbed theunarmed feeble invalidwithadagger,orhedidnot.Assuming themurder,Mr.Gairdnerappears tomeanbysayingthatothersparticipatedinit,thatitwascommittedbyEdwardIV.andhisCouncil,withthecomplicityofRiverstheConstableoftheTower.Itisdifficulttoseewhatelsehecanmean.InthatcasethestatementofthehistorianwhomMr.Gairdner believes to be Sir ThomasMore, thatGloucester committed themurderwithouthisbrother'sknowledge,isfalse.

Mr.Gairdnerismistakenaboutthehouseholdaccounts.HethinkstheyonlyrefertotheexpensesanddietofHenry'sservants.Butthestatementisclearanddistinct that theexpensesanddiet for fourteendaysafterMay11, that isuntilMay24,areforHenryhimselfaswellashisattendants.Theonlycontemporarywritergivesthesamedate,andPolydoreVirgil,theofficialwriteremployedbyHenryVII.,tellsusthathisdeathwaslongafterMay21,thedaywhenRichardwasintheTower.FabyanandWarkworth'sinformantgivethisdateofMay21,in contradiction to the above conclusive evidence for the 24th or night of the23rd.First they assumed themurder, and then they fixed thedate of it on theonly day when Gloucester was there to commit it. The household accountsexposethisfabricationofdates.

Mr. Gairdner settles the difference between these authorities in a verysummaryfashion.'Consideringthesourcefromwhichthisstatementcomes'(forthe23rd)'anditstotaldisagreementwiththeaccountsofalmostallotherwritersin or near the time, it is impossible to attach anyweight to it whatever.' Theanswertothelastpartofthissentenceisthatthewriterinquestionwastheonlyone who wrote at the time; and that Warkworth and Fabyan, who wroteafterwards,aretheonlyauthoritiesforthe21st.MoreoverPolydoreVirgil,whohad access to all official records, directly contradictsWarkworth and Fabyan,givingamuchlaterdateforthedeathofHenryVI.

Mr. Gairdner's other reason for rejecting the evidence of the writer inFleetwoodisthathisreportwasofficial,andthatconsequently 'itisimpossibleto attach any weight to his statement whatever.' But on this principle Mr.Gairdner ought to sweep away all the accusations against Richard made byTudor writers; for they are almost all the work of official partisans engaged,some of them paid to vilify the predecessor of their employer. Officialchroniclers should be held in suspicion, and their narratives call for strictscrutiny.Butthereoughttobediscrimination.Ifadocumentisofficial,itisnotipso facto false. There must be some evidence against it besides its official

character.ThewriterwhosentanarrativeoftherestorationofEdwardIV.tothecitizensofBrugeshas not beendetected in anymisrepresentations.Hegave aplainstatementof thecourseofevents,withnootherobject than toconvey tothegenerousFlemingsaknowledgeofwhathadbefallenthegallantyoungKingwhomtheyhadbefriended.Hegavethe23rdasthedateofthedeathofHenryVI.becausethefactwaswithinhisownpersonalknowledge.Thiswasnot thecasewithanywriterwhohasgivenadifferentdate.Accordingtothestorythemurderwascommittedinprofoundsecrecy.ThemostvirulentTudorchroniclersonlymentionitasasuspicion.Therewasnogroundwhateverfortheaccusation,or theywouldhave stated it.This suspicion, as regardsGloucester,wasneverwhispereduntiltheTudorKingwasinpower.Itis,therefore,tothelastdegreeimprobable that, assuming there was a crime, it should have been needlesslydivulgedto theauthorof the letter toBrugeswithorders thatheshouldfalsifythedate. If themurderwasasecret,as theTudorchroniclersaffirm,and if,astwoof them assert, the date ofHenry's deathwas known, itwould have beenuseless to falsify a datewhichwas known, to conceal an unknown deed. TheinevitableconclusionisthatthedatewasnotfalsifiedinthelettertoBruges;andthatthe23rdwasthedayofHenry'sdeath.Thesuggestedfalsificationwouldbesuchanactoffollyasnowriter,evenifhewroteofficially,wouldbeatalllikelytocommit; for itwouldbeuselesslyraisingasuspicionwherenoneexisted. Ifanythingofthekindhadbeenattempted,thedateofRichard'spresence,notofHenry's death,would have been altered. But there is really nothing to raise asuspicionoftheauthor'sgoodfaith.

Very different are the authorities who contradict him. Warkworth's storycontainsastatementthattheDukeofGloucesterwaspresentintheToweratthetimeofHenry'sdeath,andthenthedateisgivenwiththatexcessiveminutenessofdayandhourwhichischaracteristicoftheliecircumstantial.Thewholestoryis dished up with a miracle or two. It is not necessary to suppose that Dr.Warkworth was himself guilty of misrepresentation. He was evidently verycredulous,andhewasdeceivedbyhisinformer.AsforFabyan,hewroteinthedays ofHenryVII. andwas desirous of suiting his tales to thewishes of thatjealous tyrant.Apart from theundesignedevidenceof thehouseholdaccounts,the letter to the citizens of Bruges must, on every principle of historicalcriticism, be accepted as a more reliable authority, on this point, than themiracle-mongerWarkworthortheunscrupuloustime-serverFabyan.ThewholestoryaboutHenryVI.havingbeenmurderedbyGloucesterispalpablyaTudorcalumnyinventedlongafterwards,andtoldsoclumsilythatitcertainlydidnotdeservethesuccesswhichhasattendedit.[19]

Mr.GairdneracquitsRichardof responsibility for thedeathofClarence,aswas inevitable.Forhewouldnotbe supportedevenby themostunscrupulousenemyofRichard'smemory if he refused to acquit him.Clearly therewas nobeliefamonghiscontemporariesthatRichardwasinanywaytoblame.YetMr.Gairdner cannot let the matter rest. He suggests that Richard's foundation ofcolleges atMiddleham and Barnard Castle, with provision formasses for thesouls of his father, brothers, and sisters, betokens remorse for the death ofClarence,because the licences to found thesecollegesweregranted soonafterhis brother's death. Clarence is not specially mentioned, only brothers andsisters.Thispiousactmightbetokenregret,butitcannotbesupposedtobetokenremorse.Theman's consciencemust indeedhavebeenmorbidly sensitive if itcausedremorseforthatwhichtheKingandtheParliamenthaddone,butwhichhehadopposed.ItwasquitenaturalthatRichardshouldhaveprovidedforthesemasses from ordinary feelings of regret and affection for all the deceasedmembersofhis family.The ideaofremorse isgratuitousandveryfar-fetched;forRichardhadarrangedforthefoundationofthesecollegesbeforethedeathofClarence. Mr. Gairdner further remarks that Richard gained by his brother'sdeath,hissonbeingcreatedEarlofSalisburyandhehimselfreceivingthewholeof a lordship ofwhich he previously owned half.Richard certainlywould nothave compassed his brother's death, even assuming him to have been themonster of 'tradition,' for the sake of an earldom for his son, seeing that thefatherhadtwoearldomsalready,scarcelyfortheotherhalfoftheBarnardCastleestate. Mr. Gairdner cannot surely think that Richard had some hand in hisbrother'sdeathforthesakeofsuchverysmallgains.Forhehastoldusthattherewas nothingmean or paltry in Richard's character, and he acquits him of thedeathofClarence.KingEdward,naturallyenough,gavethevacantearldomsofWarwickandSalisburytotheinfantsonsofhistwobrothers.

Mr.Gairdnerhasnothingtosayagainsttheyoungprincewithregardtohismarriage.We, therefore, come toourhistorian's treatmentof the eventswhichled toRichard's accession.Mr.Gairdner dismisses the accusations against theDuke of Gloucester, that he was carrying on intrigues with Buckingham andothermembersoftheCouncil,betweenthedateofhisbrother'sdeathandthatofhis arrival in London.[20]He also considers the arrest and execution of LordRivers and his companions to have been justifiable. He believes that theWoodvilleparty intended tokeep thegovernment in their ownhandsbymainforce,[21]thatthegeneralityofthepeoplewereconvincedthatRiversandGreyhadentertaineddesignsdistinctlytreasonable,[22]andhementionsthefactthattheirbaggagecontainedlargequantitiesofarmourandimplementsofwar.This

is a proof that they contemplated the raising and arming of a large force.Mr.GairdnerevengoessofarastoadmitthattheretributiondealtouttoRiversandhis companions was 'not more severe than perhaps law itself might haveauthorised.'AsweknowfromRousthatthelawwasinvoked,theseadmissionsamount to an exculpationofKingRichard, as regardshis treatmentofRivers,Vaughan,andGrey.

Mr.Gairdner'spositionwithregardtoRichard'stitletothecrowniscurious.That title was based on the fact that Edward IV. had entered into amarriagecontractwithLadyEleanorButlerbeforehewentthroughtheceremonywiththewidowof Sir J.Grey.TheTudorKing attempted to destroy all record of thisevent,andhisofficialwritersthenputforwardtwootherstatements,whichtheyallegedtohavebeenmadeasjustificationsofRichard'sclaimtothecrown.Oneof thesewas that Richard's elder brotherswere illegitimate, the other that thepreviousmarriagewaswithawomannamedLucy.ThenameofLadyEleanoriscarefully suppressed.Longafterwards theofficialdocumentwasdiscovered inwhichthetitleisbasedsolelyonthepreviouscontractwithLadyEleanorButler.

Such is thecaseverybriefly stated.Mr.Gairdnerbelieves that the storyofthepre-contractwithLadyEleanormaybetrue.HeconsidersthatthecaretakenbytheTudorwriterstosuppressandpervertitisevidenceofitstruth.HeevensuggeststhatthedeathofClarencewasduetothefactthathehadgotpossessionof the secret. But he fails to see that the truth of this pre-contract not onlyinvalidates the other stories invented by the Tudor writers to conceal it, butentirely destroys their credibility. Morton's statement that it was alleged byRichard'ssupportersthatthepre-contractwaswithLucymustbefalse,aswellastheassertionthatacalumnywaspromulgatedagainsttheDuchessofYork;ifthepre-contractwithLadyEleanor is true. SurelyMr.Gairdnermust see that thestatementof a titlemade inanofficially inspired sermonor speechmusthavebeenmade to agreewith that in the documentwhichHenryVII. attempted todestroy.Havingmadeawaywiththedocument,sothattheycouldmis-stateitscontents,Henry'schroniclersputwhatinventionstheypleasedintothemouthsofpreachersandorators.Butthedocumenthassincebeenfound.Itsrealcontentsare known. Men who would deliberately make this elaborate series of falsestatements are utterly unworthy of credit. YetMr. Gairdner still clings to thebeliefthattheodiousslanderabouttheDuchessofYorkwaspromulgated,andcontinuestoquoteMorton'sstoryasifitwereauthenticandreliablehistory.

