Review Article Ficus carica L. (Moraceae): Phytochemistry, Traditional...

Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2013 Article ID 974256 8 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552013974256

Review ArticleFicus carica L (Moraceae) Phytochemistry Traditional Usesand Biological Activities

Shukranul Mawa Khairana Husain and Ibrahim Jantan

Drug and Herbal Research Centre Faculty of Pharmacy Universiti Kebangsaan MalaysiaJalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz 50300 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia

Correspondence should be addressed to Khairana Husain khairanapharmacyukmmy

Received 10 June 2013 Accepted 13 August 2013

Academic Editor Angelo Antonio Izzo

Copyright copy 2013 Shukranul Mawa et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

This paper describes the botanical features of Ficus carica L (Moraceae) its wide variety of chemical constituents its use intraditional medicine as remedies for many health problems and its biological activities The plant has been used traditionallyto treat various ailments such as gastric problems inflammation and cancer Phytochemical studies on the leaves and fruits of theplant have shown that they are rich in phenolics organic acids and volatile compounds However there is little information onthe phytochemicals present in the stem and root Reports on the biological activities of the plant are mainly on its crude extractswhich have been proven to possess many biological activities Some of the most interesting therapeutic effects include anticancerhepatoprotective hypoglycemic hypolipidemic and antimicrobial activities Thus studies related to identification of the bioactivecompounds and correlating them to their biological activities are very useful for further research to explore the potential of F caricaas a source of therapeutic agents

1 Introduction

Ficus (Moraceae) comprises one of the largest genera ofangiosperms with more than 800 species of trees shrubshemiepiphytes climbers and creepers in the tropics andsubtropics worldwide [1] This genus is an important geneticresource due to its high economic and nutritional values andalso an important part of the biodiversity in the rainforestecosystem It is also a good source of food for fruit-eatinganimals in tropical areas [2]The genus is divided into six sub-genera based on preliminary morphology The monoecioussubgenus Urostigma is the largest with about 280 species allinclusive andmost of them display distinctive hemiepiphytichabits Ficus includes 23 species of hemiepiphytes and litho-phytes which produce aerial and creeping root systems [3]

F carica L is an important member of the genus FicusIt is ordinarily deciduous and commonly referred to as ldquofigrdquoThe common fig is a tree native to southwest Asia and theeastern Mediterranean and it is one of the first plants thatwere cultivated by humans The fig is an important harvestworldwide for its dry and fresh consumption Its common

edible part is the fruit which is fleshy hollow and receptacle[4] The dried fruits of F carica have been reported asan important source of vitamins minerals carbohydratessugars organic acids and phenolic compounds [5ndash7] Thefresh and dried figs also contain high amounts of fiber andpolyphenols [8 9] Figs are an excellent source of phenoliccompounds such as proanthocyanidins whereas red wineand tea which are two good sources of phenolic compoundscontain phenols lower than those in fig [10] Its fruit rootand leaves are used in traditional medicine to treat variousailments such as gastrointestinal (colic indigestion loss ofappetite and diarrhea) respiratory (sore throats coughs andbronchial problems) and cardiovascular disorders and asanti-inflammatory and antispasmodic remedy [11 12]

F carica L belongs to the order of Urticales and familyof Moraceae with over 1400 species classified into about 40genera [13] A number of them are functionally female andproduce only a seed-bearing fruit whereas others are func-tionally male and produce only pollen and pollen-carryingwasp progeny [14ndash16] The species of F carica are shrubsor small trees and deciduous Its roots are not adventitious

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

and the barks are grayish and slightly roughened The leavesare stipulated and petiolated with obovate nearly orbiculateor ovate leaf blade palmately lobed cordate base undulateor irregularly dentate margin acute to obtuse apex andscabrous-pubescent surfaces [17]

F carica has been cultivated for a long time in variousplacesworldwide for its edible fruit It is supposed to originatefrom Western Asia and spread to the Mediterranean byhumans [18] It is also an imperative world crop today TurkeyEgypt Morocco Spain Greece California Italy Brazil andother places with typically mild winters and hot dry summersare the major producers of edible figs [19] Fruits can be eatenraw dried canned or in other preserved forms [20]

F carica possibly originated from theMiddle East whichis one of the early cultivated fruit species [21] and currentlyis an important crop worldwide Nowadays the common figstill grows wild in the Mediterranean basin Morphologicaldata propose that the fig is gynodioecious whereas from afunctional standing point the fig is considered dioeciouswithtwo tree morphs Capri fig and edible fig Habitual fig cultiva-tion areas have significantly decreased and genetic variabilitywas reduced due to disappearance of many cultivars selectedin the past Actually almost all grown cultivars are the resultof old selection and are maintained by cutting as a way ofvegetative propagation [22]

The fruit (syconium or fig) and reproduction systemsof species in the genus Ficus are exclusive It can only bepollinated by their associated agaonid wasps (HymenopteraChalcoidea Agaonide) and in turn the wasps can only layeggs within their associated fruit For successful pollinationand reproduction of species of F carica to occur its associatedpollinator wasp must be present Conversely for successfulreproduction of agaonid wasps to occur their associatedspecies of F carica must be present [15] The pollinator waspfor F carica is Blastophaga psenes (L) [23]

2 Phytochemistry

Phytochemical studies on F carica revealed the presenceof numerous bioactive compounds such as phenolic com-pounds phytosterols organic acids anthocyanin compo-sition triterpenoids coumarins and volatile compoundssuch as hydrocarbons aliphatic alcohols and few otherclasses of secondary metabolites from different parts of Fcarica (Figure 1) Most species of F carica contain phenoliccompounds organic acids and volatile compounds [24 25]

