Revolution and Napoleon (17891815)The French RevolutionMain article:French Revolution

TheTennis Court Oathof 20 June 1789 was a pivotal event during the first days of the Revolution. It signified the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI.

TheStorming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789.The immediate trigger for the Revolution was Louis XVI's attempts to solve the government's worsening financial situation. WhenLouis XVdied in 1774 he left his grandson Louis XVI, "A heavy legacy, with ruined finances, unhappy subjects, and a faulty and incompetent government." Regardless, "the people, meanwhile, still had confidence in royalty, and the accession of Louis XVI was welcomed with enthusiasm."[46]Recent wars, especially theSeven Years' War(1756-1763) and theAmerican Revolutionary War(1775-1783) had effectively bankrupted the state. The taxation system was highly inefficient. Several years of bad harvests and an inadequate transportation system had caused rising food prices, hunger, and malnutrition; the country was further destabilized by the lower classes' increased feeling that the royal court was isolated from, and indifferent to, their hardships.In February 1787 his finance minister,Charles Alexandre de Calonne, convened anAssembly of Notables, a group of nobles, clergy,bourgeoisie, and bureaucrats selected in order to bypass the local parliaments. This group was asked to approve a newland taxthat would, for the first time, include a tax on the property of nobles and clergy. The assembly did not approve the tax, instead demanding that Louis XVI call theEstates-General.In August 1788 the King agreed to convene theEstates-General in May 1789. While the Third Estate demanded and was granted "double representation" so as to balance the First and Second Estate, voting was to occur "by orders" votes of the Third Estate were to be weighted effectively canceling double representation. This eventually led to the Third Estate breaking away from the Estates-General and, joined by members of the other estates, proclaiming the creation of theNational Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People."In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des tats where the Assembly met. After finding the door to their chamber locked and guarded, the Assembly met nearby on a tennis court and pledged theTennis Court Oathon 20 June 1789, binding them "never to separate, and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations." They were joined by some sympathetic members of the Second and First estates. After the king fired his finance minister,Jacques Necker, for giving his support and guidance to the Third Estate, worries surfaced that the legitimacy of the newly formed National Assembly might be threatened by royalists.Paris was soon in a state of anarchy. It was consumed with riots and widespread looting. Because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city, the mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers. On 14 July 1789, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of royal tyranny. Insurgentsseized the Bastille prison, killing the governor and several of his guards.The French nowcelebrate 14 July each yearas a symbol of the shift away from theAncien Rgimeto a more modern, democratic state.Gilbert du Motier, a hero of the War of American Independence, took command of the National Guard, and the king was forced to recognize theTricolour Cockade. Although peace was made, several nobles did not regard the new order as acceptable and emigrated in order to push the neighboring, aristocratic kingdoms to war against the new democratic regime. Because of this new period of instability, the state was struck for several weeks in July and August 1789 by theGreat Fear, a period of violent class conflict.TheDeclaration of the Rights of Man and Citizenwas adopted by the National Assembly in August 1789 as a first step in their effort to write a constitution. Considered to be a precursor to modern international rights instruments and using theU.S. Declaration of Independenceas a model, it defined a set of individual rights and collective rights of all of the estates as one. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights were deemed universal and valid in all times and places, pertaining to human nature itself. The Assembly also replaced France's historic provinces with eighty-three departments, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population.Abolition of feudalism

The signing of theAugust Decrees- inbas relief,Place de la Rpublique.On 4 August 1789, the Assembly abolished feudalism, in what became known as theAugust Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate (nobility) and the tithes gathered by the First Estate (clergy). In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Rgime armorial bearings, liveries, etc. which alienated the more conservative nobles. Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution.A new judicial organization made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressedguilds, masterships, and workers' organizations. Consequently, an individual could only gain the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license, and worker strikes became illegal.The Revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from theRoman Catholic Churchto the state. Under the Ancien Rgime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property. The Assembly essentially addressed the financial crisis in part by having the nation take over the property of the Church.The republican government also enforced theSystme International d'Units(International System of Units), commissioned by Louis XVI, which became known as the Metric System.Charles-Augustin de CoulombandAndr-Marie Ampre's works on electricity and electromagnetism were also recognised, and their units are integrated into the Metric System.Royal family captured

