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Review
Equipment Operation & Maintenance
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ARRT Section Components 30 Questions
Radiographic Equipment (21) Evaluation of Radiographic Equipment
& Accessories (9)
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Radiographic Equipment
X-ray Tube ConstructionVacuum diode tube
cathodeanode
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Radiographic Equipment
X-ray Tube Construction
GF
ED
C
A
B
WHAT TYPE OF MOTOR IS ROTOR?
The energy of electrons comprising the tube current is measured in ______________ ?
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Cathode - Filaments Negative Electrode Tungsten with thorium Filament circuit heats
(>2200°C) with 3-5 amps Thermionic Emission Vaporization Space charge Saturation current Focusing cup
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Filament I vs. mA Heated filament
emits electrodes Once emission
starts small in filament I = large in mA
As kVp rises less filament I needed to reach mA
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Saturation Current/Voltage Stabilization at
specific mA above ~40 kVp
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Focusing Cup
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Anodes - Target
Cu
W
CuW
Other target materials• Tungsten-rhenium• Molybdenum• Rhodium
Molybdenum or Graphite base
Rotating Anodes• 2” to 5” disk (focal track)• Induction motor
• Speed 3000 to 10000 rpm
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What makes the Anode spin? Electromagnetic Induction Motor
How fast does it turn?
______________ rpm
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A motor is a device that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy
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Line-Focus Principle Effective FS < actual FS
Beveled anode Improves heat capacity
Small angle = FS Small FS = resolution AHE Field coverage Heat loading on smaller
anode surface area
Angle (5°-15°)
e-
actualeffective
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© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP
Anode Angle and Focal Spot Size (1)Anode Angle and Focal Spot Size (1)
Anode angle < range:Anode angle < range: 7° - 20° 7° - 20°
Why are anodes beveled? Why are anodes beveled? 1. Line focus principle 1. Line focus principle
(foreshortening of focal (foreshortening of focal spot length) spot length)
Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108-109.Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108-109.
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© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP1414
Anode Angle and Focal Spot Size Anode Angle and Focal Spot Size
1. ↓ <→ ↓ apparent focal spot size (B and C) 1. ↓ <→ ↓ apparent focal spot size (B and C) Smaller the angle – smaller the effective focal spotSmaller the angle – smaller the effective focal spot 2. ↑ <→ ↑ heat loading: 2. ↑ <→ ↑ heat loading: 3. ↑ <→ ↑ field coverage (B and C) 3. ↑ <→ ↑ field coverage (B and C) Actual < used trade-off of these factorsActual < used trade-off of these factors
Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108-109.Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108-109.
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Anode Angles and Heat Smaller the angle = more heat load
Larger angle – less heat load
Different anode angles are used for different types of equipment:
Diagnostic vs special procedures
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Which anode angle hasgreater heat load?
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ANODE HEEL EFFECT MORE PRONOUNCED WITH SMALLER ANODE ANGLE (sm anode angle =
larger heel effect) 120% ~75%
difference of intensity across beam
How does this affect positioning? FAT – CAT HIGHER AT CATHODE
See pg 139 Bushong
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Which of the following projections would take
advantage of the anode heel effect on a hyperstenic patient -
if the anode was towards the patient’s head?
A. AP Thoracic Spine B. AP. Lumbar Spine C. Lateral Femur D. AP FOOT
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© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP1919
X-ray Tube Anode ConfigurationX-ray Tube Anode Configuration Tungsten anode disk Tungsten anode disk
Mo and Rh for Mo and Rh for mammography mammography
Stator and rotor make up the Stator and rotor make up the induction motor induction motor
Rotation speeds Rotation speeds Low: 3,000 – 3,600 rpm Low: 3,000 – 3,600 rpm High: 9,000 – 10,000 rpm High: 9,000 – 10,000 rpm
Molybdenum stem (poor heat Molybdenum stem (poor heat conductor) connects rotor conductor) connects rotor with anode to reduce heat with anode to reduce heat transfer to rotor bearings transfer to rotor bearings
Anode cooled through Anode cooled through transmission transmission
Focal track area (spreads heat Focal track area (spreads heat out over larger area than out over larger area than stationary anode stationary anode configuration)configuration)
Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 107.Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 107.
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© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP2020
Heel EffectHeel Effect
Reduction of x-ray beam Reduction of x-ray beam intensity towards the intensity towards the anode sideanode side of the x-ray of the x-ray field field
Although x-rays generated Although x-rays generated isotropicallyisotropically Self-filtration by the anode Self-filtration by the anode
and the anode bevel and the anode bevel causes causes
Greater intensity on the Greater intensity on the cathode side of the x-ray cathode side of the x-ray field field
Can use to advantage, Can use to advantage, e.g., PA chest exposure e.g., PA chest exposure Orient chest to anode side Orient chest to anode side Abdomen to cathode side Abdomen to cathode side
Less pronounced as SID ↑Less pronounced as SID ↑Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 112.Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 112.
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© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP2121
X-ray FiltrationX-ray Filtration
Filtration: x-ray attenuation Filtration: x-ray attenuation as beam passes through a as beam passes through a layer of material layer of material
Inherent (glass or metal Inherent (glass or metal insert at x-ray tube port) insert at x-ray tube port) and added filtration (sheets and added filtration (sheets of metal intentionally of metal intentionally placed in the beam) placed in the beam)
Added filters absorb low-Added filters absorb low-energy x-rays and reduce energy x-rays and reduce patient dose (↑ beam patient dose (↑ beam quality) quality)
HVL – half value layer (mm HVL – half value layer (mm Al)Al)
Curry, et al., Christensen’s Physics of Curry, et al., Christensen’s Physics of Diagnostic Radiology, 4th ed., pp. 89, 91.Diagnostic Radiology, 4th ed., pp. 89, 91.