Phenolic acids such as 3-O- and 5-O-caffeoylquinicacids ferulic acid quercetin-3-O-glucoside quercetin-3-O-rutinoside psoralen bergapten and organic acids (oxaliccitric malic quinic shikimic and fumaric acids) have beenisolated from the water extract of the leaves of F carica L[24] Coumarin has been isolated from the methanol extractof the leaves of F carica L by bioassay-guided isolation andthe isolated coumarin exhibited the strongest nematicidalactivity against the nematodes Bursaphelenchus xylophilusPanagrellus redivivus andCaenorhabditis eleganswithin 72 hr[26] Four triterpenoids bauerenol lupeol acetate methylmaslinate and oleanolic acidhave been isolated from the

leaves of F carica and showed irritant potential on mice ears[27]

The leaves of F carica consist of various volatilecompounds which are identified and distributed bydistinct chemical classes such as aldehydes methyl-butanal 2-methylbutanal (E)-2-pentanal hexanal and(E)-2-hexanal alcohols 1-penten-3-ol 3-methyl-1-butanol2-methylbutanol heptanol benzyl alcohol (E)-2-nonen-1-oland phenylethyl alcohol ketone 3-pentanone estersmethyl butanoate methyl hexanoate hexyl acetateethyl benzoate and methyl salicylate monoterpeneslimonene and menthol sesquiterpenes 120572-cubenene 120572-guaiene 120572-ylangene copaene 120573-bourbonene 120573-elemene120572-gurjunene 120573-caryophyllene 120573-cubebene aromadendrene120572-caryophyllene 120591-muurolene 120591-cadinene 120572-muurolenegermacrene D and (+)-ledene norisoprenoid 120573-cyclocitraland miscellaneous compounds psoralen [28]

Fifteen anthocyanin pigments were isolated from the figfruit and bark of F carica Most of them contain cyanidinas aglycone and some pelargonidin derivatives [6] Pentaneextracts from the fig of F carica contain numerous volatilecompounds benzyl aldehyde benzyl alcohol furanoidlinalool pyranoid (trans) cinnamic aldehyde indole cin-namic alcohol eugenol and transcaryophyllenes sesquiter-pene germacrene D hydroxyl caryophyllene angelicin andbergapten [25]

Total and individual phenolic compounds phenolic acidchlorogenic acid flavones and flavonols have been isolatedfrom fresh and dried fig skins of F carica and dried figscontained total higher amounts of phenolics than the pulpof fresh fruits owing to the contribution of the dry skinQuercetin rutinoside was the major individual phenolic [29]while microbial 120573-D-glucans has been isolated from Libyanfigs of F carica [30]

Phenolic acids 3-O- and 5-O-caffeoylquinic acids ferulicacid quercetin-3-O-glucoside quercetin-3-O-rutinosidepsoralen and bergapten and organic acids (oxalic citricmalic shikimic and fumaric acids) were isolated fromthe pulps and peels of figs [24] Phenolics anthocyaninsfructose glucose and sucrose were identified from the fig ofF carica [31]

Various volatile constituents of five Portuguese vari-eties of F carica fruits (pulps and peels) have been iso-lated which include aldehydes 3-methyl-butanal 2-methyl-butanal (E)-2-pentanal hexanal heptanal octanal andnonanal alcohols 1-penten-3-ol 3-methylbutanol benzylalcohol (E)-2-nonenol and phenylethyl alcohol ketone6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one esters methyl hexanoate methylsalicylate and ethyl salicylate monoterpenes limonenementhol 120572-pinene 120573-pinene linalool eucalyptol sesquiter-penes 120572-cubenene copaene 120573-caryophyllene 120591-muurolene120591-cadinene and germacrene D norisoprenoid 120573-cyclocitraland miscellaneous compounds eugenol [28]

3 Traditional and Current Uses

F carica has been traditionally used for its medicinal benefitsas metabolic cardiovascular respiratory antispasmodic and

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

CO2H

OCH3

3-O-caffeoylquinic acids (1) 5-O-caffeoylquinic acids (2)

Quercetin-3-O-glucoside (4) Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (5)

Bergapten (7)

Coumarin (8)

Bauerenol (9)Lupeol acetate (10)

Methyl maslinate (11) Oleanolic acid (12)

Methylbutanal (13) 2-Methylbutanal (14)

(E)-2-Pentanal (15)Hexanal (16)

(E)-2-Hexanal (17) 1-Penten-3-ol (18)3-Methylbutanol (19)

2-Methylbutanol (20) Heptanol (21)

Benzyl alcohol (22)

Phenylethyl alcohol (24)3-Pentanone (25) Methyl butanoate (26)

Ferulic acid (3)

Psoralen (6)

(E)-2-Nonenol (23)

O

O

O

O

OOH

OHOOC

OO

O

OO

OO

OO O

O OH

OO

OO

OOH H

H

H

HO

HO

H

H O

H

HO

H

H

H

HO O

O O

H

O

HO O O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OHOHOH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH OH

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO HO

HO

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

(a)

Figure 1 Continued


Methyl hexanoate (27)Hexyl acetate (28)

Ethyl benzoate (29)

Methyl salicylate (30)

Limonene (31)

Menthol (32)120572-Cubenene (33) 120572-Guaiene (34)

120572-Ylangene (35) Copaene (36) 120573-Bourbonene (37)

120573-Elemene (38) 120572-Gurjunene (39) 120573-Caryophyllene (40)120573-Cubebene (41) Aromadendrene (42)

120572-Caryophyllene (43)

