Review Chapter 8 Deductive Reasoning. Deductive Logic Classical: by putting in proper form we will...
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Transcript of Review Chapter 8 Deductive Reasoning. Deductive Logic Classical: by putting in proper form we will...
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Review
Chapter 8Deductive Reasoning
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Deductive Logic• Classical: by putting in proper form we will
force conclusion– Standard Form– Putting things in classes
• Modern: by showing flow of argument we will force conclusion– Proofs– Mini-valid arguments
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Classical Logic, Syllogism• The rule of three: ties argument togetherAll arguments must only have three lines (2 premises and 1 conclusion) and three terms• All lines have subject-predicate relationshipPutting the subject term into a certain class• The Inference- how terms are arranged
– Major term- pred. in conclusion + one premise– Minor term- subject in conclusion + one premise– Middle term- term in both premises, not in concl.
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Mood + Figure = Form
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Mood
• Each line can only be 1 of 4 mood types– A: All S are P – E: No S are P– I: Some S are P– O: Some S are not P
• Full argument has a 3 letter mood (AIE)• 64 possible mood types
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Figure
• Figure is where the middle term is placed
• Mood + Figure = Form• 64 X 4 = 256 possible forms
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Form
• Valid forms– 15/256 are valid standard form argumentsSet up in a manner that:
• Forces you to accept the conclusion if both the premises are true
• Sound argument is set up in a valid way and has ALL true statement.
In the end it is the way we set up our argument that allow us to check if it is valid and sound.
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Modern Logic
• Doesn’t force us to set up arguments in any way or format– Do need one statement as a conclusion– As many premises as you want
• Proven deductive rules (mini-arguments) can show the flow of logic (reason)– Inference
• These are called proofs– much like geometry• 9 elementary rules/ you need to know 4
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Four Rules
Modus Ponens (M.P.)If P then Q
PTherefore Q
Modus Tollens (M.T.)If P then Q
Not QTherefore not P
Hypothetical Syllogism (H.S.)If P then QIf Q then R
Therefore if P then R
Disjunctive Syllogism (D.S.)P or QNot P
Therefore Q
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1. I (C v K)2. I3. ~C4. K (~S E)5. M S /Therefore ~M6. C v K (1)(2) MP7. K (6)(3) DS8. ~S E (4)(7) MP9. ~S (8) Simp.10. ~M (5)(9) MT
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Language and CommunicationChapter 3
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Arguments- Logic
• Argument are only as good as our expression of them– Way you communicate– Language you use– Not one way to express them
• Two way street
• Logic can also….– Help us organize our arguments better– Help us decipher good and bad arguments
Communication is getting your ideas across in a clear & logical manner (choice you make)
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Language, meaning & communicating
• Recognize which definition we are discussing– Definition can be subjective– We make the dictionary (we agree on words)
• Clear up “messy” language or definitions– Not universal– Words with multiple meanings and punctuation
Word definitions are built, not given to us & Words change meaning with time & New words come into common vocabulary, old words go away
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Language• Symbols that we place meaning on (spelling and grammar)• Need to agree on definition and the value of words used• 4 types of languages
– Informative• Making a statement (true or false)• This is where logic is concerned
– Expressive• Expresses your feelings, use emotional words (Poetry)
– Directive• Influence people’s actions (Get up!)
– Ceremonial• We say these things to be polite or accepted• Greeting: ‘hello’, ‘good morning’, ‘how are you’
• Some statement cross over two or more types
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Word Meanings• Denotative meaning (objective)
– Tells us what characteristics and features that we associated with that given word– Dog = tail, four legs, barks, big ears (?)
• Connotative meaning (subjective)– Descriptive definition– Tells us personal experiences with that object– Dog = licks face, loyal, protects me
• Stereotype meaning (necessary)– Loosely defines individuals as a group – Obviously we want to limit, not abuse– Individual things fit into MANY groups
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Own Words and CommunicationEvaluating definitions
• Definition has to fit– Not too broad, not too narrow
• Does it include all the denotative attributes to the meaning– Does the abject have all the features. Dog = 4 legs, fur, barks – Is it necessary to add features, change meaning (ex: computers)
• Not circular– Do not use term or word to define itself
• Justice: when someone receives justice
• Definition is clear– Make sure the words being used to define
have clear definitions themselves.– Net: anything reticulated lines at equal distance with intersections of
small narrow space between the intersections
• Avoid emotional language, rhetoric and assumptions
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Four styles of communication
• Aggressive: Communicate own needs by controlling
other people with manipulation
• Passive: Communicate to avoid confrontation and put others needs ahead of their own
• Passive-Aggressive: Communicate to avoid direct confrontation but use manipulation to get their needs fulfilled.
• Assertive: Communicate own needs and strive for mutually agreed upon solution. This takes good critical thinking skills
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Types of definitions
Meanings we place on words
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Stipulative Definitions
• A new definition or a change in an old definition– Laws and technology deal with this all the time
• “Morally straight” – Boy Scouts, 2000• Public Domain and Internet• Copyright and Internet• Facebook and lines of privacy
– These become defined by the court and ultimately the Supreme Court
– Most the time they start off as slang• Mankini• Friending• Beer goggles• These become official when entered into dictionary– common
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Lexical Definitions
• Is official dictionary definition• Is it used by enough people to be accepted as a
commonly held definition• Purpose
– Increase our vocabulary to explain new things– Clear ambiguity and meaning
• These definitions are always changing– Marriage (man and woman?)– Lubitorium (gas station)– Cold (weather, people, gambling, sports)
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Precising Definition
• Used to clear up words and phrases• We customize dictionary definitions to suit our needs
– Term paper (depends on class/teacher)– Learning disability (depends on expectations)
• Occurs because dictionary definition is too vague• Definitions are made by a group or people who use the
term in their field of study or employment– International Astronomical Union: Pluto planet/dwarf planet (2006)?
– Each company defines: Full time employees?
– Each court defines: Justice to the people?
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Persuasive Definitions
• Used to influence others about your point of view– Taxation – “governmental robbery”– Genetic engineering – “playing god”– Politicians- “fat cats”
• More important to convey individual EMOTION and not valued INFORMATION
• Biased in nature– “Here is what I think!”• The truth is usually not important it is getting people
to side with your beliefs.– Offer little or no evidence– Don’t look for other options
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Communication = We discuss matters that are not one
sided. You don’t have to agree, but you need to listen and respond to be able to
communicate– It’s a choice
Historically the top three skills1. Communication2. Teamwork3. Commercial Awareness
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Rhetorical Devices
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