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Voltage generators (power supply)
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Miscellaneous Terms
Leakage Radiation<100 mR/hr @ 1 m
Extra-focal Radiationrebounding e-
Off Focus Radiation Protective Housing
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OFF FOCUSRADIATION
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SHADOW OFSOMEONE’S
HEAD = OFF FOCUS
FROM TUBE
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LEAKAGE RADIATIONmay not EXCEED
TUBE HOUSING 100mR / HR
@ 1 meter
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Tube Failures & Prevention
Failure Causes Anode pitting/cracking
after single excessive exposure
Bearing damage from numerous long exposures
Vaporization of the filament
• Filament break• Coating of glass
envelope with tungsten
Prevention Warm up tube before
use Avoid “boost & hold”
exposures if possible Use acceptable levels of
exposure (e.g. tube rating charts)
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Tube Rating Charts (mA)
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Tube Rating Charts (kVp)
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Heat Units HU – measure of thermal energy applied
to the x-ray tube from an exposure Formula based on generator
HU1Ø = kVp x mAs
HU3Ø6p = kVp x mAs x 1.35
HU3Ø12p = kVp x mAs x 1.41
If multiple, consecutive exposures made,HUT = HU x #exposures
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Anode Cooling Chart
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Name 3 types of rectifiers
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Rectification AC to DC Keeps e- flowing
from cathode to anode
Uses rectifying bridge between HVT & tube
HVT
tube
HVT
tube
AC DCbridge
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SOLID STATE - DIODES – Semi Conductor
Allows current to only flow in one direction
Most common type used in rectifiers
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AEC Operation
Select sensor(s) Select density level Set back-up time Set kVp
PMT
ExposureSwitch
filmfilm
Ion chambers
Fluorescentscreen
Exit vs. Entrance
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Beam RestrictorsCollimator Cone
Diaphragm
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Important Circuit Elements
PowerSource
HVsubcircuit
Filamentsubcircuita
uto
tran
sfo
rmer
X-rayTube
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X-ray Generator Transformers
HV (step-up) Filament (step down)
Rectification Connection to tube
HV
F
diodes
anodecathode
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Transformers HV
Step-up Fixed TR > 1 (500 to 1000)
VS > VP
V to kV
Filament Step-down Fixed TR < 1 IS > IP (VS<VP) I in filament to cause
e- emission
Autotransformer Step-up or step-down Variable TR Controls kV by varying
V sent to HVT
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Transformer Review Turns Ratio
Transformer Law
Power
Step Up TR>1 V I
Step Down TR<1 V I
P
S
N
N
S
P
P
S
P
S
I
I
V
V
N
N
SSPPSP IVIVPP
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Autotransformer – Self Induction
There is only one wire – but works like when there are 2 wires =
The windings are used as the primary and secondary coils
The induced voltage varies on where the outside wires are connected (KVP Taps)
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TRANSFORMER FORMULAS(STEP UP OR DOWN)
V = voltage N = # turns p = primary s = secondary I = current
Vp = N p Vs Ns
Vp = I s Vs Ip
Np = I s Ns Ip
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Transformer Efficiency By design
Shell – most Closed core Open core Air core
Ideal – no loss Reality best = ~95%
induction Loss due to
Cu resistance wire diameter
Eddy currents• Laminate core
Hysteresis core mag. perm.
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Rectification AC to DC Keeps e- flowing
from cathode to anode
Uses rectifying bridge between HVT & tube
HVT
tube
HVT
tube
AC DCbridge
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Phase, Pulse & Frequency
Type# of
rectifiers% ripple
Wave form
1(self) 1 60 0 100%
1(half) 1 60 1 or 2 100%
1(full) 2 120 4 100%
36p 6 360 6 or 12 12-15%
312p 12 720 12 3-5%
HighFreq.
10kHz <1%
CP
SP
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
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GENERATOR
THAT CREATE AN ALTERNATING CURRENT ARE CALLED:
AN ALTERNATOR –
What does the generator do? CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICITY
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WHAT MEASURES ELECTRIC POTIENTAL = VOLT
CURRENT = AMP
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT IS THE PATHWAY FOR ELECTRIC CURRENT
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What does a MOTOR due Converts ___________ energy To _______________ energy
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OHMS LAW V = IR
V = POTIENTALA = AMPS (CURRENT)R = RESISTANCE (OHMS)
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OHM’S LAW:
V = Potential difference in volts I = Current in amperes R = Resistance in ohms ()
V= IR I =V/R R=V/I
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Simple SERIES Circuit
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Series Circuit Rules:
Current: IT = I1 =I2 =I3 Voltage: VT = V1 + V2 + V3
Resistance: RT = R1 + R2 + R3
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Parallel Circuit Rules Current: IT = I1 + I2 + I3 Voltage: VT = V1 = V2 = V3Resistance: 1 1 1 1 RT = R1 + R2 + R3 (REMEMBER TO FLIP SIDES RT/1
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TYPES OF EQUIPMENT FIXED
MOBILE
DEDICATED MAMMO , CHEST, HEAD
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EXPOSURE SWITCH
TIMER
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RHEOSTAT VAIRIABLE REISITOR
regulate the amount of resistance in a circuit
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What makes the Anode spin? Electromagnetic Induction Motor
How fast does it turn?
______________ rpm