120591-Muurolene (44) 120591-Cadinene (45) 120572-Muurolene (46) Germacrene (47) (+)-Ledene (48) 120573-Cylocital (49)

Benzyl aldehyde (50)Furanoid (51)

Linalool (52)

Pyranoid (53) Cinnamic aldehyde (54)Indole (55)

Cinnamic alcohol (56) Eugenol (57)

Trans-caryophyllene (58)Hydroxyl caryophyllene (59)

Angelicin (60)

120573-D-glucans (61)

Heptanal (62) Octanal (63) Nonanal (64)

Ethyl salicylate (65)120572-Pinene (66)

120573-Pinene (67) Eucalyptol (68)

O

OO O

O HOO

O

HH

H

H

HH

H

H

H H HH

HHH

H

H

H

H O

H O

OO

O

O

H

O

NH

H

H

OH

H

H

H

O OO

O O O O

OHC OO

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HOHO

HO

CH3

CH3

H3CO

(b)

Figure 1 Compounds isolated from leaves fruits and barks of F carica [24ndash28]


anti-inflammatory remedy [11 12] It is commonly referredto as ldquoFigrdquo Leaves fruits and roots of F carica are usedin native medicinal system in different disorders such asgastrointestinal (colic indigestion loss of appetite anddiarrhea) respiratory (sore throats cough and bronchialproblems) inflammatory and cardiovascular disorders [3233] Fruits of F carica can be eaten fresh or dried or usedas jam Figs are used as an excellent source of mineralsvitamins carbohydrates and dietary fibre because it is fat andcholesterol free and contain high number of amino acids [67 34 35] It is also reported that figs have been conventionallyused for their therapeutic benefits as laxative cardiovascularrespiratory antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory remedies[36]

The fruitrsquos juice of F carica mixed with honey is usedfor haemorrhage In Indian medicine fruits are used as amild laxative expectorant and diuretic [35] It is used as aidin liver and spleen diseases The dry fruit of F carica is asupplement food for diabetics It is commercialized in themarket as sweet due to its high level of sugars [7] Fruit paste isapplied to swellings tumours and inflammation for relievingpain Twenty-one traditional and current uses of F caricaincluding different ethnopharmacological reports have beensummarized in Table 1

4 Biological Activities

41 Antioxidant Activity F carica contains many phenoliccompounds that play many physiological roles in plantsSome of them are also favourable to human health sincethey are able to act as an antioxidant by different waysreducing agents hydrogen donators free radical scavengerssinglet oxygen quenchers and so forth Fig fruits of F caricawere studied with six commercial fig varieties with differentcolors (black red yellow and green) for total polyphe-nols total flavonoids antioxidant capacity and profile ofanthocyanins The antioxidant properties were determinedby ferric reducing antioxidant method Fruits contained thehighest levels of polyphenols flavonoids and anthocyaninsand exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity [31] Fig fruitsof F carica were analyzed for total flavonoids antioxidantcapacity and profile of anthocyanins [35] Using RP-LC vari-ous concentrations of anthocyanins but similar profiles havebeen found in all varieties studied Cyanidin was confirmedas the major aglycone in several studies [6 34 35] NMRdata confirmed that cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside (C3R) was themain anthocyanin in all fruits Color appearance of the figextract correlated well with total polyphenols flavonoidsanthocyanins and antioxidant capacity C3R contributed 92of the total antioxidant capacity of the anthocyanin fractionand fruits contained highest levels of polyphenols flavonoidsand anthocyanins exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity[35]

42 AnticancerActivity Amixture of 6-O-acyl-120573-d-glucosyl-120573-sitosterols has been isolated as an effective cytotoxic agentfrom fig (F carica) latex that showed in vitro inhibitory effectson proliferation of various cancer cell lines [39 41]

43 Hepatoprotective Activity The petroleum ether extractfrom leaves of F carica was evaluated for hepatoprotectiveactivity on rats treated with 50mgkg of rifampicin orallyand significant reversal of biochemical histological andfunctional changes induced by rifampicin on rats indicatedpotential hepatoprotective activity [43]

44 Hypoglycamic Activity The leaf extract induced a signif-icant hypoglycamic effect in oral or intraperitoneal admin-istration in streptozotocin-diabetic rats Weight loss wasprevented in treated diabetic rats and plasma insulin levelsconsiderably altered the survival index Results indicated thatthe aqueous extract of F carica has an obvious hypoglycemicactivity [44]

45 Hypolipidemic Activity The leaf extract of F carica couldbe a beneficial supplement to modulate TG and TC secretionin poultry liver [45] Eight-weeks-old roosterrsquos liver withhigh abdominal fat was extracted sliced and cultured withincreasing concentrations of leaf extract insulin and bothof them While insulin extensively increased TG secretion(0190 plusmn 0013mmolL) TG content (0523 plusmn 0093mmolL)and TC secretion (1727 plusmn 0412mmolL) beyond the basallevel (119875 lt 0001) and when the leaf extract was addedthe effects were drastically reduced to the basal level in aconcentration-dependent manner (119875 lt 0001)

46 Antibacterial Activity and Anti-Fungal Activity Themethanol extract of F carica (MICs 0156 to 5mgmLMBCs0313 to 5mgmL) showed a strong antibacterial activityagainst oral bacteria The combination effects of methanolextract with ampicillin or gentamicin were synergistic againstoral bacteria that showed that figs could act as a naturalantibacterial agent [46] Hexane chloroform ethyl acetateand methanol extracts of F carica latex were investigatedfor their antimicrobial proprieties in vitro against five bac-terial species and seven strains of fungi using disc-diffusionmethod The minimal inhibition concentration (MIC) of themethanol fraction showed a total inhibition against Candidaalbicans (100) at a concentration of 500120583gmL and anegative effect against Cryptococcus neoforman methanolicextract (75) strongly inhibitedMicrosporum canis and ethylacetate extract at a concentration of 750120583gmL [47]