An illustration of theWomen's March on Versailles, 5 October 1789.When a mob from Parisattacked the royal palace at Versailles in October 1789seeking redress for their severe poverty, the royal family was forced to move to theTuileries Palacein Paris. Later in June 1791, the royal family secretly fled Paris in disguise for Varennes near France's northeastern border in order to seek royalist support the king believed he could trust, but they were soon discovered en route. They were brought back to Paris, after which they were essentially kept under house-arrest at the Tuileries.Factions within the Assembly began to clarify. The opposition to revolution sat on the right-hand side of the Assembly. The "Royalist democrats" or monarchiens inclined toward organizing France along lines similar to the British constitutional model. The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, represented somewhat more extreme views. The increasingly middle-class National Guard under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right.With most of the Assembly still favoring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise. Under theConstitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy with Louis XVI as little more than a figurehead. The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, although he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. He had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount tode factoabdication.The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791 and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165Feuillants(constitutional monarchists) on the right, about 330Girondists(liberal republicans) in the center, a vocal group ofJacobins(radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with any of those factions. Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened themigrswith death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by theCivil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would result in a constitutional crisis, leading the Revolution to higher levels.On the foreign affairs front, in theDeclaration of Pillnitzof August 1791, Holy Roman EmperorLeopold II,Count Charles of Artois, and KingFrederick William II of Prussiamade Louis XVI's cause their own. These noblemen also required the Assembly to be dissolved through threats of war, but, instead of cowing the French, it infuriated them. The borders were militarised as a consequence. Under theConstitution of 1791, the solution of a constitutional monarchy was adopted, and the king supported a war against Austria in order to increase his popularity, starting the longFrench Revolutionary Wars. On the night of the10 August, theJacobins, who had mainly opposed the war, suspended the monarchy. With the Prussian army entering France, more doubts were raised against the aristocracy, and these tensions climaxed during theSeptember Massacres.After the first great victory of the French revolutionary troops at theBattle of Valmyon 20 September 1792, theFrench First Republicwas proclaimed the next day, on 21 September 1792. The newFrench Republican Calendarwas then legally enforced.Factionalism amongst revolutionariesThe National Convention was fractured into factions, the most dangerous of which became theMontagnards. TheMontagnardsand theGirondinswere both originallyJacobins, a political club which was founded according to republican beliefs and whose members wanted a French democratic republic.[47]The Jacobin Club, however, encountered political tension beginning in 1791 due to conflicting viewpoints in response to several revolutionary events and how to best achieve a democratic republic.[48]Members of "The Mountain" (French:La Montagne) sided with the Parisian militants, also known as thesans-culottes, who aimed for a more repressive form of government that would institute a price maximum on essential consumer goods and would punish all traitors and enemies of the Republic.[49]Additionally, between war and political differences, the Montagnards believed these crises required emergency solutions.[50]The Montagnards considered themselves the true patriots of the French Revolution.[51]The Mountain had 302 members during its reign in 1793 and 1794, including committee members and deputies who voted with the faction.[52]Most of its members came from the middle class and tended to represent the Parisian population.[53]Its leaders includedMaximilien Robespierre,Jean-Paul Marat, andGeorges Danton.[54]This party eventually gained overwhelming power in the Convention and governed France during theReign of Terror.

Mass shootings at Nantes,War in the Vende, 1793.Possibly the two most significant factors in the quarrel and consequential split between the Montagnards and the Girondins include theSeptember Massacresand thetrial of Louis XVI, both in 1792. The official fall of the monarchy came on 10 August 1792 after Louis XVI refused to rescind his veto of the National Assembly's constitution. The Mountain argued for immediate execution of the king by military court-martial, insisting that he was undermining the Revolution. Because a trial would require the "presumption of innocence," such a proceeding would contradict the mission of the National Convention. The Girondins, in contrast, agreed that the king was guilty of treason but argued for his clemency and favored the option of exile or popular referendum as his sentence.[55]However, the trial progressed and Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.The second key factor in the split between the Montagnards and the Girondins was the September Massacres of 1792. Radical Parisians, members of the National Guard, and fdrs were angry with the poor progress in the war against Austria and Prussia and the forced enlistment of 30,000 volunteers. On 10 August, radicals went on a killing spree, slaughtering roughly 1,300 inmates in various Paris prisons, many of whom were simply common criminals, not the treasonous counterrevolutionaries condemned by the Mountain.[56]The Girondins did not tolerate the massacres, but neither the Montagnards of the Legislative Assembly nor theParis Communetook any action to stop or condemn the killings. Members of the Girondins later accused Marat, Robespierre, and Danton as inciters of the massacres in an attempt to further their dictatorial power.[57]Execution of Louis XVI[edit]