The solegroundput forward for still believing that the slanderwasuttered

against the Duchess of York is that one of these authorities alleges that thepeoplewerescandalisedatthesermon,andanotherthattheDuchesscomplainedofthedishonourdoneher.Theseadditionstothefable,fromthesamesuspicioussources,caninnoconceivablewaystrengthenitscredibility.[23]

We now come to themain stronghold ofTudor calumny—the story of thesmotheringof the little princes in theTower.Mr.Gairdnermakes ahesitatingdefence.Hecannotdoubtthatthedreadfuldeedwasdone.Butheadmitsthatthestory, as told in the narrative attributed to Sir Thomas More, is full ofinaccuraciesandimprobabilities.Hecontends,however,thatitisnotnecessaryforittobetrueinallitsdetails,inordertogivecredencetothemainallegation.He also admits that the crime imputed toRichard rests upon the assertions ofonlyafew,andthat twoof thesementionitmerelyasareport.Hedenies thatRichard was the cold scheming calculating villain of previous histories; andapparentlythinksthat,ifthishadbeenhischaracter,hewouldnothaveactedinthewayallegedinthestory.Consequentlythestorycouldnotbetrue.ForacoldcalculatingvillainwouldnothavebeensofoolishastoleaveLondon,andthensend his orders to the Tower, without having previously ascertained that theywould be obeyed. Mr. Gairdner's theory is that Richard was headstrong andrecklessastoconsequences,amanofviolentandimpatienttemper.Suchaman,Mr. Gairdner thinks, might act in the way described in the story; if a strongmotive was suddenly supplied to him. Mr. Gairdner looks round for such amotive,andthinkshehasfounditintheallegedcontemplatedrisinginfavourofthe two young princes. But no such motive existed. The date given for theallegedmurderswasAugust1483.The rising,even if ithadbeen in favouroftheboysandnotofBuckingham,wasinOctober.Mr.Davieshasshownthatthefirst tidings reached the king at Lincoln onOctober 11,[24] andMr.GairdnerfullyadmitsthatRichardwastakencompletelybysurprise.Thisprovesthatnomotivefor thecrimewassupplied inAugust,calculated tomakeaviolentandrecklessman take suddenaction. If therewasnomotive therewasnomurder.ThusMr.Gairdner'sexplanationfails,whiletheimprobabilitiesremainasstrongasever.ThedifficultiesdisappearassoonasRichardisacquitted,andhisastutesuccessorisplacedinthedock.

WithreferencetothishorribleaccusationagainstKingRichard,Mr.Gairdnerhad opened hisworkwith the dictum that 'it is vain to deny thatRichard hadlonglosttheheartsofhissubjects.'ButMr.Gairdnerhimselfhassuppliedsomeof the proofs that theKing never lost the hearts of his subjects.Mr.GairdneracknowledgesthatuptoSeptember1483,'inthenorthundoubtedly,andperhaps

with the common people generally, Richard was highly popular' (p. 147). InNovember1484,when,on theyoungKing's return toLondonhewasreceivedwithdemonstrationsofloyalty,Mr.Gairdnersaysthat 'perhapshehadtosomeextentrecoveredthegoodwillofthepeople'(p.243).But,inthemeanwhile,wearenot suppliedwitha shadowofaproof thathehadever lost it.Hewas thevictimoftheperfidyofafewtraitors.TherewasnonationalmovementagainsthiminfavourofHenryTudor.SharonTurnertrulyremarkedthat'thenationhadno share in the conflict. Itwas an ambushof a fewperfidious anddisaffectednoblemen against the crown.Richardwas overwhelmed by the explosion of anewmine,which he had not suspected to be forming beneath him, because itwaspreparedandfiredbythosewhomgratitude,honourandconscienceoughttohavemadefaithful.'ThecityofYorkrecordedthegriefofthepeopleatKingRichard'sdeath.Hewaspopulartotheend.

Mr.GairdnerfullyexplainsthecausesofRichard'spopularity(p.313). 'Histaste in building was magnificent and princely. There was nothing mean orpaltry in his character (p. 318).Many of his acts were dictated by charitablefeelings or a sense of justice. He had in him a great deal of native religioussentiment (p. 47).Hemade it his endeavour, so far as it lay in his power, topreventtyrannyforthefuture(p.205),andaskinghereallystudiedhiscountry'swelfare (p.313).Nowonder thatsuchaKing,whowasalso renownedforhisvalourinthefieldandhiswisdomincouncil,shouldhavebeenpopularamonghis subjects! But it is wonderful that thoughtful and accomplished men, whoadmitall this, shouldcling to thevileandwretchedcalumnies, thediscreditedtattersofwhichstillpartlyobscurethetruth.

TheworkofMr.Gairdnerisofgreatvalueowingtoitsconscientiousattempttobejudiciallyimpartial,tothelearningandresearchthatareapparentineverypage,andtotheconsiderablenumberoferrorsitexposes,andofmistakesthatarefinallyclearedupbyit.ThegoodpointsinthecharacterofKingRichardIII.are prominently brought forward. The excellence of his government and thegenerosity of his character aremade so apparent, that one is surprised, in themidst of this goodly record, to come suddenly on such epithets as 'usurper,''tyrant,' 'inhuman King.' Mr. Gairdner's learning and critical insight have soweakenedthetraditionalfables,ahalfbeliefinwhichhecannotquiteshakeoff,thattheyarenotlikelytoretainaplacemuchlongerinserioushistory.

[1]Historyof theLifeandReignofRichard III.,byJamesGairdner (1878),1sted.History of the Life and Reign of Richard III., by James Gairdner (1898), 2nd ed.Henry the Seventh, by James Gairdner (1889). Article in the English HistoricalReview,1891.

[2]PrefacetoGairdner'sLifeofRichardIII.p.x.

[3]Ibid.p.x.

[4]Ibid.p.xii.

[5]Ibid.p.xii.

[6]Gairdner'sRichardIII.p.38.

[7]Ibid.p.112.

[8]Ibid.pp.115,131.

[9]Ibid.p.247.

[10]Ibid.p.73.

[11]Ibid.p.250.

[12]Ibid.p.251.

[13]Ibid.p.251.

[14] Stow set a better example. He adopted the 'probable story' of Fabyan, andrejectedthe'traditionoflatertimes,'asMr.GairdnercallstheunsupportedcalumnyofPolydoreVirgil.

[15] Dr. Lingard says that 'Clarence and Gloucester, perhaps the Knights in theirretinue,despatchedyoungEdwardwiththeirswords'(iv.p.189).InafootnoteheseesnogoodreasontodoubtStow.ButStowsaysnothingofthekind.HemerelyadoptsFabyan's tale thatKingEdward's servants despatched the prince.He does not evenmention either Clarence or Gloucester. The accusation against the knights in theretinueofthoseprincesisLingard'sown,unsupportedbyanyevidencewhatever.

[16]EnglishHistoricalReview,1891(July),p.448.

[17]TheLancastrians gave no quarter atWakefield, slaughtering all prisoners highandlow.At thesecondbattleolSt.Albanstheircrueltywasdeepenedbybadfaith.After Bosworth, Henry Tudor ordered four executions which, in his outlawedcondition,werelawlessmurders.Theatrociousconductofhisson,insuppressingthePilgrimage of Grace, was still more horrible. Executions went on, long after allresistancehadceased,withunrelentingcruelty.

The tribunal at Tewkesbury is unjustly arraigned by modern historians, while thebarbaritiesofLancastriansandTudorsareslurredoverorignored.

[18] 'I am struck with the singular leniency of Edward IV. towards his political

enemies.TherollsofParliamentarefullofpetitionsforthereversalofattainders.Idonot recollect a single instance inwhich thepetitionwas refused.'—ThoroldRogers,AgricultureandPrices,iv.p.180.

[19]Dr.Lingard's chief reason forbelieving thatGloucestermurderedHenryVI. isthat'writerswholivedunderthenextdynastyattributedtheblackdeedtoRichard'(iv.p.192).Ofcoursetheydid.Theywerewellpaidtodoso.

[20]P.61.Heconsiders itmoreprobable thatGloucesterwas ignorantofwhathadbeengoingoninLondon.

[21]P.62.

[22]P.66.

[23]Dr.Lingard'sargumentinfavourofthecalumnyagainsttheDuchessofYorkisthatamanwhowouldshed thebloodofhisnephewswouldnot refuse toallowhismothertobeslandered.DoubtlesstheDoctorwouldhavebeenequallyreadywiththereversedargument.Amanwhowouldslanderhismotherwouldnotrefuse toallowhisnephewstobemurdered(iv.p.232n).

[24]YorkRecords,p.181n.

INDEX

Aberford,26Abergavenny,Lord,atRichard'scoronation,109,143;cousintotheKing,110Abingdon,71;cattlefairat,112AcasterCollege,foundedbyBishopStillington,96,118.SeeStillingtonAlbany,Dukeof,withKingRichardintheprogress,130Alcock,Bishop,88,91,146;atOxfordtoreceiveKingRichard,129;accountof,

91n.AlfonsoV.ofPortugal,66Alkmaar,EdwardIV.landedat,42Alnwick,59AmbienHill,153;KingRichardslainatthefootof,157AmbienLees,152,154André,Bernard,historiographertoHenryVII.,168,171;silentaboutthefableof

themurderofEdwardofLancaster,191Angers,67,79,206Anker,river,152,153Anne,heiressofThomas,DukeofGloucester,marriedEdmundEarlofStafford,

128Anne,Nevill,companionofRichardatMiddleham,40; takentoFrancebyher

father, 66, 67; marriage with Edward of Lancaster never took place, 67;returntoEngland,68;herwardshipclaimedbyClarence.Insanctuary,81;marriedtoPrinceRichard,82;joinedbyhermotheratMiddleham,82,202;marriagesettlement,199,200,201;herbeauty,124; joinedherhusband inLondon,93

Anne, Queen, her coronation, 126, 127; joined the King atWarwick, 129; atYork,130;griefonherson'sdeath,137;illness,139;deathandburial,139,140,228;malignantslanderofPolydoreVirgilandRous,228

Anne,daughterofEdwardIV.,marriedtheEarlofSurrey,86n.,271n.Anne,sisterofEdwardIV.,DuchessofExeter,3;birth,6,110AnnedelaPole,betrothedtoJamesIII.,becameanunatSion,139Appledore,homeofCaptainHornwhofellatTowton,32ArbitrationbyKingRichard,84,113,160n.;bytheLordMayor,113Armourandarms,107,120,122;arrowsatTowton,32;hand-guns,44;artillery,

49,155n.Arthur,sonofHenryVII.,267ArthurPlantagenet,sonofEdwardIV.,87n.,221n.Arundel,Archbishop,117Arundel,Earlof,atRichard'scoronation,109,143Arundelcollection,letterfromElizabethofYorktotheDukeofNorfolkseenby

Buckin,229Arundell,SirThomas,K.B.,atRichard'scoronation,147Ashton,SirRalph,madeVice-Constable,131,132n.Atherstone,HenryTudorat,149Attorney-General,seeKidwelly,MorganAudley,Lord,BattleofBloreHeath,56;atRichard'scoronation,109,143;Lord

Treasurer,144Audley,Edmund,BishopofRochester,146Audley,SirHumphrey,triedandexecutedatTewkesbury,76Ayala,DonPedrode,SpanishAmbassador,hisevidencerespectingtheremorse

ofHenryVII.,276Ayscough,BishopofSalisbury,118

Babington,SirHenry,madeK.B.,147Bacon,Lord,hischaracterofRichardIII.,134;believedthestoryofthemurders

to have been inspired by Henry VII., 169; on treatment of the QueenDowagerbyHenryVII.,257n.