47 Antipyretic Activity The ethanol extract of F carica atdoses of 100 200 and 300mgkg showed significant dose-dependent reduction in normal body temperature and yeastprovoked elevated temperature The effect extended up tofive hrs after drug administration while compared to thatof standard antipyretic agent paracetamol (150mgkgbwtpo) [48]

48 Antituberculosis Activity The 80 methanol extractfrom the leaves of F carica has been screened againstMycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv using a colorimetricmicroplate-based assayThe result exhibited anti-tuberculosisactivity with MIC value of 1600 120583gmL [40]


Table 1 Traditional and current uses of F carica

Uses Part Locality ReferenceCough Leaf Malaysia [37]Colic treatment Fruit root and leaf unspecified [32 33]Indigestion Fruit root and leaf unspecified [32 33]Loss of appetite Fruit root and leaf unspecified [32 33]Antidiarrheal Fig unspecified [11 12]Metabolic Fig unspecified [11 12]Cardiovascular Fig unspecified [11 12]Respiratory Fig unspecified [11 12]Antispasmodic Fig unspecified [11 12 38]Anti-inflammatory Fig unspecified [11 12]Antiplatelet inflammatory and gut motility Fig Pakistan [38]Antioxidant Fig unspecified [33]Laxative Fig unspecified [30]Prevention of nutritional anaemia Leaf unspecified [27]Anthelmintic Leaf unspecified [27]Irritant potential Leaf unspecified [27]Nutritive diet Fruit Mediterranean countries [31]Various drug preparations Fig fruit unspecified [39]Tuberculosis Leaf Malaysia [40]Anticancer Fig unspecified [41 42]Mild laxative expectorant and diuretic Fruit India [40]

49 Irritant Potential The methanol extract and isolatedtriterpenoids from the leaves of F carica were tested forirritant activityThey exhibited irritant potential onmice earsand calotropenyl acetatemethylmaslinate and lupeol acetatewere the most potent and importunate irritant is which wereless than those of euphorbium and close to psoralen Irritantpotential was evaluated by open mouse ear assay [27]

410 Nematicidal Activity Forty different plant species werescreened for their nematicidal activity against the nema-todes Bursaphelenchus xylophilus Panagrellus redivivus andCaenorhabditis elegans The leaf extract of F carica showedthe strongest nematicidal activity as 743 962 and 984mortality respectively within 72 hrs [26]

411 Antispasmodic and Antiplatelet Activity The aqueous-ethanolic extract of F carica was investigated for antispas-modic effect on rabbit and antiplatelet effect using ex-vivomodel of human platelets F carica was tested positivefor alkaloids flavonoids coumarins saponins sterols andterpenes and when it was tested in isolated rabbit jejunum Fcarica (01ndash30mgmL) produced relaxation of impulsive andlowK+-(25mM) induced contractionwith insignificant effecton high K+ (80mM) similar to that caused by cromakalimPretreatment of the tissue with glibenclamide caused right-ward shift in the curves of low K+ but did not cause highpotassium ion while verapamil equally repressed the con-centration of potassium ion at both concentrations F carica(06 and 012mgmL) repressed the adenosine-5-diphosphateand adrenaline-induced human platelet aggregation Thatstudy exhibited spasmolytic activity in the ripe dried fruit

of F carica probably mediated through the activation ofpotassium ion ATP channels along with antiplatelet activitythat provided sound pharmacological basis for its medicinaluse in the gut motility and inflammatory disorders [37]

412 Anthelmintic The anthelmintic activity of the latex of Fcarica was investigated in NIH mice naturally infected withSyphacia obvelata Aspiculuris tetraptera and Vampirolepisnana The latex was administered in doses of 3mLkgdayduring three successive days was effective in the removal of Sobvelata (417) and did not produce significant eliminationofA tetraptera (26) andV nana (83) High acute toxicitywith hemorrhagic enteritiswas observed additional to aweakanthelmintic efficacy was not recommended the use of thislattice in traditional medicine [49]

413 Antimutagenic Antimutagenic activity of the plantextract of F carica on environmental xenobiotics was inves-tigated The plant extract decreased the level of mutationsinduced by N-metil-N1015840-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)in Vicia faba cells chlorophyll mutations in Arabidopsisthaliana and NAF induced mutability in rat marrow cellsThe extract verified the ability to decrease the genotoxicity ofenvironmental mutagens [50]

414 Anti-HSV The water extract of the leaves of F caricahas been studied on anti-HSV effect and observed on Hep-2 BHK21 and PRK cells The water extract possessed lowtoxicity and directly killing-virus effect on HSV The MTCwas 05mgmL TDOwas 15mgmL and TI was 300mgmL[51]


