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MODES OF DISCOURSE

Description: depicts images verbally in space and time, arranging those images in a logical pattern such as spatial or by association.

Narration: tells a story or relates an event, organized by chronological and spatial order, what, when, where

Exposition: informs or instructs, presents ideas or “truths” objectively.

Persuasion: convincing audience, proving or refuting a point of view or issue. Organized by deduction or induction.

KINDS OF EXPOSITION ORGANIZATION

Comparison

Contrast

Cause and effect

Classification

Division

Definition

PURPOSE

Support a cause

Promote change

Stimulate interest

Refute a theory

Win agreement

Arouse sympathy

Provoke anger

AUDIENCE: WHO IS IT?

Knowledge

Beliefs

Expectations

What do they disagree with

Language usage-jargon, formal, archaic, anecdotal, warm, familiar?

Questions need to address?

Inductive reasoning—general to specific

Deductive reasoning—specific to general

Syllogism

Cite common beliefs, cultural traditions

Allusions to history, lit, religious text, myth

Expert testimony

Analogies/Metaphors

Chronological order

Order of importance

Provide evidence

Classify evidence

Cite authority

Quote research

Use facts

Theorize about cause and effect

Argue from set precedent

LOGICAL APPEALS (LOGOS)

Show self as trustworthy

Demonstrate research time

Support reasons with logical evidence

Show craftsmanship in argument structure

Show self as concerned

Show self as knowing and respecting audience

Convincingly show self as knowledgeable and reliable

ETHICAL APPEAL--ETHOS

Use sensory details

Use bias or prejudice

Anecdote

Connotative language—used specifically for effect

Use euphemisms or explore euphemisms

Use description

Use figurative language

Develop specific tone

Use/experiment with language—esp. informal.

EMOTIONAL APPEALS--PATHOS

Don’t claim to be able to solve the whole complex problem.

The more complex the problem, the less likely your essay is a “miracle cure.”

Don’t oversimplify. This hurts your ethos.

Support your argument with CONCRETE evidence and SPECIFIC propositions

Common Logical Fallacies

Ad populum

Begging the question

Circular reasoning

Either/or reasoning

Hasty generalization

Non sequitur

Pedantry

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

Propaganda

LOGICAL FALLACIES: ERRORS IN REASONING

INTRODUCING AN ARGUMENT

Attention Grabber

Present issue/topic with CONCRETE example or anecdote

Provide background

Define terms (specialized)

State claim—We call this your thesis.

CONCESSION AND REFUTATION

Writers can’t ignore the opposing side of an argument. MUST address it.

Concession acknowledges the opposition Refutation presents argument against opposition.

“Yes…but” part of your paper Can be structured to ALL appear in intro Can be addressed point by point in body

CONCLUSION

Satisfying wrap up

Restates claim

Provides appeal to needs or values

Can enrich with additional commentary

Call to action/change thought

DO NOT REPEAT INFORMATION

CONFIRMATION

Provides the REASONS and EVIDENCE for writer’s claim. Longest part of argument Shows logic of argument Uses rhetorical devices Develops argument

Not just logos Pathos—esp. to human values or needs

WORKS CONSULTED

College Board (2002). The AP Vertical Teams Guide for English 2nd edition.