BamboroughCastle,59Banbury,47Bangor,ThomasEdnam,Bishopof,146BarnardCastle,84,161,265,295Barnet,battleof,49,50-52;lossesat,52Barrow,Thomas,Master of theRolls,Commissioner forPeacewithScotland,

145BassetpardonedafterTewkesbury,77Bath,Knights of the, at coronationsofEdward IV., 35; andRichard III., 126,

147Bath and Wells, Bishop of, at Richard's coronation, 127, 144, 146. See

StillingtonBaume,SirThomas,slainatWakefield,15Bayley,'HistoryoftheTower,'181,198n.Baynard's Castle, 3, 91, 92 n., 102, 110, 222; family of the Duke of York

assembledat,10,11,19,21;EdwardIV.acceptedthecrownat,22BeauchampofPowyke,Lord,72;atRichard'scoronation,109,143;hisson in

commandatGloucester,72Beaufort,SirJohn,70;slainatTewkesbury,73,76Beaujeu,theLadyof,RegentofFrance,herenmitytoEngland,141,243BeaulieuAbbey,CountessofWarwickinsanctuaryat,70,81,82,201Beaumont,Viscount,atTowton,24,31;flightfromTowton,33;underattainder,

109,144BeccaBanks,26Bedingfield,SirEdmund,K.B.,atRichard'scoronation,147Bemynster,Robert,AbbotofCerne,69BenevolencesabolishedbyRichard'sParliament,134,142n.Berkeley,Lord,viiin.Berkeley,SirWilliam,ofBeverstonmadeK.B.,147;atraitor,133Berkeley,SirWilliam,ofWyldymadeK.B.,147;loyaltothelast,252Bermondseynunnery,QueenDowagerconfinedin,untilherdeath,257Bernall,Richard,tutortoyoungEdward,84Berners,Juliana,her'BookofSt.Albans,'108

Berners,Lord,34,51Berwick,86BeskwoodPark,KingRichardhuntingat,151Beverley,46Bigot,SirJohn,ofMusgraveCastle,atTowtonforHenry,24Bisham,EarlofSalisburyburiedat,34;WarwickandMontaguburiedat,51Bishopsinthefifteenthcentury,118;atRichard'scoronation,126,127,146;at

OxfordtoreceiveRichard,129;withhimonhisprogress,129;list,146BloreHeath,battleof,56Blount,SirWalter,marchednorthwithEdward,23; in thepursuitofClifford,

28;marchtoTowton,createdLordMountjoy,35,whomseeBlythe,39Bohuninheritanceexplained,128,223,224Boleyn,SirThomas,madeK.B.atRichard'scoronation,147BoltonCastle,83,107BoltonHall,HenryVI.concealedat,59BoothamBar,York,34,58Borough,SirJohn,presentto,fromtheroyalwardrobe,111Bosworth,battleof,152-157;numbers,153;artilleryat,155n.BosworthMarket,SirW.Stanley'scampnear,153Bourchier,Cardinal,ArchbishopofCanterbury,crownedEdwardIV.,35;cousin

totheKing,111;crownedRichardIII.,120,143,146,234Bourchier,SirEdward,withtheDukeofYorkatWakefield,10;slain,15;head

stuckonthegateatYork,17Bourchier,SirHumphrey,twoslainatBarnet,51n.SeeCromwell,LordBracher, Wm., and his son, loyal servants of King Richard, put to death by

HenryTudor,247Brackenbury,SirRobert,knighted,147;joinedthekingatBosworth,151;slain,

155,156;loyaltothelast,252;inthestoryofthemurders,258,260,261'Bradshaws'astrategicpositionatBosworthfield,152BramhamMoor,26Brampton,Wm.,ofBurford,loyaltothelast,252Brandon, Sir William, knighted after Tewkesbury, 77; traitor, 133 n.; Henry

Tudor'sstandard-bearer,slainbytheKing,156Bray, Reginald, Lady Stanley's steward, 149; his skill as an architect, 149 n.;

agenttoHenryTudor,226,231BrecknockCastle,226,227,231Brezé,Pierrede,LordofVarenne,devotedtoMargaretofAnjou,53,58Brian,SirThomas,ChiefJusticeofCommonPleas,145

Bridget,daughterofEdwardIV.,anun,87n.,271n.Bristol,71,72Brittany,treatywith,139,161;HenryTudorin,131,141Browne,SirJohn,madeK.B.,147Bruges, Edward IV. and Richard at, 43; Caxton at, 113; news of Edward's

successsenttothecitizens,198Buck,SirGeorge,wrotethelifeofRichardIII.--hadseenthetruestatementof

hisclaimtothecrown,219;heardthatthepamphletattributedtoSirThomasMorewaswritten byMorton, 168, 179; account of, 180n.; saw the letterfromElizabethofYorktotheDukeofNorfolk,229

Buck,SirJohn,ControlleroftheHousehold,145;puttodeathbyHenryTudor,246

Buckingham,Duchessof,7,55,132Buckingham, Duke of, 89; left London to warn Richard, 90; speech at the

Guildhall,102;atRichard'scoronation,109,143;cousin to theKing,110;bearing the King's train, 127; Lord Constable, 144; his claims, 223, 224;allegedconversationswithMorton,225;objectofhistreason,225;metLadyStanley on the road, 226; trial and execution at Salisbury, 131, 132;Richard'sgeneroustreatmentofhiswidow,132

Burford,seeCornwallBurgundy,CharlestheBold,Dukeof,helpedEdwardsecretly,43;marriagewith

PrincessMargaret,43,113;investedwiththeGarter,113;receivedMargaretofAnjouatSt.Pol,60;Edward'sdesertionof,82;fallof,162

Burgundy,Philip theGood,Dukeof,GeorgeandRichardunderprotectionof,18

Burgundy,Duchessof,seeMargaret,PrincessButler, Lady Eleanor, contracted in marriage to Edward IV., 93; truth of the

contract, 218, 219, 222, 296; details respecting her, 219n.; her death, 94,219

Butler,SirJohn,atTowton,24.SeeOrmondeByron,SirJohn,withHenryTudor,149;savedSirGervaseCliftonatBosworth,

156Byron,SirNicholas,createdK.B.,36

Cade,Jack,122Cadeby,Norfolk'scampat,beforeBosworth,152Calabria,Johnof,67Calais,7,102;Dightonlivingat,261,274;Tyrrelseizedat,273Cambridge,117,136Campbell,Lord,onKingRichard'sParliament,134Canterbury Pilgrimages, 119. Archbishops. See Arundel, Bourchier, Kemp,

MortonCardigan,148Carlisle,Bishopof,146Carte,'HistoryofEngland,'180Cary,SirHugh,triedandexecutedatTewkesbury,76Castleford,28Castlesinthefifteenthcentury,106,107Catesby, reported the Hastings-Woodville conspiracy to Richard, 98, 211;

executor towillofLordRivers,99n.;Speakerof theHouseofCommons,134; and Chancellor of the Exchequer, 144; Commissioner for the Peacewith Scotland, 145; at Bosworth, 144, 155; put to death byHenry Tudor,246;noticeof,246n.

Cattlefair,112Caxton: his own account of himself, 113; helped Edward IV. and Richard in

fittingouttheirexpedition,113;hisfirstessayatprinting,113;intheservice

oftheDuchessofBurgundy,114;cametoEngland,booksprintedbyhim,114, 115; his house in the Almonry, 114; book of chivalry dedicated toRichardIII.,115;lamentontheEarlofWorcester'sdeath,115,116

CerneAbbey,69Chamberlain,SirRobert,45CharlesVII.ofFrance,53CharlesVIII.ofFrance,141Charlton,SirRichard,loyaltothelast,252Cheltenham,73Cheney,SirJohn,withHenryTudor,149Cheney,SirWilliam,traitor,unhorsedbytheKinghimselfatBosworth,156Chevet,13Chichester,Bishopof,146ChippingSodbury,71,73Church,the,117,118.SeeConvocation;BishopsCicely,Princess,daughterofEdwardIV.,marriedtoLordWelles,86n.,271Cirencester,71Clarence,George,Dukeof,bornatDublin,3,6;takenprisoneratLudlow,7,8,

10; sent to Holland for safety, 18; married to Isabella Nevill, 41, 66; histreason, 41, 43; reconciled to his brothers, 48, 71; grasping conduct, 80;attainder,death,202,203;causeofhisdeath,95;hischildren,87n.,236;hisattainderbarredhischildren'ssuccession,101;townhouseatColdHarbour,110;Richardintercededforhim,203,204,294;Mr.Gairdner'sviews,295

Clarendon,SirRichard,atBosworthfortheKing,155,157Clarke,William,ofWenlock,loyaltothelast,252Cleger,John,arobberwhomadeMargaretofAnjouprisoner,57Cleymound,Robert,hiredinformer,275Clifford,Lord, led theLancastrianvan atWakefield, 13, 14, 15, 24; surprised

theYorkistsatFerrybridge,27;pursuedandslain,28;someaccountofhim,29

Clifton, Sir Gervase, made K.B., 147; wounded at Bosworth, fighting for theKing,156

Clifton,SirRobert,createdK.B.,36Clothes,intheroyalwardrobe,111;ClementPaston's,117;anEtonboy's,117;

JohnPaston's,122;Mr.Payn's,122Cobham,Lord,knightedafterTewkesbury,77;atRichard'scoronation,109,143Cockbeck,neartheTowtonbattlefield,26,33Cockermouth,EarlofWiltshirearrestedat,34Coke'smother,120

Colchester,120ColdHarbour,110Collingbourne,atraitor,executed,132n.Comines, details of the flight ofEdward IV., 42;marriageofEdward IV. and

LadyEleanorButler,93n.;deathofEdwardofLancaster,189Companies,City,influence,disputesettledbyarbitration,112,113ConisboroughCastle,3Convocation,theiraddresstoKingRichard,136Conyers,SirJohn,madeaKnightoftheGarter,146;faithfultotheKing,151;

fellatBosworth,157Corbet,SirK.,knightedafterTewkesbury,77Cornwall,SirEdmund,BaronofBurford,madeK.B.,147CoronationofRichardIII.,126,127;storyofaseconduntrue,227,228CorpusChristi,fraternityinLondon,112;atYork,119CotswoldHills,72,73Court,splendourofthe,111.SeeWardrobeCourtenay,SirE.,traitor,133Courtenay,SirWalter,beheadedatTewkesbury,76,77Courtenay,SirWilliam,263n.Courtenay,seeExeter,BishopofCourtenay,seeDevonshire,EarlofCourtenays,forgivenbyEdwardIV.,36Courteys,Pierce,KeeperoftheWardrobe,145Coventry, Earl ofWarwick at, 47; Edward IV. at, 78; Richard III. at, in his

progress,130Cover,river,83Coverham,monksof,83Crakenthorpe,SirJohnandSirT.,slainatTowton,33Croft,Richard, tutor toEdwardandEdmund,4,5;knightedafterTewkesbury,

71,77,191n.Cromer,45Cromwell,Lord,slainatBarnet,51Crosby,SirJ.,builtCrosbyPlace,85CrosbyPlacerentedbyRichardIII.,85,93,110,223CroylandChronicleontheslainatTowton,33;thereweretwowriters,175,176;

independentwitnesses,175;thesecondcredulousbuthonest;hisaccuracyasregardsdatesexposesMortonandFabyan,176;givesRichard's title to thecrown correctly, 176, 219; his mistakes, 177; no countenance to thedeformity fables, 186; on the Tewkesbury question, 189; on the death of

HenryVI., 195, 199; hismistake about a second coronation atYork, 227;retailsarumouraboutthedeathoftheprinces,240

Dacre,LordofGillesland,24;deathatTowton,31,33;tombatSaxton,34;hisbrother forgiven, 36; at Richard's coronation, 109, 143; commissioner forpeacewithScotland,145;hurryingtoKingRichard'shelp,buttoolate,151

Dampierre,châteauwhereMargaretofAnjoudied,79Dartford,PrincessBridgetanunat,87n.Daubeny,SirGiles,withHenryTudor,149;LieutenantoftheTower,268Daventry,48Davies,Mr.,seeYorkRecords.Davy, Henry, to deliver certain garments to John Goddestande, footman to

EdwardsonofEdwardIV.,237Dobenham,SirGilbert,45DelaWarre,Lord,109,143Deptford,Vicarof,burntonTowerHill,118Devereux,SirWalter,mentionedintheletterfromEdwardandEdmundtotheir

father,4;LordFerrersofChartley(whomsee)jureuxorisDevonshire, Earl of, at the battle ofWakefield, 14; at Towton, 24, 31; flight

fromTowton, 33; beheaded, 34; nextEarlwithMargaret ofAnjou, 70; atTewkesbury,74;slain,76;sonmarriedKatherine,daughterofEdwardIV.,87n.,271n.;underattainder,109,144