415 Oxidative Stress Oxidative stress was studied in ratsdivided into 4 groups streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats(119899 = 10) diabetic rats that received a single dose ofa basic fraction of F carica extract (119899 = 14) diabeticrats that received a single dose of a chloroform fractionof the extract (119899 = 10) and normal rats (119899 = 10)Compared to normal animals the diabetic animals exhibitedextensively higher values for erythrocyte catalyze normalizedto haemoglobin levels (15 plusmn 015 versus 096 plusmn 018 120583gmg)and for plasma vitaminE (734 plusmn 439 versus 120plusmn16mgL)monounsaturated fatty acids (0219 plusmn 0118 versus 0067 plusmn0014mgmL) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA 0567 plusmn0293 versus 0175 plusmn 0040mgmL) saturated fatty acids(0779 plusmn 0262 versus 0401 plusmn 0055mgmL) and linoleicacid (0202 plusmn 0086 versus 0106 plusmn 0014mgmL) Both Fcarica fractions showed that they normalize the values of thediabetic animalrsquos fatty acids and plasma vitamin E valuesThey showed statistically significant differences as a functionof diabetes with the vitamin EC 18 2 ratio being normalizedby the administration of the chloroform fraction (to 1521 plusmn803 120583gmg) and the vitamin AC 18 2 ratio being raisedrelative to the untreated diabetic rats by the administration ofthe basic fraction (919 plusmn 145 120583gmg) That study confirmedthat antioxidant status was affected in the diabetes syndromeand F carica extracts showed that they normalize it [52]

5 Conclusion

Many interesting biological activities of F carica have beencarried out which can be further explored to make use ofthem as a healing method for the future For example theleaves have shown irritant activity consequently they can beinvestigated against parasitic infection and ovicidal activityThemajority of the pharmacological studies which have beencarried out on F caricawere conducted with uncharacterizedcrude extracts it is difficult to produce the grades of thesestudies and identify the bioactive metabolites

Phytochemical research carried out on F carica has ledto the isolation of few classes of plant metabolites Most ofthe phytochemical works have been employed on leaves andfruits of F carica while there is little information on stemand root phenolic profiles However the vast traditional usesand established pharmacological activities of F carica pointout that an enormous scope still exists for its phytochemicalexploration using bioassay-guided isolation The result offuture research in the above mentioned areas will afford apersuasive support for the future clinical uses of F carica incontemporary remedy

Conflict of Interests

The authors confirm they have has no conflict of interests

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Grants UKM-GGPM-TKP-058-2010 UKM-Pharmacy-03-FRGS 0029-2010 and UKM-DIPM-006-2011 Special thanks to the Ministry of Higher

Education of Malaysia for providing Commonwealth Schol-arship to one of the authors

References

[1] D G Frodin ldquoHistory and concepts of big plant generardquoTaxonvol 53 no 3 pp 753ndash776 2004

[2] N Roslashnsted G Salvo and V Savolainen ldquoBiogeographicaland phylogenetic origins of African fig species (Ficus sectionGaloglychia)rdquoMolecular Phylogenetics andEvolution vol 43 no1 pp 190ndash201 2007

[3] N Roslashnsted G DWeiblen V Savolainen and JM Cook ldquoPhy-logeny biogeography and ecology of Ficus sectionMalvanthera(Moraceae)rdquoMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution vol 48 no1 pp 12ndash22 2008

[4] M Duenas J J Perez-Alonso C Santos-Buelga and TEscribano-Bailon ldquoAnthocyanin composition in fig (Ficus car-ica L)rdquo Journal of Food Composition and Analysis vol 21 no 2pp 107ndash115 2008

[5] W S Jeong and P A Lachance ldquoPhytosterols and fatty acids infig (Ficus carica var mission) fruit and tree componentsrdquo FoodChemistry and Toxicology vol 66 pp 278ndash281 2001

[6] A Slatnar U Klancar F Stampar and R Veberic ldquoEffect ofdrying of figs (Ficus carica L) on the contents of sugars organicacids and phenolic compoundsrdquo Journal of Agricultural andFood Chemistry vol 59 no 21 pp 11696ndash11702 2011

[7] R Veberic J Jakopic and F Stampar ldquoInternal fruit quality offigs (Ficus carica L) in the Northern Mediterranean RegionrdquoItalian Journal of Food Science vol 20 no 2 pp 255ndash262 2008

[8] J A Vinson L Zubik P Bose N Samman and J Proch ldquoDriedfruits excellent in vitro and in vivo antioxidantsrdquo Journal of theAmerican College of Nutrition vol 24 no 1 pp 44ndash50 2005

[9] J A Vinson ldquoThe functional food properties of figsrdquo CerealFoods World vol 44 no 2 pp 82ndash87 1999

[10] J A Vinson Y Hao X Su and L Zubik ldquoPhenol antioxidantquantity and quality in foods vegetablesrdquo Journal of Agriculturaland Food Chemistry vol 46 no 9 pp 3630ndash3634 1998

[11] J A Duke M J Bugenschutz-godwin J Du collier and P KDuke Hand Book of Medicinal Herbs CRC Press Boca RatonFla USA 2nd edition 2002

[12] MWerbachHealing with Food Harper Collins New York NYUSA 1993

[13] G BaraketO SaddoudKChatti et al ldquoSequence analysis oftheinternal transcribed spacers (ITSs) region of the nuclearriboso-mal DNA (nrDNA) in fig cultivars (Ficus carica L)rdquo ScientiaHorticulturae vol 120 pp 34ndash40 2009

[14] F Kjellberg P-H Gouyon M Ibrahim M Raymond andG Valdeyron ldquoThe stability of the symbiosis between dioe-cious figs and their pollinators a study of Ficus carica Land Blastophaga psenes Lrdquo International Journal of OrganicEvolution vol 41 no 4 pp 693ndash704 1987

[15] D H Janzen ldquoHow to be a figrdquo Annual Review of Ecolology andSystematics vol 10 pp 13ndash51 1979

[16] J T Weibes ldquoCo-evolution of figs and their insect pollinatorsrdquoAnnual Review of Ecolology and Systematics vol 10 pp 1ndash121979