TheExecution of Louis XVIon 21 January 1793 in what is now thePlace de la Concorde, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather,Louis XV, had stood.When theBrunswick Manifestoof July 1792 once more threatened the French population with Austrian (Imperial) and Prussian attacks, Louis XVI was suspected of treason and taken along with his family from the Tuileries Palace in August 1792 by insurgents supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune. The King and Queen ended up prisoners, and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy. Little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. The King was later tried and convicted and,on 21 January 1793, was executed by the guillotine. Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October.What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs into prisons to arbitrarily adjudicate and butcher 1400 victims, and then addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France, inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until a National Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic.Members of the Mountain went on to establish theCommittee of Public Safetyin April 1793 under Robespierre, which would be responsible forThe Terror(5 September 1793 28 July 1794), the bloodiest and one of the most controversial phases of the French Revolution. The time between 1792 and 1794 was dominated by the ideology of the Mountain until the execution of Robespierre on 28 July 1794.The war went badly. Prices rose, thesans-culottes(poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted, and counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisiansans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin andsans-culotteselements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical.The Reign of TerrorStarting in September 1793, a period known as theReign of Terrorensued for approximately 12 months, the bloodiest and one of the most controversial phases of the French Revolution. TheCommittee of Public Safety, set up by the National Convention on 6 April 1793, formed the twelve-member de facto executive government of France. Under war conditions and with national survival seemingly at stake, the Montagnard Jacobins underMaximilien Robespierrecentralized denunciations, trials, and executions. At least 18,000 people met their deaths under the guillotine or otherwise, after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities.

The execution ofRobespierre, July 1794.In 1794, Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed. As a consequence of these actions, however, Robespierre's own popular support eroded markedly. On 27 July 1794, theThermidorian Reactionled to the arrest and execution of Robespierre. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror and, after taking power, they took revenge as well by banning the Jacobin Club and executing many of its former members including Robespierre in what was known as theWhite Terror.After the stated aim of the National Convention toexport revolution, the guillotining of Louis XVI of France, and the French opening of the Scheldt, a European military coalition was formed against France. Spain, Naples, Great Britain, and the Netherlands joined Austria and Prussia inThe First Coalition(17921797), the first major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. It took shape after the wars had already begun.The Republican government in Paris was radicalised after a diplomatic coup from the Jacobins said it would be theGuerre Totale("total war") and called for aLeve en masse(mass conscription of troops). Royalist invasion forces were defeated atToulonin 1793, leaving the French republican forces in an offensive position and granting a young officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, a certain fame. Following their victory atFleurus, the Republicans occupied Belgium and the Rhineland. An invasion of the Netherlands established the puppetBatavian Republic. Finally, a peace agreement was concluded between France, Spain, and Prussia in 1795 atBasel.DirectoryThe Convention approved a new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August 1795; it was ratified by a national plebiscite and took effect on 26 September 1795.[58]The new constitution created the Directory and the first bicameral legislature in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives le Conseil des Cinq-Cents(the Council of the Five Hundred) and 250 senators le Conseil des Anciens(the Council of Elders). Executive power went to five "directors", named annually by theConseil des Anciensfrom a list submitted byle Conseil des Cinq-Cents. The nation desired rest and the healing of its many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII and the Ancien Rgime and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the First Coalition.The four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between the parties impossible. As the majority of French people wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. The Convention habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them, resorted to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging their power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies, which also desired war and were becoming increasingly less civic in temper.The Directory lasted until 1799 whenNapoleonstaged a coup and installedThe Consulate. The Consulate still operated within the First Republic. The Consulate was replaced by theFirst Empire, established by Napoleon in 1804.[59]

The Napoleonic EraSee also:Napoleonic wars

Napoleonon his Imperial throne, byJean Auguste Dominique Ingres.During theWar of the First Coalition(17921797), theDirectoirehad replaced the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made totake Egyptfrom the Ottoman Empire, a British ally. This wasNapoleon's idea and the Directoire agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon defeated the Ottoman forces during theBattle of the Pyramids(21 July 1798) and sent hundreds of scientists and linguists out to thoroughly explore modern and ancient Egypt. Only a few weeks later the British fleet underAdmiral Horatio Nelsonunexpectedly destroyed the French fleet at theBattle of the Nile(13 August 1798). Napoleon planned to move into Syria but was defeated and he returned to France without his army, which surrendered.[60]The Directoire was threatened by theSecond Coalition(17981802). Royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war. In 1799 the Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles such asCassano, while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland atStockachandZurich. Napoleon then seized power through a coup and established theConsulatein 1799. The Austrian army was defeated at theBattle of Marengo (1800)and again at theBattle of Hohenlinden (1800).[61]While at seathe Frenchhad some success at Boulogne but Nelson's Royal Navy destroyed an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at theBattle of Copenhagen (1801)because the Scandinavian kingdoms were against the British blockade of France. The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties: theTreaty of Lunvilleand theTreaty of Amiens. A brief interlude of peace ensued in 1802-3, during which Napoleonsold French Louisianato the United States because it was indefensible.[61]In 1801 Napoleon concluded a "Concordat" with Pope Pius VII that opened peaceful relations between church and state in France. The policies of the Revolution were reversed, except the Church did not get its lands back. Bishops and clergy were to receive state salaries, and the government would pay for the building and maintenance of churches.[62]Napoleon reorganized higher learning by dividing theInstitut Nationalinto four (later five) academies.