Dickon'sNook,whereKingRichardaddressedhisarmy,154Digby,Captain,slainatWakefield,15Digby,Simon,joinedHenryTudor,149;aspy,153Dighton, John,260; likely tobehanged,261; falsestatements respecting,263;

bailiffofAyton,264,266,274;probablyapriest,267,269;rewarded,272;livedatCalais,274

Dittingdale,nearTowton,28Doncaster,42Dorchester,69Dorset,Marquisof,atTewkesbury,74;incommandattheTowerwhenEdward

IV.died,88;insanctuary,91;inrebellion,109,144;guardiantotheEarlofWarwick, 129; his rebellion, 131; flight, 132; advised by his mother toreturn,136,238;imprisonedbyHenryVII.,270

Dublin,George,DukeofClarence,bornat,3Dudley,Lord,109,129,143

Dudley,William,BishopofDurham,146Durham,Bishopof,atRichard'scoronation,144Dymoke,SirRobert,thechampion,knighted,147Dynham,Sir J.,with the reserves atTowton,23,30,32,35,109; traitor, 144;

createdLordDynham,35

Easterlingships,42,43,44Ebrington,77Eccleshallcastle,56Edgcombe,Richard,withHenryTudor,149Edmund Langley, Duke of York, rebuilt Fotheringhay and founded a college

there,1,2,11Edmund, Earl of Rutland, born at Rouen, 3, 6; letter to his father, 4; fled to

Irelandwithhisfather,7;cametoLondon,9;andtoSandalCastlewithhisfather, 10, 13; in the battle of Wakefield, 14; slain, 15, 16; absurd storyabout his death, 16n.; headongate atYork, 17; obsequies, 39;memorialchapelatWakefield,19

Ednam,J.,BishopofBangor,146Edward,2ndDukeofYork,2;hisbook'TheMasterofGames,'108Edward IV., born at Rouen, 3, 6; letter to his father, 4; escaped to Calais, 7;

return,victoryatNorthampton,7;visitshisbrothersandsisterintheTempleevery day, 8; at Shrewsbury, 11; victory atMortimer's Cross, proclaimedking, 18, 19, 20, 22; description of, 20; started for the north, 22; head-quarters at Pomfret, 27; conduct at surprise at Ferrybridge, 28; judiciousorders to retrieve thedisaster,28;valourandpresenceofmindatTowton,32; always gave quarter, 34; advance to York, 34; coronation, 35; just,placable, and forgiving, 36; kindness toLordHungerford's family, 36, 37;marriage ceremonywithLadyGrey, 41; affection for his brotherRichard,41;flighttoHolland,42;reception,43;expeditiontorecoverthecrown,44;lands at Ravenspur, 45; at York, 46; march to London, 47, 48; battle ofBarnet, 50; Tewkesbury campaign, 70-78; pardon to several leaders atTewkesbury,77;conductafterTewkesbury,289,290;bribedbyLouisXI.todesert theDuke ofBurgundy, 82; death, 86; children, 86, 87n.; buried atWindsor,86;hiswill,89;contractofmarriagewithLadyEleanorButler,93,218, 219, 222; treasure under ecclesiastical sequestration, 227; his allegedconductafterTewkesburydiscussed,289,290

EdwardofLancaster,sonofHenryVI.,birth,54,55;atGreenwich,56;present

atbattles,57;withhismother,58,59;lifeatKoeur-la-Petite,61;instructionfromChief JusticeFortescue, 62-65;proposedmarriagewithAnneNevill,67; character, 68; at battle of Tewkesbury 74; slain, 75; buried inTewkesbury Abbey, 75; mode of his death, Croyland, 189; André, 189;Comines, 189; letter to Bruges, 75 n.; Warkworth, 189; Fabyan, 189;PolydoreVirgil,190;Habington,Grafton,Hall,190,191n.;Holmshed,190;Stow,191;silenceofMortonandRous,191,192;Mr.Gairdner,188n.,286,287,288

Edward, son ofRichard III., 84; created Earl of Salisbury, 85, 295; Prince ofWales,130;death,136;tombatSheriffHutton,137

Edward,sonofDukeofClarence,87n.;birth,101;wardtoDorset,129;EarlofWarwick,125;atRichard'scoronation,109,143;declaredheirtothethrone,102,138; inKingRichard'shousehold,125;with theking inhisprogress,129;knightedatYork,130;atSheriffHutton,142;memberofcouncil,236;seizedbyHenryTudor,248,255;crueltreatmentanddeath,275,280

Edward, son of Edward IV., Earl ofMarch and Pembroke, 86 n.; proclaimedking,89;cametoLondon,91;setasideasillegitimate,97;preparationsforhis coronation, 209; intentions of King Richard respecting, 125; in KingRichard's household, 125, 236; his tailor's bill, 237. See Murder of thePrinces

ElizabethWoodville,LadyGrey,marriageceremonywithEdwardIV.,41,86;children,86n.;insanctuary,91;allowedhersonRichardtojoinhisbrother,100;agreedwiththekingtocomeoutofsanctuary,136,238;intrigueswithLadyStanley,231;advisedhersonDorsettocomehomeandsubmittotheking,238;herknowledgea causeof fear forHenryVII., 256; robbedandimprisoned by Henry VII., 257; attempted explanation by Lingard andNicolas,257n.;Mr.Gairdner,257n.

Elizabeth,daughterofEdwardIV.,birth,86n.;herdresslikethequeen's,178;rumour about her marriage with Richard, 140; her letter to the Duke ofNorfolk229; evidenceofBuck, viewsofNicolas,Lingard,Gairdner, 229,230n.;senttoSheriffHutton,142;seizedbyHenryTudor,248;marriedtohim as Henry VII., 250, 253, 254; her coronation, 258; treatment of herrelationsbyHenry,277;death,277

Elizabeth,anotherdaughterofEdwardIV.,87n.,marriedtoLordLumley,221n.

Elizabeth,DuchessofSuffolk,bornatRouen,3,6;atRichard'scoronation,126,127

Elizabeth, Queen, founded St. Peter's College,Westminster, 116; her Englishancestry,163

Eltham,11,107Ely,Isleof,242Ely,Bishopof,seeMortonElyPlace,Holborn,110Enderby,SirWilliam,madeK.B.,147England, face of the country in the fifteenth century, 106; condition of the

people, 65, 121-123; prices, 123; progress of King Richard through, 128;products,112

Essex,Earlof,109,110,143Esteney,John,AbbotofWestminster,114,146Eton,foundedbyHenryVI.,116;boysat,inthefifteenthcentury,117Eure,SirRalph,atTowtonforHenry,24Ewelme,78Exeter,70,132Exeter,Bishopof,seeCourtenayNevillExeter,Duchessof,seeAnneExeter,Duke of,marriage, 3; atWakefield, 14; at Towton, 24, 58; advancing

againstEdward,47;atBarnet,49

Fabyan's Chronicle, 168, 174; untrustworthy, 174, 175; silent about thedeformity,186; inventedastoryabout themurderofEdwardofLancaster,190;ondateofHenry'sdeath,195,199;gave falsedates,215;contradictsPolydore Virgil respecting Dr. Shaw's sermon, 222; silent as to calumnyagainst the Duchess of York, 222; common fame that Richard secretlymurderedhisnephews,243;'smokygunners,'44

Fairfax,SirGuy,judgeoftheKing'sBench,145Fairs,112Fauconberg, Lord, reviewed the London citizens, 21; his service, 21, the best

generalonEdward'sside,23;sentinpursuitofClifford,overtookandroutedhim,28;marchtoTowton,31,32;hisorderstothearchers,32;createdEarlofKent,35

Fauconberg,bastardof,hisinsurrectionputdownbyPrinceRichard,80Feilding,SirWilliam,slainatTewkesbury,76FennlanesnearBosworth,153FerrersofChartley.SeeDevereux.AtRichard'scoronation,109,143;hurriedto

helptheking,151;fellatBosworth,155,157;loyaltothelast,252Ferrybridge,Yorkistforceat,23,27

FitzHugh,Lord,atTowtonontheLancastrianleft,31FitzJames,Captain,slainatWakefield,15FitzRanulph,Robert,founderofMiddleham,83FitzWalter,Lord,jureuxoris,SirJohnRatcliff,23;slainatFerrybridge,27Fitzwilliam,Nicholas,RecorderofLondon,146Flory,John,ofFrance,beheadedatTewkesbury,76Flushing,44Fogge,SirJohn,reconciliationwiththeking,128;traitor,133n.Forest,Miles, inHenryVII.'s story of themurder of the princes, 260; said to

haverottedawaypiecemeal,261;reallyKeeperoftheWardrobeatBarnardCastle,264;anoldroyalservantfalselyaccused,265

Fortescue, Sir John, Chief Justice, 24, 59; conversations with Edward ofLancaster, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65; with Margaret, 67, 69; pardoned afterTewkesbury, 77; Fuller's praise of him, 119; on the condition of Englishlabouringclass,123

FortescuesfollowedtheEarlofDevontoTowton,24FotheringhayCastle,birthplaceofRichard III.,1,3; itshistory,1;description,

DukesofYorkresidedat,2;subsequenthistory,2n.;funeraloftheDukeofYork,39;monuments,40n.

Fox, Dr. Richard, an agent of Morton, secretary to Henry Tudor, 149; madeBishop of Winchester, 149 n.; decoyed Tyrrel into Henry's power, 273;noticeof,273n.

FrenchChancellor,assertionthattheprincesweremurdered,242,243;provedtobefalse,244

Fulford,SirBaldwin,beheadedatYork,34FulfordpardonedafterTewkesbury,77FulfordsfollowedtheEarlofDevontoTowton,24

Gainsborugh,130Gairdner, James, C.B., LL.D., reason for thinking Richard may have been a

murderer at 19, 188 n.; on the obit ofHenryVI., 198 n.; on the grant toBuckingham,224n.;ontheletterofElizabethtotheDukeofNorfolk,230n.;ontheexecutionsbyHenryTudorafterBosworth,247;onthetreatmentof theQueenDowager, 257; proved that the king'sAttorneyGeneralwasloyal to thelast,145n.;suggests that thedeathofClarencewasduetohisknowledgeofEdward'smarriagecontract,95;hisviewofthegovernmentofHenry VII., 249; his view of the extent of Richard's guilt, 281, 282; hismethodstatedinhispreface,282,283;remarksonhisviews,283,284;hisadmissions, 285; on the deformity, 285; surprise that Rivers shouldmakeRichardsupervisorofhiswill,285;Richard'sactsdonotharmonisewiththeTudor stories, 286; his ideas about the death of young Edward atTewkesbury, 286-288; views respecting King Edward's treatment ofprisonersafterthebattle,289-290;viewsaboutthedeathofHenryVI.,290-294; acknowledges that Richard interceded for his brother Clarence, 294;replytohisremarksaboutRichard'ssupposedremorse,295;hasnothingtosay against Richard's marriage, 295; he admits, assuming they were nottried, that the sentenceofRiversandhiscompanionswasnotmoreseverethanthelawmightauthorise,296;hethinksthatEdward'sprecontractwithLadyEleanorButlermaybetrue,296;yethestillbelievesintheslanderofthe Duchess of York, 297; his defence of the assertion that Richardmurderedhisnephews,298-299

GaltresForest,34,58Gamble'sClose,positionofLordStanleyatBosworth,152Garter, Order of the, stall plate of Richard Duke of Gloucester, 38; Duke of

Burgundyinvested,113;knightsmadebyKingRichard,146GascoignesfaithfultoKingRichard,151