[17] Flora of North America Association FNA 2002httpwwwfnaorgFNA

[18] California Rare Fruit Growers ldquoFig Fruit Factsrdquo 1996httpwwwcrfgorgpubsfffightml


[19] J Tous and L Ferguson ldquoMediterranean fruitsrdquo in Progress inNew Crops J Janick Ed pp 416ndash430 ASHS Press ArlingtonVa USA 1996

[20] M C Neal In Gardens of Hawaii vol 40 University of Hawaiiand Bishop Museum Honolulu Hawaii USA 1965

[21] D Zohary and M Hopf Domestication of Plants in the OldWorld University Press Oxford UK 3rd edition 2000

[22] M Mars ldquoFig (Ficus carica L) genetic resources and breedingrdquoActa Horticulturae vol 605 pp 19ndash27 2003

[23] W L Wagner D R Herbst and S H Sohmer Manual of theFlowering Plants of Hawaii vol 83 University of Hawaii andBishop Museum Press Honolulu Hawaii USA 1999

[24] A P Oliveira P Valentao J A Pereira B M Silva F Tavaresand P B Andrade ldquoFicus carica L metabolic and biologicalscreeningrdquo Food and Chemical Toxicology vol 47 no 11 pp2841ndash2846 2009

[25] M Gibernau H R Buser J E Frey and M Hossaert-McKeyldquoVolatile compounds from extracts of figs of Ficus caricardquoPhytochemistry vol 46 no 2 pp 241ndash244 1997

[26] F Liu Z Yang X M Zheng S Luo K Zhang and G LildquoNematicidal coumarin from F carica Lrdquo Journal of Asia-PacificEntomology vol 14 no 1 pp 79ndash81 2011

[27] M A Saeed and A W Sabir ldquoIrritant potential of triterpenoidsfrom Ficus carica leavesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 73 no 5 pp 417ndash4202002

[28] A P Oliveira L R Silva P G D Pinho et al ldquoVolatile profilingof Ficus carica varieties by HS-SPME and GC-IT-MSrdquo FoodChemistry vol 123 no 2 pp 548ndash557 2010

[29] F Vallejo J G Marın and F A Tomas-Barberan ldquoPhenoliccompound content of fresh and dried figs (Ficus caricaL)rdquoFoodChemistry vol 130 no 3 pp 485ndash492 2012

[30] O Ishurd F Zgheel A Kermagi et al ldquoMicrobial (lndash3)-120573-D-glucans fromLibyan figs (Ficus carica)rdquoCarbohydrate Polymersvol 58 no 2 pp 181ndash184 2004

[31] O Caliskan and A Aytekin Polat ldquoPhytochemical and antiox-idant properties of selected fig (Ficus carica L) accessionsfrom the eastern Mediterranean region of Turkeyrdquo ScientiaHorticulturae vol 128 no 4 pp 473ndash478 2011

[32] I H Burkill A Dictionary of the Economic Products of MalayPeninsular Ministry of Agriculture of Malaysia 1935

[33] O PenelopeGreat Natural Remedies Kyle Cathic Limited NewYork NY USA 1997

[34] R Veberic M Colaric and F Stampar ldquoPhenolic acids andflavonoids of fig fruit (Ficus carica L) in the northern Mediter-ranean regionrdquo FoodChemistry vol 106 no 1 pp 153ndash157 2008

[35] A Solomon S Golubowicz Z Yablowicz et al ldquoAntioxidantactivities and anthocyanin content of fresh fruits of commonfig (Ficus carica L)rdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistryvol 54 no 20 pp 7717ndash7723 2006

[36] P M Guarrera ldquoTraditional phytotherapy in Central Italy(Marche Abruzzo and Latium)rdquo Fitoterapia vol 76 no 1 pp1ndash25 2005

[37] S Mohamad N M Zin H A Wahab et al ldquoAntituberculosispotential of some ethnobotanically selected Malaysian plantsrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 133 no 3 pp 1021ndash10262011

[38] A H Gilani M H Mehmood K H Janbaz A-U Khan andS A Saeed ldquoEthnopharmacological studies on antispasmodicand antiplatelet activities of Ficus caricardquo Journal of Ethnophar-macology vol 119 no 1 pp 1ndash5 2008

[39] S D Yancheva S Golubowicz Z Yablowicz A Perl and M AFlaishman ldquoEfficient agrobacterium-mediated transformationand recovery of transgenic fig (Ficus carica L) plantsrdquo PlantScience vol 168 no 6 pp 1433ndash1441 2005

[40] S S Khadabadi N Y Gond N B Ghiware and G RShendarkar ldquoHepatoprotective effect of Ficus carica leaf inchronic hepatitisrdquo Indian Drugs vol 44 no 1 pp 54ndash57 2007

[41] S Rubnov Y Kashman R Rabinowitz M Schlesinger and RMechoulam ldquoSuppressors of cancer cell proliferation from fig(Ficus carica) resin isolation and structure elucidationrdquo Journalof Natural Products vol 64 no 7 pp 993ndash996 2001

[42] C Perez J R Canal J E Campillo A Romero andM D Torres ldquoHypotriglyceridaemic activity of Ficus caricaleaves in experimental hypertriglyceridaemic ratsrdquo Phytother-apy Research vol 13 pp 188ndash191 1999

[43] N Y Gond and S S Khadabadi ldquoHepatoprotective activity ofFicus carica leaf extract on rifampicin-induced hepatic damagein ratsrdquo Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 70 no 3pp 364ndash366 2008