Napolon at theBattle of Austerlitz, byFranois GrardIn 1804 Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding theFirst French Empire. Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than traditional European monarchies of the time. The proclamation of the French Empire was met by theThird Coalition. The French army was renamedLa Grande Armein 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army achieved a resounding victory atUlm(1619 October 1805), where an entire Austrian army was captured.[63]A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated atTrafalgar(21 October 1805) and all plans to invade Britain were then made impossible. Despite this naval defeat, it was on the ground that this war would be won; Napoleon inflicted on the Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats atAusterlitz(also known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors" on 2 December 1805), destroying the Third Coalition. Peace was settled in theTreaty of Pressburg; the Austrian Empire lost the title ofHoly Roman Emperorand theConfederation of the Rhinewas created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories.[63]Pan-European efforts to contain NapoleonPrussia joined Britain and Russia, thus forming theFourth Coalition. Although the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and subject states. Largely outnumbered, the Prussian army was crushed atJena-Auerstedtin 1806; Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia. There the Russian Empire was defeated at theBattle of Friedland(14 June 1807). Peace was dictated in theTreaties of Tilsit, in which Russia had to join theContinental System, and Prussia handed half of its territories to France. TheDuchy of Warsawwas formed over these territorial losses, and Polish troops entered the Grande Arme in significant numbers.

The height of theFirst EmpireFreed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as the French Empire was still at war with Britain. Only two countries remained neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the latter. In theTreaty of Fontainebleau (1807), a Franco-Spanish alliance against Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories. French armies entered Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise.Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain afterCharles IVabdicated.This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the Spanish and Portuguese fought the French usingguerilla tactics, defeating the French forces at theBattle of Bailn(June and July 1808). Britain sent a short-lived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as defined in theConvention of Sintrafollowing the Allied victory atVimeiro(21 August 1808). France only controlledCataloniaandNavarreand could have been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies attacked again, but the Spanish did not.Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and was described as "an avalanche of fire and steel." However, the French Empire was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers. In 1808 Austria formed theWar of the Fifth Coalitionin order to break down the French Empire. The Austrian Empire defeated the French atAspern-Essling, yet was beaten atWagramwhile the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire atRaszyn(April 1809). Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, thepeace treatyin October 1809 stripped Austria of a large amount of territories, reducing it even more.

Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, byAdolf Northern.In 1812 war broke out with Russia, engaging Napoleon in the disastrousFrench invasion of Russia (1812). Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had ever seen, including troops from all subject states, to invade Russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier. Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusiveBattle of Borodino, near Moscow, the Grande Arme entered and captured Moscow, only to find it burning as part of the Russianscorched earthtactics.Although there still were battles, such asMaloyaroslavets, the Napoleonic army left Russia in late 1812 annihilated, most of all by the Russian winter, exhaustion, and scorched earth warfare. On the Spanish front the French troops were defeated atVitoria(June 1813) and then at theBattle of the Pyrenees(JulyAugust 1813). Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain.Since France had been defeated on these two fronts, states previously conquered and controlled by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. TheSixth Coalitionwas formed, and the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon. Napoleon was largely defeated in theBattle of the Nationsoutside Leipzig in October 1813, and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during theSix Days Campaign(February 1814), although, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece because the allies suffered much higher casualties.Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814, and was exiled toElba. TheconservativeCongress of Viennareversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars. Napoleon's attempted restoration, a period known as theHundred Days, ended with his final defeat at theBattle of Waterlooin 1815.The monarchy was subsequently restored andLouis XVIIIbecame king.Napoleon's impact on FranceNapoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancien rgime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.[64]Religion had been a major issue during the Revolution, and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by theConcordat of 1801(signed with PopePius VII), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestant, Jews and atheists were tolerated.[65]The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiles aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.[66]Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerists and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievementevery private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.[67]The Napoleonic CodeOf permanent importance was theNapoleonic Codecreated by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general, and marked the end of feudalism and the liberation of Jews where it took effect.[68]The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and required that inheritances be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized; all judges were appointed by the national government in Paris.

Revolution and Napoleon (1789-1815)

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