Gascons,tradeinwine,112Gastons,apositiononTewkesburybattlefield,72Gedding,SirJohn,slainatWakefield,15George,seeClarence,DukeofGiles,SirJohn,pardonedafterTewkesbury,77Gladmoor,seeBarnetGlastonbury,70Gloucester,71,128;KingRichardat,129;Buckinghamat,225Gloucester,HumphreyDukeof,histreatmentofJacobaofHolland,44Gloucester,Johnof,illegitimatesonofRichardIII.,237n.;madeawaywithby

HenryVII.,255n.Gloucester,RichardDukeof,seeRichardIII.Gloucester, Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of, marriage with the Bohun co-

heiress,128Goddestande,237,seeDavyGoldenFleece,EdwardIV.andGruthuuscompanionsof,43Goldwell,Dr.,BishopofNorwich,146Gower,James,beheadedatTewkesbury,76,77Grantham,39Green,John,inthestoryofthemurders,260;apocryphalgrantsto,264;grants

toanamesakebyRichardIII.,264;granttohimselfbyHenryVII.,268,269;hisdeath,271-273

Greenfield,ClementPaston'stutor,117Greenwich,56Grey,Lord,ofCodnor,109,143Grey,Lord,ofPowys,109,143;CommissionerforPeacewithScotland,145Grey,Lord,ofWilton,109,143Grey,SirJohn,madeK.B.,147Grey, SirRichard,with youngEdward atLudlow, 88; arrested, 90; beheaded,

100Grey,Thomas,MarquisofDorset,whomseeGreydeRuthyn,Lord,treacheryatNorthampton,56Grey,Lady,seeElizabethWoodvilleGreystoke, Lord, at Richard's coronation, 109, 143; cousin to the king, 110;

hurryingtohelptheking,buttoolate,151Grimsby,SirWilliam,pardonedafterTewkesbury,77Gruthuus,LouisdeBruges,Lordof,hospitalitytoEdwardIV.,43;helpinfitting

outtheexpedition,44Guilds,112Gunners,Flemish,withhandguns,44

Gunthorpe,John,LordPrivySeal,144;CommissionerforPeacewithScotland,145

GupshillfarmnearTewkesburybattlefield,73;Margaretawaitedtheresultinareligioushouseat,74

Habington'sLifeofEdwardIV.,onabsurdityofaccusingRichardofmurderofHenryVI.,199;hisaccountofEdward'sproceedingsafterTewkesbury,289;withHallandGraftonaddsDorsettotheassassinsatTewkesbury,190

Hague,the,EdwardIV.at,43Hall,SirDavid,theDukeofYork'schiefadviser,10,13,23;sentoutforaging

partyfromSandal,13;battlebroughtonagainsthisadvice,14;slain,15,21,106

Hall'sChronicle, absurd story about themurder ofRutland, 16n., 190n.; hisstatementabout funeralofHenryVI.,190n.,andaboutRichardCroftandEdwardofLancaster,191n.;thepamphletinspiredbyMortonembodiedin,168;copiedfromearlierwriters,179,190,241

Halsted,Miss,biographerofRichardIII.,85n.,181,186;thebestworkonthesubject,145n.,182

Hampton,SirEdmund,slainatTewkesbury,76Hanson,Captain,woundedatWakefield,15Hardwycke,ofLindley,joinedHenryTudorandactedasaguide,153Hardynge'sChronicle,Morton'slampoonfirstappearedin,168Harfleur,MargaretofAnjouembarkedat,69;HenryTudorembarkedat,142Harington,James,ClerkoftheCouncil,145;slainatBosworth,155,157;loyal

tothelast,252Harington,SirJohn,heardthattheMortonlampoonwaswrittenbyMorton,168;

orbyMore,170n.Harrow, J., Warden of the Mercers' Company, with the Duke of York at

Wakefield,11;woundedandputtodeath,15;headstuckonagateatYork,17

Hastings,Wm.,23;knightedonthefieldofTowton,36;createdLordHastings,36;flightwithEdwardIV.,42,44;atBarnet,49;atTewkesbury,71,74,89;his conspiracy, 97, 98; arrest and execution, 99; his son a minor, 109;Richard's generosity to his widow and family, 99; falsifications of datesrespectinghisdeath,210-216

Haute,SirJohn,79Haute,SirRichard,88;arrested,90;beheaded,100

HedgleyMoor,59HedinghamCastle,107Henry IV. (Bolingbroke), his usurpation and its consequences, 103, 117;

marriagewiththeBohunheiress,128HenryV.(ofMonmouth),hischaracter,war,andpersecutionofheretics,103HenryVI.(ofWindsor),takenprisoneratNorthampton,7;marriage,54;assent

totheActmakingtheDukeofYorkheirapparent,9;huntingatGreenwich,11;re-capturedbyhiswife,17;atYorkduringthebattleofTowton,flighttoScotland,34,58;atHexham,59;concealedatBoltonHall,59;hisdeath,78;buriedatWindsor,139;falsedateforhisdeathandinsinuationsbyMorton,PolydoreVirgil,Warkworth,Fabyan,Rous,Croyland,193-195;hisaccountsreveal the truth, 197, 198, 199;Mr.Gairdner's views respecting his death,290-4;foundedEtonCollege,116

HenryVII., seeTudor,Henry;businessofvilifyinghispredecessor,171,173;inspired the story of themurder of the princes, as Lord Bacon suspected,169, 236, 250, 251; his conduct respecting the Act settling the crown onRichard, 218; his illegal executions after Bosworth, 246, 247 n.; hischaracterandgovernment,248,249,251,253;hisusurpation,250;marriage,254: strongmotive for the crime, 254; his other victims, 255; silences therelations,257,270,271;givesoutthestory,258,259;fearofdetection,267;murderoftheprinces,269;rewardstoTyrrelandothers,268,269,270;gotTyrrel into his power by treachery, 273; cruel treatment and death ofEdward,EarlofWarwick,275; contemplatinganother crimeonhisdeath-bed,277; restitution toTyrrel's son,277;died tormentedby remorse, 278;things unexplained in his conduct, 279, 280. See Murder of the princesHenry,CaptainofBristol,slainatTewkesbury,76

Heraldry,110Heralds'College,110,162Hereford,8Hereford,Bishopof,146Heretics,Lancastrianlawforburning,103,117,118Hexham,battleof,59Heydon,John,RecorderofNorwich,119Hill,SirW.,beheadedatYork,34Holborn,110Holderness,45Holinshed'sChronicle,179,190HolmeHill,nearTewkesburybattlefield,72Hook,Dr.,LivesofArchbishopsofCanterbury,hasdoubts,181

Hopton, Walter, Treasurer of the Household, 145; knighted, 147; slain atBosworth,145,252

Home,CaptainofAppledore,atTowton,23;inthepursuitofClifford,28;slaininthebattle,32

Howard,Lord,89,seeNorfolk,DukeofHungatesofSaxton,30,35Hungerford, Lord, at Towton forHenry, 24, 31; known as LordMolines, 25;

flight, 33; continued in rebellion, 36; beheaded, 59; generosity of EdwardIV.tohisfamily,36;hissonaminor,109,143

Hungerford,Walter,joinedHenryTudor,149;slewSirR.Brackenbury,156Hunting,106,108Huntingdon,Earlof,atRichard'scoronation,109,143;borethequeen'ssceptre,

127;withthekingonhisprogress,129Hussey,SirWilliam,LordChiefJustice,145

Iceland,Richard'spromotionoftradewith,161InnsinLondon,112InnsofCourt,112Insomuch,J.,printeroftheBookofSt.Albans,108Iolanthe,sisterofMargaretofAnjou,67Ireland,DukeofClarencebornatDublin,3; flightof theDukeofYork to,7;

EarlofKildareLordDeputy,145;KingRichard'sgoodgovernmentof,161

Jackson,Robert,beheadedatTewkesbury,76JacobaofHolland,44JamesIII.ofScotland,86,139,257n.Jenney,SirWilliam,JudgeofCommonPleas,145;knighted,147Jervaux,Monksof,83Jesse,disbelievedmostoftheTudorfables,181JohnofGloucester,seeGloucesterJudgesintimeofRichardIII.,145

Katherine,daughterofEdwardIV.,marriedtotheEarlofDevonshire,87n.,271

n.Kelfield,Stillingtonfamilyat,96n.Kemp,CardinalArchbishopofCanterbury,christenedEdwardofLancaster,55Kempe,J.,BishopofLondon,146Kendall,John,SecretaryofSlate,145;slainatBosworth,155,157;loyaltothe

last,252Kent,Earlof,LordFauconbergcreated,35Kent,Grey,Earlof,atRichard'scoronation,carried theecclesiasticalswordof

justice,109,127,143Keyley,James,paymentto,forKingRichard'stomb,253n.Kidwelly,Morgan,Attorney-General,145;loyaltothelast,145n.Kildare,Earlof,LordDeputyofIreland,145Kirkcudbright,Margaretembarkedat,58

Laing,continuationofHenry'sHistory,disbeliefofTudorstories,181,197n.Lancaster, Duchy of, Duke of Gloucester, Chief Seneschal, 84; T. Metcalf,

Chancellorof,83n.,145Lancastrians,DukeofYork'stwoelderdaughtersmarriedto,3;overpoweredthe

DukeofYorkatLudlow,7;raiseanarmyinYorkshire,9,11,13;atrocitiesafter Wakefield, 16, 17. (See Towton, Barnet, Tewkesbury.) MalcontentsintriguinginFrance,140,141,231,243

Langstrother,SirJohn,PriorofSt.John,withMargaret,69;atTewkesbury,74;triedandexecuted,76

Langton,BishopofSt.David's,146;praiseofKingRichard,130Latimer,Lady,madeRichardsupervisorofherwill,84,160,202Law,119Lawofficers,145Lawlesstimes,120Lawyers,112Legge,'UnpopularKing,'rejectsmostoftheTudorstories,181Leicester,47,130;KingRichardat,152;buriedat,158Lewis,Dr.,sentbyLadyStanleytotheQueenDowager,231Lewknor,SirThomas,traitor,133n.Lichfield,Bishopof,146Lincoln,KingRichardat,whenheheardofBuckingham'srebellion,130Lincoln,Bishopof,seeRussell,Dr.Lincoln,Earlof,109;nephewtotheking,110;atRichard'scoronationbearing

the orb, 127, 143; with the king on his progress, 129; false statement ofRous,138

Lingard,Dr.,believerinallTudorstories,182,281;onHenryVI.,198n.;ontheexecution of Rivers, 210 n.; on young Edward's tailor's account, 237;defenceofHenry'sexecutionsafterBosworth,247n.; imprisonmentof theQueenDowager,257n.;allegedrewardstomurderers,264

Lisle,Viscount(Grey),100,109;atRichard'scoronation,126,235;boretherodwithdove,127,143

Lisle,Viscount,Arthur,sonofEdwardIV.,87n.,221n.Llandaff,J.Marshall,Bishopof,146LoanraisedbyKingRichard,142Londonwarmly supported the House of York, 10, 104; residences, 110, 112;

inns,112;citycompanies,112;popularityofKingRichard,139;Recorder,146;Bishop,146

LondonerswiththeDukeofYorkatWakefield,10;citizensdeclareforEdwardIV.,21;marchtoTowton,22

LorenzotheMagnificent,likenesstoRichardIII.,40n.,124Lorraine,Isabelleof,motherofMargaretofAnjou,53;deathof,55LouisXI.,58,66;bribedtheministersofEdwardIV.,82;interviewwithPrince

Richard,82LouisXII.,128Lovel,Francis,Viscount,friendofRichard,40;borethecivilswordofjusticeat

the coronation, 109, 127; LordChamberlain, 144; created aKnight of theGarter,146;withthekingatBosworth,151,155;loyaltotheend,252

Lovell,SirThomas,Tyrreldecoyedintohispowerbytreachery,273Loyal men, at Bosworth and on their way, 151, 155, 157; in Henry's Act of

Attainder,252Lucy, Elizabeth, mother of two children of Edward IV., 87 n., 221 n.; false

statementofMorton,220Ludlow,DukeofYorksucceedsto,3;Yorkistdefeatat,7;YoungEdwardat,88Lumley,Lord,87n.,221n.;atRichard'scoronation,109,143LumleyCastle,107Lymbricke,SirWalter,woundedandtakenprisoneratWakefield,15Lymon,Thomas,Solicitor-General,145;marriedJaneShore,100,145Lynn,42

MagdalenCollege,Oxford,KingRichardat,129

Malmesbury,71Maltravers,Lord,atRichard'scoronation,109,143Manorhouses,121Mantes,54March,Earlof(EdwardIV.),7,8n.,20,58March,Earlof, andPembroke, sonofEdward IV.,125.SeeEdwardMarches,

RichardWardenofthe,85Margaret ofAnjou, birth, 53;marriage, 54; birth of her son, 54, 55; strove to

makehersonpopular,56;adventuresinthewar,57-59;livingatKoeur-la-Petite,60-67;agreementwithWarwick,66,67;embarkedforEngland,68-69; at Cerne Abbey, 69, 70; at Tewkesbury, 72-77; taken prisoner to theTower, 78;with theDuchess of Suffolk, 78; ransomed, 79; last years anddeath,79;herallegedcrueltiesafterWakefielduntrue,17n.