[44] C Perez E Domınguez J M Ramiro A Romero J ECampillo and M D Torres ldquoA study on the glycaemic balancein streptozotocin-diabetic rats treated with an aqueous extractof Ficus carica (fig tree) leavesrdquo Phytotherapy Research vol 10no 1 pp 82ndash83 1998

[45] F Asadi M Pourkabir R Maclaren and A Shahriari ldquoAlter-ations to lipid parameters in response to fig tree (Ficus carica)leaf extract in chicken liver slicesrdquo Turkish Journal of Veterinaryand Animal Sciences vol 30 no 3 pp 315ndash318 2006

[46] M-R Jeong H-Y Kim and J-D Cha ldquoAntimicrobial activityof methanol extract from Ficus carica leaves against oralbacteriardquo Journal of Bacteriology and Virology vol 39 no 2 pp97ndash102 2009

[47] H L Aref K B H Salah J P Chaumont A Fekih MAouni and K Said ldquoIn vitro antimicrobial activity of fourFicus carica latex fractions against resistant human pathogens(antimicrobial activity of Ficus carica latex)rdquo Pakistan Journalof Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 23 no 1 pp 53ndash58 2010

[48] V V Patil S C Bhangale and V R Patil ldquoEvaluation of anti-pyretic potential of Ficus carica leavesrdquo International Journal ofPharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research vol 2 no 2 pp48ndash50 2010

[49] A De Amorin H R Borba J P P Carauta D Lopes and MA Kaplan ldquoAnthelmintic activity of the latex of Ficus speciesrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 64 no 3 pp 255ndash258 1999

[50] R A Agabeıli and T E Kasimova ldquoAntimutagenic activity ofArmoracia rusticana Zea mays and Ficus carica plant extractsand their mixturerdquo Tsitologiia I Genetika vol 39 no 3 pp 75ndash79 2005

[51] GWang HWang Y Song C Jia ZWang andH Xu ldquoStudieson anti-HSV effect of Ficus carica leavesrdquoZhong Yao Cai vol 27no 10 pp 754ndash756 2004

[52] C Perez J R Canal and M D Torres ldquoExperimental diabetestreated with ficus carica extract effect on oxidative stressparametersrdquo Acta Diabetologica vol 40 no 1 pp 3ndash8 2003

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of


Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of



Disease Markers


BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of



Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity


PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of



Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of


Diabetes ResearchJournal of



Research and TreatmentAIDS


Gastroenterology Research and Practice


Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom


and the barks are grayish and slightly roughened The leavesare stipulated and petiolated with obovate nearly orbiculateor ovate leaf blade palmately lobed cordate base undulateor irregularly dentate margin acute to obtuse apex andscabrous-pubescent surfaces [17]

F carica has been cultivated for a long time in variousplacesworldwide for its edible fruit It is supposed to originatefrom Western Asia and spread to the Mediterranean byhumans [18] It is also an imperative world crop today TurkeyEgypt Morocco Spain Greece California Italy Brazil andother places with typically mild winters and hot dry summersare the major producers of edible figs [19] Fruits can be eatenraw dried canned or in other preserved forms [20]

F carica possibly originated from theMiddle East whichis one of the early cultivated fruit species [21] and currentlyis an important crop worldwide Nowadays the common figstill grows wild in the Mediterranean basin Morphologicaldata propose that the fig is gynodioecious whereas from afunctional standing point the fig is considered dioeciouswithtwo tree morphs Capri fig and edible fig Habitual fig cultiva-tion areas have significantly decreased and genetic variabilitywas reduced due to disappearance of many cultivars selectedin the past Actually almost all grown cultivars are the resultof old selection and are maintained by cutting as a way ofvegetative propagation [22]

The fruit (syconium or fig) and reproduction systemsof species in the genus Ficus are exclusive It can only bepollinated by their associated agaonid wasps (HymenopteraChalcoidea Agaonide) and in turn the wasps can only layeggs within their associated fruit For successful pollinationand reproduction of species of F carica to occur its associatedpollinator wasp must be present Conversely for successfulreproduction of agaonid wasps to occur their associatedspecies of F carica must be present [15] The pollinator waspfor F carica is Blastophaga psenes (L) [23]

2 Phytochemistry

Phytochemical studies on F carica revealed the presenceof numerous bioactive compounds such as phenolic com-pounds phytosterols organic acids anthocyanin compo-sition triterpenoids coumarins and volatile compoundssuch as hydrocarbons aliphatic alcohols and few otherclasses of secondary metabolites from different parts of Fcarica (Figure 1) Most species of F carica contain phenoliccompounds organic acids and volatile compounds [24 25]

Phenolic acids such as 3-O- and 5-O-caffeoylquinicacids ferulic acid quercetin-3-O-glucoside quercetin-3-O-rutinoside psoralen bergapten and organic acids (oxaliccitric malic quinic shikimic and fumaric acids) have beenisolated from the water extract of the leaves of F carica L[24] Coumarin has been isolated from the methanol extractof the leaves of F carica L by bioassay-guided isolation andthe isolated coumarin exhibited the strongest nematicidalactivity against the nematodes Bursaphelenchus xylophilusPanagrellus redivivus andCaenorhabditis eleganswithin 72 hr[26] Four triterpenoids bauerenol lupeol acetate methylmaslinate and oleanolic acidhave been isolated from the

leaves of F carica and showed irritant potential on mice ears[27]