Margaret,Princess,DuchessofBurgundy,birth,3,6;takenprisoner,7;inJohnPaston'schambers,7,8;marriage,43,113;helptoherbrothers,43-44;visittoherbrothers,111;patronofCaxton,113,114

Margaret,Princess,daughteroftheDukeofClarence,CountessofSalisbury,87n.;killedbyHenryVIII.,256

MargaretBeaufort,seeStanley,LadyMarkham,Sir John, createdK.B. byEdward IV., 36; his present of a book to

LordCromwell,51n.;LordChiefJustice,119Markham,SirRobert,createdK.B.byEdwardIV.,36Marshall,J.,BishopofBangor,146MauleverersloyaltoKingRichard,151MercersCompany,seeHarrow.CaxtonaMercer,113MerchantAdventurers,113MerchantTaylors'Company,disputewithSkinners,112Merchants'increasingwealth,112MetcalfesofNappa,ThomasmadeChancelloroftheDuchy,83,145Methley,LordWellesburiedat,34Micklegate,DukeofYork'sheadon,17,36MiddlehamCastle, the homeofRichard andAnne, 81, 82; description of, 83,

107;Richardfoundedacollegeat85,118,294Middleton,SirRobert,252Miles,Lewis,beheadedatTewkesbury,76Milewater, servant to Edward and Edmund, 5; slain at Barnet fighting by

Richard'sside,50MilfordHaven,HenryTudorlandedat,142,148Milling,Dr.,BishopofHereford,146

MillstonesfromParis,112MinistersofRichardIII.,144-145Miracleplays,119Moleyns,BishopofChichester,hangedbysailors,118MolinesorMoleyns,Lord,seeHungerford;lawlessconduct,120Monasteries,118Montagu, Marquis; his treason, 42; at Hexham, 59; outmanoeuvred, 47; at

Barnet,49;slain,51;griefofRichard,51;whointercededforhischildren,51,202

More,SirThomas, the so-called 'HistoryofRichard III.' attributed to, 168; itsfreedomfromcriticismduetoMore'sreputedauthorship,170;notwrittenbyMore,170;onMorton'sextraordinarymemory,208

Morley,Lord,atRichard'scoronation,109;withthekingonhisprogress,129,143

Mortimerinheritance,DukeofYorksucceededto,3Mortimer,HughandSirJohn,withtheDukeofYork,10;slainatWakefield,15Mortimer'sCross,victorywonbytheEarlofMarch,18,20Morton, Dr., with Henry VI. at York, 24, 27; with Margaret in exile, 69; at

Tewkesbury,pardoned,77;BishopofEly,bribedbyLouisXI.,82;intriguesagainstRichard,97-99;giveninchargetotheDukeofBuckingham,100;hispoliticalpamphlet called 'HistoryofRichard III.',168; its authorship,169-171; account of Morton and his career, 206-207; made Archbishop ofCanterbury, 25, 207; on Richard's alleged deformity, 185-186; silentrespecting the death of Edward of Lancaster, 191, 192; insinuation aboutHenryVI.,193;confessedthatRichardresistedthedeathofClarence,203;his story about Richard's assumption of the protectorship, 208-210; hisversionoftheHastingsplot,210-213;hisfalsificationofdates,213-216;hisversion of the execution of Rivers, 216-217; his falsification of KingRichard'stitle,217-221;hisshamefulslanderoftheDuchessofYork,220;unworthyof credit, 221;his falseversionofRichard's accession,222-223;his account of conversations with the Duke of Buckingham, 222-227; hisevidenceofRichard's intentions respectinghisnephews,238; intriguing intheIsleofElyandinFrance,242

Mountjoy,Lord(seeSirWalterBlount),35;sonandheirslainatBarnet,51;toannounceaccessionofRichardIII.atCalais,102,109

Mowbray,inheritance,125Mucclestonchurch,56Murder of the princes, story as given out byHenryVII., 169, 258-259; fuller

storypublishedbyGraftonandRastell,259-261;questionoftheirfate,233;nodangertoRichard,235;aliveduringRichard'sreign,236-238;conductofmother and sister, 238, 239; false rumours, 239, 240; contradictory dates,225;murderedbyorderofHenryVII.,256;storyputforwardcontradictoryand inaccurate, 262; Tyrrel, 269; burial, bodies discovered, 270; relationssilenced,270,271;allegedrewardstomurderers,264,265;Henry'srewards,272;Henry'sremorse,276,278;Mr.Gairdner'stheory,298,299

MusgravesfaithfultoKingRichard,151

NappaHall,seatoftheMetcalfes,83NavyofRichardIII.,135-136.SeeRogers,Thomas

Neale,Richard,JudgeofCommonPleas,145Nesfield,Captain,towatchtheWestminstersanctuary,241Nevill,George,BishopofExeter, persuadedEdward to take thekinglyoffice,

22,23;ArchbishopofYork,RichardandAnnesattogetherathisinstallationfeast,40;Anne'sguardian,marriedhertoRichard,81,82

Nevill,LadyAnne,seeAnneNevill,LadyCecily,3.SeeYork,DuchessofNevill,LadyIsabella,DuchessofClarence,41;children,87n.Nevill,77Nevill,Lord,traitortotheDukeofYork,11Nevill,Lord,Richardwroteto,forreinforcements,98Nevill, SirGeorge, son of LordAbergavenny,madeK.B., 147.SeeMontagu,

Salisbury,Warwick,WestmorelandNevill,SirJohn,atTowtonforHenry,24;withLordClifford,27;slain,29Nevill,SirThomas,10;slainatWakefield,15;headstuckonthegateatYork,

17Newark,47Newborough,SirWilliam,beheadedatTewkesbury,76Newcastle,EarlofWiltshirebeheadedat,34Nicolas,SirHarris,rejectssomeofTudorstories,181;denouncessomeofthem,

228,230Nobilitynotdestroyedbywarsof theRoses,37,105; life in thecountry,106,

108.SeePeerageNokes,John,5Norfolk,Dukeof(Mowbray),10,11;atTowton,32,35;deathofheiress,125Norfolk,Dukeof(Howard),atRichard'scoronationbearingthecrown,109,127,

143;cousintotheking,110;presentto,fromtheroyalwardrobe,111;EarlMarshal, 144; Admiral, 144; commissioner for peace with Scotland, 145;hurriedtotheking'shelp,151,154;hiscamp,152;slainatBosworth,155

Norfolkcoast,shipsofKingEdwardoff,45Northampton,Battleof,7,56;RichardandBuckinghamat,90Northumberland,Earl of, at thebattle ofWakefield, 14; atTowton forHenry,

24;ledthecentre,31,32;slain,33;buriedatYork,34;hissonrestored,36,134; atRichard's coronation,bore thepointless swordofmercy,127;109,143; Commissioner for Peace with Scotland, 145; at Bosworth but heldback,151,154;retribution,154n.;presidedat thetrialofLordRivers,99,217

NorwegiantradersatStourbridgefair,112NorwichsenttrooptoEdward,71;Recorderof,seeHeydon

Norwich,Bishopof(Dr.Goldwell),atRichard'scoronation,144,146NostellPriory,13Nottingham,47,130,136;memorialtoKingRichardIII.at,158NottinghamCastle,47,148;KingRichardcommencedhismarchfrom,151Nottingham,Earlof,109,125,143

OfficialdocumentsinRichard'sfavour,179;valueofevidence,292Ogle,Lord, in themarches duringRichard's coronation, 109, 143; hurrying to

jointhekingatBosworth,151Ogle,SirRobert,58Oldham,Dr.,BishopofSodorandMan,147Ormonde,Earlof,24(seeWiltshire);pardoned,36;inPortugal,66;pardonedat

Tewkesbury,77Ormonde,SirThomas,createdK.B.,147OxfordUniversity,116;KingRichardat,128,129Oxford,JohnVereEarlof,underattainder,109,144;atBarnet,47,49,50;came

withHenryTudor,148;atBosworth,154,155;originofthestarinthearmsof,50n.

Parker,pardonedafterTewkesbury,77Parker,SirWilliam,theking'sstandardbeareratBosworth,156,157Parliament,ActmakingtheDukeofYorkheirapparent,9;deposedHenryVI.

for violating his word, 21, 22; met in spite of the supersedeas, 98, 100;proofs of the illegitimacy submitted, 101; petitionsRichard to assume thecrown,102;greatpoweroftheSpeaker,104;Richard'sParliamentmet,Actspassed,134;ActsfirstpublishedinEnglish,134;distinctionbetweenpublicandprivateActsfirstmade,134;LordCampbell'sopinion,134.SeeTitulusRegius

Parr, Dr., inscription over King Richard's well, 158; remarks on likeness ofRichardtoLorenzotheMagnificent,40n.,124

Parr,SirThomas,withtheDukeofYorkatWakefield,10;grandfatherofQueenKatherineParr,15

Parr,SirWilliam,slainatWakefield,15;headstuckonthegateatYork,17Parr,Thomas,Richard'sesquire,slainatBarnet,50Paston,boyatEton,117

Paston,Clement,atCambridge,117Paston,John,7,120,122,201Paston,Mrs.,117,120,122PastonLetters,7,8n.,23,76n.,81,151n.Payn,Mr.,hisluggageseizedbyJackCade,122Payne'sPlace,MargaretofAnjoutookrefugeat,77Peerage,37,105,106;ofRichardIII.,109,143;athiscoronation,109,126,127;

nopeer,exceptStanley,joinedHenryTudor,149Pembroke,seeTudor,Jasper,titleofEdward,sonofEdwardIV.(whomsee)PembrokeCastle,HenryTudorbornat,140Percy,SirRichard,24;slainatTowton,33,34Percy,SirRobert,ofScotton,friendofRichard,40;ControlleroftheHousehold,

145;knighted,147;withthekingatBosworth,151,156Peterborough,1Pickering,Sir James,with theDukeofYorkatWakefield, 10; slain, 15;head

stuckonagateatYork,17Pilgrimages,119Pilkington,SirJohn,knightedafterTewkesbury,77Pilkington,SirThomas,loyaltoKingRichard,252Pilkingtons,faithfultoKingRichard,151Plantagenets, theDynasty,166; thekingsof theLancastrianbranch,103,104;

Yorkistright,9,104;childrenoftheDukeofYork,6;ofEdwardIV.,86n.;oftheDukeofClarence,87n.;slaughterofthelastmale,275

Plumptoncorrespondence,245;arbitration,84,160n.PlumptonsfaithfultoKingRichard,151Plumsteadchurchyard,120Pole-on-the-Humber,LordRiverslandedat,46Pole,dela,seeSuffolk,Dukeof,Lincoln,EarlofPole,Annedela,139Pole, Richard, married to the Princess Margaret, daughter of the Duke of

Clarence,87n.Pole,SirEdmunddela,createdK.B.,147;afterwardsEarlofSuffolkPolydoreVirgil,employedbyHenryVII.,168;hiscomingtoEngland,171;his

numerous preferments, 172; character of his history, 172; untrustworthy,175;ontheunequalshoulders,186;ontreatmentofcaptivesatTowton,34;aslanderer,190,192;ondateofdeathofHenryVI.,193,196;hiscalumnyabouttheDuchessofYork,220,222;statementaboutBuckingham'sclaims,223; silent aboutClarence, 202; contradictsMorton about Shaw's sermon,220;contemplatedmarriagewithElizabeth,231;battleofBosworth,157n.;

hisstoryofthemurder,258Pomfret, Lancastrian army at, 13; bodies of the Duke of York and Earl of

Rutlandat,34,39;Montaguat,47Pomfret Castle, a residence of the Duke of Gloucester, 84; Edward's

headquartersbeforeTowton,25;executionofLordRiversat,99Pont-à-Mousson,birthplaceofMargaretofAnjou,53,61Portsmouth,69PostfirstestablishedbyRichardIII.,106,159Prices,123Printing,seeCaxtonProgress,KingRichard'sroyal,129-30Pulter,Thomas,loyaltoKingRichard,252

Quarter,nonegivenbytheLancastriansatWakefield,16,17;proofthatitwasgiven by Edward at Towton, 34; always given by Edward, 34; given toinferiorofficersandsoldiersatTewkesbury,whereseveralleaderswerealsopardoned,77

Queen,seeAnneNevillQueen,seeElizabethofYorkQueenDowager,seeElizabethWoodville

Raby,Roseof,seeYork,DuchessofRamme,traitor,executedatExeter,132Rapin,HistoryofEngland,180,181Ratcliffe,SirJohn(LordFitzwalter),23;atFerrybridge,23;slain,27Ratcliffe,SirRichard,99,145;KnightoftheGarter,147;atBosworth,156,157;

loyaltothelast,252Ratford,Capt,slainatthebattleofWakefield,15Ratte,John,loyaltotheend,252Ravenspur,Edwardlandedat,45Redman,Dr.,BishopofSt.Asaph,129,145,146RedmorePlain,152,154René,King,53;death,79Revell,Richard,loyaltothelast,252Richard III. (Duke of Gloucester), son of the Duke of York, born at

Fotheringhay,3,6;childhoodwithMargaretandGeorge,4;prisoneratwar,7;inJohnPaston'schambersintheTemple,8,10;senttoHollandforsafety,18; loss of his father and brother, 18, 19, 38; built a memorial chapel atTowton,37;creations,Knightof theGarter,38;stallplateatWindsor,38;chiefmourner at his father's funeral, 39;military training underWarwick,40;earlyandenduringfriendships,40;companionshipwithAnneNevill,40;description of, 40, 124; loyal to Edward IV., 41; flight with Edward toHolland,42;atBruges,43;fittingoutshipsatVeere,44;atRavenspur,45;negotiation with Clarence, 47, 48; at Barnet, 50; at Tewkesbury, 74;marriage and life at Middleham, 81, 82, 84; with Edward IV. in France,uprightconduct,82;foundedcolleges,85,107,118,294;supervisorofwills,84, 99; arbitrator, 84, 160n.; highoffices ofState, 84, 85;Wardenof theMarches,campaign inScotland,excellenceofhisadministration,85; takesBerwick, 86; Protector by Edward's will, services and popularity, 89;arrestedRivers,89,90;residedwithhismother,91;ignorantofhisbrother'smatrimonial secrets, 97; stamped out the Hastings conspiracy, 98, 99;rightfulheir,101;acceptsthecrown,102;townhouseatCrosbyPlace,85,110;coronation,126,127;granttoBuckingham,126;progress,128-130;atYork, 130; suppressed Buckingham's revolt, 131-132; Parliament andadministrativereforms,134,135;lossofhisson,137;progressandreceptionof Scotch ambassadors, 139; popularity in London, 139; his wife's death,140; military talent, 149; courage and pluck, 150; formation of his army,154; resolvesonadesperatechargeatBosworth,155;gloriousdeath,156;buried at Leicester, 158;memorials, 158; character, 159, 160; accusationsagainsthim,167,184;Tudorcalumnies,192,199;deformity,185-187;Mr.Gairdner and the alleged crimes of, 281-301. See Edward of Lancaster,HenryVI.,AnneNevill,Hastings,Clarence,Rivers,TitulusRegius,MurderofthePrinces

Richard,secondsonofEdwardIV.,86n.; insanctuary,91; joinedhisbrother,100,125.SeeMurderoftheprinces.

Richmond, earldom,granted to theDukeofGloucester,38,140;HenryTudorhadnorighttothetitle,109,133n.,144

RichmondCastle,107Rivers,Earl,flightwithEdwardIV.,42,44;landedatPole,46;Constableofthe

Tower, 78; in chargeof his nephewatLudlow,88; arrested, 90; tried andexecuted,99,216,217;madeRichardIII.supervisorofhiswill,99,160;hisliteraryattainments,115;hissonaminor,109

Robsart,SirTerry,knightedafterTewkesbury,77Rochester,Bishopof,Dr.Audley,atRichard'scoronation,144,146

RockinghamForest,1Rogers,Thomas,keeperoftheships,135,144Rogers,Mr. Thorold, on the character of Edward IV., 37; on theWars of the

Roses, 104; opinion of churchmen, 118; disbelief in themurder ofHenryVI.,198

Roos,Lord,withHenryandMargaretatYork,24,27;beheadedatHexham,59Roos,SirHenry,pardonedafterTewkesbury,77Roos,SirWilliam,slainatTewkesbury,76RoseofRaby,seeYork,DuchessofRoses,Warsofthe,theircauses,6,104;thenobilitynotannihilated,37,105;not

awarofthepeople,104Rotherham,Archbishop,88,100Roucliffe,Brian,BaronoftheExchequer,145Rouen,childrenoftheDukeofYorkbornat,3,6Rous,John,anunblushingtimeserver,173,174;onRichard'sbirth,186;reason

of his silence about Tewkesbury, 191; Henry VI., 195; Countess ofWarwick,201;trialofRivers,217n.;deathofQueenAnne,228;adoptionof Warwick as heir, alleged supersession by Lincoln, 138; death of theprinces,244

Rumours of the deaths of the princes alleged to have existed, 239; CroylandMonk, 240; no evidence, 241;Morton in the Isle of Ely, 242; spread byHenryVII.,256

Russell, Dr., Bishop of Lincoln, his speech on investiture of the Duke ofBurgundy with the Garter, 113; an upright prelate, 118; King Richard'sChancellor, 144; at the coronation, 144; commissioner for peace withScotland,145

Rutland,Earlof,seeEdmund

Saints'days,lettersalwaysdatedon,119St.Albans,battlesof,17,56,57St.Albans,Bookof,108St. Asaph, Bishop of, B. Redman, 129, 146; commissioner for peace with

Scotland,145St.David's,Bishop,109.SeeLangtonSt.Denis,atYork,EarlofNorthumberlandburiedat,34St.Germain,Walter,loyaltothelast,252St.John,Priorof,seeLangstrother

St.Leger,SirThomas,traitor,131;beheaded,132St.Liz,Simonde,founderofFotheringhay,1St.Lo,SirJohn,knightedatTewkesbury,77St.Martin'sDay,stockkilledandsaltedon,121St.Martin'sleGrandsanctuary,AnneNevillin,81St.Miheil,60St.Pol,DukeofBurgundy'sCourt,43,60Salisbury,Buckinghambeheadedat,132Salisbury, Bishop of, 100; traitor, 132, 146; at Richard's coronation, 144. See

WoodvilleSalisbury,Earlof,with theDukeofYorkatSandal,10,13;atWakefield,14;

takenprisonerandputtodeath,16,21;headexposedatYork,17;funeralatBisham,34;townhouseatColdHarbour,110

Salisbury,Earlof,seeEdwardSalkeld,Wm.,arrestedtheEarlofWiltshireatCockermouth,34SanctuaryatWestminster,91,136,241;atSt.Martin'sleGrand,81SandalCastle,DukeofYork's inheritance,3; theDukearrivedat, description,

11-12;ruins,12;surroundingcountry,13;Duke'sChristmasat,13,14Sandford,onthedeathofClarence,202,203n.Sandwich,80Sapcote,William,loyaltothelast,252Sasiola,Galfridusde,seeSpanishAmbassadorSavage,SirJohn,joinedHenryTudoratBosworth,149,154

Saxton,nearTowton,seeTowtonandHungate;LordDacreburiedat,34,35Saye,Lord,flightwithEdwardIV.,42,44;slainatBarnet,51Saye,SirWilliam,createdK.B.,147Sayer,William,paymentsto,forkeepofHenryVI.,197Scarthingwell,27,28Scotland, flight ofHenryVI. to, 34, 58;Richard's campaign in, 85, 86; peace

with,139,145;MargaretofAnjouin,9Scotton,seePercyScrope, ofBolton, Lord,withEdward, 23;wounded at Towton, 32;Richard's

neighbour, 130, 143; at Richard's coronation, 109; executions by, 132 n.;hurryingtotheaidoftheking,151

ScropeofMasham,Lord,atRichard'scoronation,109,143Severn,71,72;slaughterataford,afterTewkesbury,75;greatflood,131Seymour,SirJohn,slainatTewkesbury,76Shaundé,Philibertde, incommandofHenryTudor's troops,142;atBosworth,

153,154Shaw,Dr., sermon,misrepresented byMorton and PolydoreVirgil, 220, 221;

falsedate,215Sheen,35Sherburn,27,29SheriffHutton,84;chapeladdedtothechurchbyRichard,85;tombofEdward

PrinceofWalesat,137;Edward,KingRichard'sheir,at,138,142Shore,Jane,100;marriedtotheSolicitor-General,145n.Shrewsbury,Earlof,aminor,109,143Simnel,Lambert,280Skinners'Company,112Skipton,84Skipwith,SirJohn,attheDukeofYork'sobsequies,39SlaughterorSlater('BlackWill'),260,264,269;rewardsto,271Sluys,60Smith,Wm.,BishopofLichfield,146Smyth,William,5SodorandMan,Bishopof,146Somerset,Duke of, at the battle ofWakefield, 14; and Towton, 23;made his

peace,36;beheadedatHexham,59Somerset, Duke of, Edmund, Buckingham's descent from, 225; at Barnet, 49;

withMargaret,69,70;atTewkesbury,73;hischarge,74,75;beheaded,76;titlebecameextinct,37

Sopwell,Prioressof,seeBerners,Juliana

Southampton,54Southwick,54SpanishAmbassador,130;knightedatYork,130,seeAyalaSasiolaSpofforth,84Sport,seeHuntingStafford,Humphrey,atBosworthfortheking,155;loyaltothelast,252Stafford,SirThomas,atBosworthfortheking,155Stallworthe,ReverendSimon,lettertoSirW.Stonor,withrealdateofexecution

ofHastings,214Stanley, Lady, mother of Henry Tudor, 140; at Richard's coronation bore the

queen'strain,126,127,235;herintrigues,131,133,226,231;pardonedbytheking,148,231

Stanley,Lord,109,111;atRichard'scoronation,109,143;LordSteward,144;commissionerforpeacewithScotland,145;theonlyPeerwhojoinedHenryTudor, 149; raised forces, 149; secret interview with Henry Tudor, 149;treacheryatBosworth,150,152,153;threwoffthemask,155,159;objectsoftheStanleys,148