The leaves of F carica consist of various volatilecompounds which are identified and distributed bydistinct chemical classes such as aldehydes methyl-butanal 2-methylbutanal (E)-2-pentanal hexanal and(E)-2-hexanal alcohols 1-penten-3-ol 3-methyl-1-butanol2-methylbutanol heptanol benzyl alcohol (E)-2-nonen-1-oland phenylethyl alcohol ketone 3-pentanone estersmethyl butanoate methyl hexanoate hexyl acetateethyl benzoate and methyl salicylate monoterpeneslimonene and menthol sesquiterpenes 120572-cubenene 120572-guaiene 120572-ylangene copaene 120573-bourbonene 120573-elemene120572-gurjunene 120573-caryophyllene 120573-cubebene aromadendrene120572-caryophyllene 120591-muurolene 120591-cadinene 120572-muurolenegermacrene D and (+)-ledene norisoprenoid 120573-cyclocitraland miscellaneous compounds psoralen [28]

Fifteen anthocyanin pigments were isolated from the figfruit and bark of F carica Most of them contain cyanidinas aglycone and some pelargonidin derivatives [6] Pentaneextracts from the fig of F carica contain numerous volatilecompounds benzyl aldehyde benzyl alcohol furanoidlinalool pyranoid (trans) cinnamic aldehyde indole cin-namic alcohol eugenol and transcaryophyllenes sesquiter-pene germacrene D hydroxyl caryophyllene angelicin andbergapten [25]

Total and individual phenolic compounds phenolic acidchlorogenic acid flavones and flavonols have been isolatedfrom fresh and dried fig skins of F carica and dried figscontained total higher amounts of phenolics than the pulpof fresh fruits owing to the contribution of the dry skinQuercetin rutinoside was the major individual phenolic [29]while microbial 120573-D-glucans has been isolated from Libyanfigs of F carica [30]

Phenolic acids 3-O- and 5-O-caffeoylquinic acids ferulicacid quercetin-3-O-glucoside quercetin-3-O-rutinosidepsoralen and bergapten and organic acids (oxalic citricmalic shikimic and fumaric acids) were isolated fromthe pulps and peels of figs [24] Phenolics anthocyaninsfructose glucose and sucrose were identified from the fig ofF carica [31]

Various volatile constituents of five Portuguese vari-eties of F carica fruits (pulps and peels) have been iso-lated which include aldehydes 3-methyl-butanal 2-methyl-butanal (E)-2-pentanal hexanal heptanal octanal andnonanal alcohols 1-penten-3-ol 3-methylbutanol benzylalcohol (E)-2-nonenol and phenylethyl alcohol ketone6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one esters methyl hexanoate methylsalicylate and ethyl salicylate monoterpenes limonenementhol 120572-pinene 120573-pinene linalool eucalyptol sesquiter-penes 120572-cubenene copaene 120573-caryophyllene 120591-muurolene120591-cadinene and germacrene D norisoprenoid 120573-cyclocitraland miscellaneous compounds eugenol [28]

3 Traditional and Current Uses

F carica has been traditionally used for its medicinal benefitsas metabolic cardiovascular respiratory antispasmodic and


CO2H

OCH3



Bergapten (7)

Coumarin (8)







Benzyl alcohol (22)


Ferulic acid (3)

Psoralen (6)

(E)-2-Nonenol (23)

O

O

O

O

OOH

OHOOC

OO

O

OO

OO

OO O

O OH

OO

OO

OOH H

H

H

HO

HO

H

H O

H

HO

H

H

H

HO O

O O

H

O

HO O O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OHOHOH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH OH

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO HO

HO

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

(a)

Figure 1 Continued



Ethyl benzoate (29)


Limonene (31)







Linalool (52)




Angelicin (60)

120573-D-glucans (61)




O

OO O

O HOO

O

HH

H

H

HH

H

H

H H HH

HHH

H

H

H

H O

H O

OO

O

O

H

O

NH

H

H

OH

H

H

H

O OO

O O O O

OHC OO

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HOHO

HO

CH3

CH3

H3CO

(b)


























5 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References



























































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of

















CO2H

OCH3



Bergapten (7)

Coumarin (8)







Benzyl alcohol (22)


Ferulic acid (3)

Psoralen (6)

(E)-2-Nonenol (23)

O

O

O

O

OOH

OHOOC

OO

O

OO

OO

OO O

O OH

OO

OO

OOH H

H

H

HO

HO

H

H O

H

HO

H

H

H

HO O

O O

H

O

HO O O

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OHOHOH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OHOH

OH

OH OH

HO

HO

HO

HOHO

HOHO

HO

HO

HO HO

HO

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

(a)

Figure 1 Continued



Ethyl benzoate (29)


Limonene (31)







Linalool (52)




Angelicin (60)

120573-D-glucans (61)




O

OO O

O HOO

O

HH

H

H

HH

H

H

H H HH

HHH

H

H

H

H O

H O

OO

O

O

H

O

NH

H

H

OH

H

H

H

O OO

O O O O

OHC OO

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HOHO

HO

CH3

CH3

H3CO

(b)


























5 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References



























































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of


















Ethyl benzoate (29)


Limonene (31)







Linalool (52)




Angelicin (60)

120573-D-glucans (61)




O

OO O

O HOO

O

HH

H

H

HH

H

H

H H HH

HHH

H

H

H

H O

H O

OO

O

O

H

O

NH

H

H

OH

H

H

H

O OO

O O O O

OHC OO

O

OH

OHOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HOHO

HO

CH3

CH3

H3CO

(b)


























5 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References



























































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of








































5 Conclusion





Acknowledgments



References



























































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of
























































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of
















Review Article Ficus carica L. (Moraceae): Phytochemistry, Traditional...

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Transcript of Review Article Ficus carica L. (Moraceae): Phytochemistry, Traditional...