Stanley,SirRalph,woundedandtakenprisoneratWakefield,15Stanley,SirWm.,capturedMargaretofAnjou,78;treacheryatBosworth,156;

retribution,158;knewthetruthabouttheprinces,244Stapleton,SirBrian,forthekingatBosworth,155Stapletonvillage,152Stillingfleetchurch,96n.Stillington, Dr., Bishop of Bath and Wells; his disclosure of Edward's first

marriage,93-97;accountof,94-96;treatmentbyHenryVII.,251StokeGolding,152,153,157Stonor,SirWilliam,seeStallwortheStonyStratford,90Story,Ed.,BishopofChichester,146Stourbridge,112Stourton,Lord,atRichard'scoronation,109,143Stow'sChronicle,179,185,191Strange,Lord,231-232Strickland,Miss,onRichard'smarriagewithAnne,201Strickland,SirThomas,knightedafterTewkesbury,77;loyaltotheking,151Suffolk,Duchessof,seeElizabethSuffolk,DukeandDuchess,53,54;receivedMargaretofAnjouatEwelme,78Suffolk,Dukeof, atRichard's coronationbearing the sceptre, 109, 143; king's

brother-in-law,110

Supersedeas,seeParliamentSurrey,Earlof,sonmarriedtoAnnedaughterofEdwardIV.,86n.;atRichard's

coronationbearingtheswordofstateinthescabbard,109,127,143;KnightoftheGarter,146;atBosworthforKingRichard,151,252

SuttonCheney,152;king'sarmyformednear,154

Tadcaster,26,27,46Talbot,SirGilbert,histreason,148;atBosworth,154Talbots,148Talboys,SirWilliam,atTowtonforHenry,24;beheadedatYork,34TattershallCastle,builtofbrickbyLordBourchier,107Taunton,70Temple,JohnPaston'schambersin,seePaston,JohnTewkesbury, 72; battle, 74-75, King Richard at, 128, 129; contemporary

accounts, Warkworth, Croyland Monk, Comines, 189; Stories of Fabyan,190;PolydoreVirgil,190;Grafton,Hall,Holinshed,Habington,190;silenceof Morton and Rous, 191, 192; Mr. Gairdner's view, 286, 287, 288;executionsafterthebattle,76,77,288;pardons,77

Throgmorton,pardonedafterTewkesbury,77TickhillCastle,107Tipton,Lord,seeWorcester,EarlofTitchfield,HenryVI.andMargaretofAnjoumarriedat,54'TitulusRegius,'aStatePaperexplainingKingRichard'stitletothecrown,101;

becameanActofParliament,134,218;attemptofHenryVII.todestroyallcopies,218,250,279

Townshend,Rodger,JudgeoftheKing'sBench,145,146Towton,battleof,numbers,25,31;distances,25;descriptionofthesurrounding

country, 26; formation of the Lancastrian line, 31; battle, 32, 33. SeeFauconberg,EdwardIV.,Horne

Tremayne,Thomas,King'sSerjeant,146Tresham,Speaker,104Trollope, Sir Andrew, Lancastrian chief of the staff at Wakefield, 14, 16; at

Towton,25;hisantecedents,25;inthecentre,31,106;slain,33Tudor,Edmund,createdEarlofRichmond,butforfeitedbyattainder,38Tudor,Henry,109,125;notEarlofRichmond,38;cameacrosstheChannelbut

afraid to land,131; traitor,133n., claim to thecrown,140,141n.; familyandorigin,140;landsatMilfordHaven,142;interviewswiththeStanleys,

149, 153; encamped at White Moors, 153; in the rear of the battle ofBosworth, 154; contrast between Richard III. and Henry VII., 160 n. SeeHenryVII.

Tudor, Jasper, 70; levies inWales, 70, 71; traitor, 133n., 140; camewith hisnephew, 148; atBosworth, 154; formerlyEarl of Pembroke, but attainted,133n.

TudorsinWales,10,18;theirpaidwriters,168;theirfables,183,187TunbridgeCastle,DuchessofYorkandherchildrenprisonersat,7Tunstall,SirRichard,KnightoftheGarter,147Turner,Sharon,doubtedmostofTudorstories,181Tuxford,39Tweed,rivernearBosworth,152Tynemouth,58Tyrrel, Sir James, knighted after Tewkesbury, 77; escorted the Countess of

WarwicktoMiddleham,201,202;storiesafterhisexecution,258,259,260,261; betrayal by Bishop Fox, 273; his previous career, 268; allegedconfession,263;takenintofavourbyHenry,269;histwopardons,269,270;murderoftheprinces,269;rewardsfromHenry,272;pretextforgettingridofhim,272,273,279;Tyrrel'ssonrestoredinblood,277

Urswick,Dr.,231Utrecht,RichardandGeorgeat,18,38

VanBorselle,LordofWalcheren,44Vaudemont,Ferryde,67Vaughan,SirThomas,88;arrested,90;beheaded,100Vaux,Lady,74Vaux,SirThomas,slainatTewkesbury,76Vavasour,John,King'sSerjeant,146Vavasours,ofHazlewood,nearTowton,26Veere,expeditionofEdwardIV.fittedoutat,44Venery,workson,bythesecondDukeofYork,108;JulianaBerners,108Vere,John,seeOxford,EarlofVignolle,Françoisde,79Virgil,seePolydore

Wake,Roger,loyaltothelast,252Walcheren,44WalleyspardonedafterTewkesbury,77WallingfordCastle,79,197Walsinghampilgrimages,119Warbeck,Perkin,258,275Wardrobe,royal,111;keeperofthe,145Wardrobe,the,inBlackfriars,aroyalresidenceintheCity,139Warkworth,Dr., onTewkesbury, 189; on thedateofHenry's death, 175, 194,

199Warwick,47;KingRichardat,129Warwick,Countessof,inFrance,66,67;atBeaulieu,69;joinedherdaughterat

Middleham,82,84,201,202;inheritance,81,82Warwick,Earlof,seeEdwardWarwick,RichardNevill Earl of, 7, 10, 22, 23, 28; gaveRichard hismilitary

training, 40; his treason, 66; conspiracy with Margaret of Anjou, 41, 67;outmanoeuvred by Edward, 47, 48; at Barnet, 49, 50; slain, 51; buried atBisham,51;divisionofhisestates,80

Watkin,Walter,heraldinRichard'stime,loyaltothelast,252Waynflete,BishopofWinchester,55;receivedRichardatOxford,129,146Weavers,Flemish,112Welch,John,aliasHastings,loyaltothelast,252Welles, Lord, slain at Towton, 33; buried at Methley, 34; son forgiven, 36;

traitor,132n.;marriedPrincessCicely,86n.,271Wenlock, Sir John, at Towton, 23, 30, 32; created LordWenlock, 35; joined

MargaretofAnjou,70;slaininthebattleofTewkesbury,74,76Wensleydale,82Wentford,SirPhilip,120Wentworth,SirEustace,slainatWakefield,15Westminster, John Esteney, Abbot of, 114; coronation of Edward IV., 35;

coronationofRichardIII.,126,127;sanctuary,91,136,241;towerbuiltbyKingRichardat,161

Westminsterschool,itsantiquity,116Westmoreland, Earl of, 109, 143; cousin to the king, 110; not at Towton, a

mistakeofLelandfollowedbyHall,29n.Weymouth,69'WhiteHart'Inn,inSouthwark,112,122

WhiteMoorsatBosworth,153Whittingham,SirR.,slainatTewkesbury,76WigmoreCastle,3Willoughby,SirChristopher,createdK.B.,147Willoughby, Sir Robert, 149; sent to Sheriff Hutton to seize Edward and

Elizabeth,248Wilson,John,120Wiltshire,Earl of, atWakefield, 14; atTowton, 24, 31; beheaded, 34; brother

restored,36;atRichard'scoronationbearingthequeen'scrown,127,143Winchester,Bishopof,seeWaynfleteandFoxWinchesterSchool,116Windsor,St.George'sChapel,stallplateofRichardIII.,38;EdwardIV.at,70;

present from the wardrobe to the college, 111; Edward IV. buried at, 86;HenryVI.buried,139;nearlyfinishedbyRichardIII.,139,161;portraitofRichardIII.at,40n.,124

Wodehouse,SirEdward,knightedafterTewkesbury,77Wolesley,Ralph,BaronoftheExchequer,145Wolferstone,SirRoger,atTowtonforEdward,23Woodville,Elizabeth,seeElizabethWoodvillefaction,theirenrichment,41;bribedbyLouisXI.,82;theirdesigns,

88;caused thedeathofClarence,88,95; theirconspiracydefeated,88-91,131;marriagesintonoblefamilies,88.SeeRivers

Woodville,Lionel,BishopofSalisbury,atRichard'scoronation,126,235Woolandclothfair,112WoolleyEdge,13Worcester,77,128Worcester,Bishopof,seeAlcockWorcester, Tiptoft Earl of, author and statesman, 115; Caxton's lament at his

death,115,116Wykeham,Williamof,founderofWinchesterSchool,116

York,flightofHenryVI.from,afterTowton,34,58;KingEdwardat,34;PrinceRichard'sbeneficialconnectionwith,84;KingRichardat,130;loyaltyofthecitizens,130;sent80mentoreinforcethekingatBosworth,151;mournedthedeathofRichard,159

York,Archbishopof,seeNevill,Rotherham.York,Duchessof(seeRoseofRabyandNevill,LadyCecil),3;twelvechildren,

3,6;takenprisoneratLudlow,7;refugeinPaston'schambers,7;joinedtheDuke,7; lastpartingwiththeDuke,10,11;senther littlesonstoHolland,18,21;Richardresidingwithher,91,92;Richard'slettertohismother,92n.;longwidowhoodanddeath,93n.;buriedatFotheringhay,93n.;slandersofMortonandPolydoreVirgil,220,221;inthesecretofherson'scontractwith Lady Eleanor Butler, 94; slandered by Morton and Polydore Virgil,220,297

York,EdmundDukeof,rebuiltFotheringhay,1,2,11York,EdwardDukeof,authorofaworkonsport,108York,RichardDukeof,hisgreatpossessions,3;wifeandchildren,3,6; letter

fromhissons,4;causeofhisresorttoarms,6,104;defeatofLudlow,7;atBaynard's Castle with his family, 9, 10; march north, 11; at Sandal, 13;betrayed, 11; slain in the battle of Wakefield, 15; his head stuck onMicklegateBar,17;outragesimputedtoMargaretandClifforduntrue,17n.;magnificentobsequiesatFotheringhay,39

'YorkRecords,'editedbyMr.Davies.EvidenceofloyaltytoKingRichardandagainst alleged deformity, 186; disproves second coronation atYork, 177,227,228;EarlofWarwickaCouncilloruntilMay1485,138;childrenintheking'shousehold,126;thesupersedeasandlettertoYork,100

YorkistcaptainsatWakefield,10,15;atTowton,23Yorkistkings,nearlyofpureEnglishblood,166Yorkistprinces,theleadingsportsmenofEngland,108Yorkists,introductionofprintingtheirchiefglory,113

Zouch,Lord,atRichard'scoronation,109,143;hurriedtothehelpoftheking,151;slainatBosworth,155,157;loyaltothelast,252

Zouch,SirW.,createdK.B.,147

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Transcriber'snotes:

Some chapters had varying page headers. These have beenconvertedintosidenotesandplacedwhereseemedmostlogical.

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