Response to Intervention Developing an Effective RTI Model: Guidelines for Educators Jim Wright .

Response to Intervention

www.interventioncentral.org

Developing an Effective RTI Model: Guidelines for EducatorsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org


www.interventioncentral.org 2

Download materials from this workshop at:

• http://www.interventioncentral.org/ESC20.php



Developing an Effective RTI Model: Workshop Agenda

RTI: Key Concepts

Creating a Strong Problem-Solving Team

Selecting & Implementing ‘Evidence-Based’ Interventions

Conducting Assessment & Progress-Monitoring

Web Resources to Support RTI



RTI: Key Concepts



Five Core Components of RTI Service Delivery

1. Student services are arranged in a multi-tier model 2. Data are collected to assess student baseline levels

and to make decisions about student progress 3. Interventions are ‘evidence-based’4. The ‘procedural integrity’ of interventions is measured5. RTI is implemented and developed at the school- and

district-level to be scalable and sustainable over time

Source: Glover, T. A., & DiPerna, J. C. (2007). Service delivery for response to intervention: Core components and directions for future research. School Psychology Review, 36, 526-540.



RTI ‘Pyramid of Interventions’

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

Tier 1: Universal interventions. Available to all students in a classroom or school. Can consist of whole-group or individual strategies or supports.

Tier 2 Individualized interventions. Subset of students receive interventions targeting specific needs.

Tier 3: Intensive interventions. Students who are ‘non-responders’ to Tiers I & II may be eligible for special education services, intensive interventions.



RTI is a Model in Development

“Several proposals for operationalizing response to intervention have been made…The field can expect more efforts like these and, for a time at least, different models to be tested…Therefore, it is premature to advocate any single model.” (Barnett, Daly, Jones, & Lentz, 2004 )

Source: Barnett, D. W., Daly, E. J., Jones, K. M., & Lentz, F.E. (2004). Response to intervention: Empirically based special service decisions from single-case designs of increasing and decreasing intensity. Journal of Special Education, 38, 66-79.



At the Federal Level: A ‘Hands-Off Approach to RTI Implementation

“There are many RTI models and the regulations are written to accommodate the many different models that are currently in use. The Department does not mandate or endorse any particular model. Rather, the regulations provide States with the flexibility to adopt criteria that best meet local needs. Language that is more specific or prescriptive would not be appropriate. For example, while we recognize that rate of learning is often a key variable in assessing a child’s response to intervention, it would not be appropriate for the regulations to set a standard for responsiveness or improvement in the rate of learning.” p. 46653

Source: U.S. Department of Education. (2006). Assistance to States for the education of children with disabilities and preschool grants for children with disabilities; final rule. 71 Fed. Reg. (August 14, 2006) 34 CFR Parts 300 and 301.



The Purpose of RTI in Schools: What Students Should It Serve?

Early Identification. As students begin to show need for academic support, the RTI model proactively supports them with early interventions to close the skill or performance gap with peers.

Chronically At-Risk. Students whose school performance is marginal across school years but who do not qualify for special education services are identified by the RTI Team and provided with ongoing intervention support.

Special Education. Students who fail to respond to scientifically valid general-education interventions implemented with integrity are classified as ‘non-responders’ and found eligible for special education.



Target Student

Discrepancy 1: Skill Gap (Current Performance Level)

Avg Classroom Academic Performance Level

‘Dual-Discrepancy’: RTI Model of Learning Disability (Fuchs 2003)

Discrepancy 2:Gap in Rate of Learning (‘Slope of Improvement’)



Scheduling & Managing a Schoolwide RTI Literacy Model




Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3


Tier 2: Individualized interventions. Subset of students receive interventions targeting specific needs.




Tier I Instruction/InterventionsTier I instruction/interventions:

• Are universal—available to all students.• Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout the school. • Are likely to be put into place by the teacher at the first sign that a student is struggling.

All children have access to Tier 1 instruction/interventions. Teachers have the capability to use those strategies without requiring outside assistance.

Tier 1 instruction/interventions encompass:

• The school’s core curriculum and all published or teacher-made materials used to deliver that curriculum.

• Teacher use of ‘whole-group’ teaching & management strategies.• Teacher use of individualized strategies with specific students.

Tier I instruction/interventions attempt to answer the question: Are routine classroom instructional strategies sufficient to help the student to achieve academic success?



Building Tier 1 Capacity in the Teaching of Reading: Example of Differentiating Instruction

In grades K-3, teachers can differentiate instruction for children during the block of ‘core literacy instruction’ through flexible small-group instruction.

• Reading centers are set up in the classroom, at which students might work in groups, in pairs, or individually.

• These centers might be designed for students to access independently or to be teacher-led.

• Group sizes can range from 3-5 for ‘struggling students’ up to 5-7 for those students who are on grade level.

Source: Kosanovich, M., Ladinsky, K., Nelson, L., & Torgesen, J. (n.d.). Differentiated reading instruction: Small group alternative lesson structures for all students. Florida Center for Reading Research. Retrieved on November 5, 2008, from http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/smallGroupAlternativeLessonStructures.pdf



Building Tier 1 Capacity in the Teaching of Reading: Example of Differentiating Instruction (Cont.)

Reading center activities can include guided reading and skills-focused lessons.

• ‘Guided reading’ activities provide more general reading instruction. The teacher guides a group discussion of the text (e.g., selection of the text, introducing the text to students, talking about the content of the text, providing instruction in ‘strategic strategies’ to better access the text, etc.).

• ‘Skills-focused’ lessons provide specific, focused instruction and practice in crucial reading skills (e.g., letter-sound correspondence, phoneme segmentation). Students with similar reading deficits are placed in specific skills-focused groups to allow targeted interventions.




Building Tier 1 Capacity in the Teaching of Reading: Example of Differentiating Instruction (Cont.)

The teacher determines the composition and instructional activities to be used in reading centers via ongoing reading assessment information (e.g., DIBELS progress-monitoring data, classroom observations, etc.).

• The teacher creates a master ‘reading center’ schedule ( a series of teacher-led and independent reading centers to accommodate all students in the classroom).

• Recruitment for reading centers is flexible: Children are assigned to specific reading centers based on their reading profile. Those center assignments are regularly updated based on classroom reading assessment data.




Documenting Tier 1 InterventionsTeachers can conveniently document their Tier 1 (classroom) intervention and progress-monitoring by using the Tier 1 Intervention Planner form (next slide). The Tier 1 Intervention Planner is most useful when it is filled in as part of a conversation with other educators about effective intervention ideas. For example:

• The teacher can bring the student up for discussion in a planning meeting with other teachers from the same grade level. Together, those instructors can brainstorm intervention strategies that the classroom teacher can try with the student.

• The teacher may have a list of consultants (e.g., reading specialist, school psychologist, special education teacher, school administrator) with whom that teacher is welcome to meet with to generate additional evidence-based classroom intervention strategies.




Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3






Tier 2: Supplemental (Group-Based) Interventions

Tier 2 interventions are typically delivered in small-group format. About 15% of students in the typical school will require Tier 2/supplemental intervention support.

Group size for Tier 2 interventions is limited to 4-6 students.

Students placed in Tier 2 interventions should have a shared profile of intervention need.

The reading progress of students in Tier 2 interventions are monitored at least 1-2 times per month.

Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools. Routledge: New York.



Group-Based Tier II Services: How Much Time Should Be Allocated?

Emerging guidelines drawn largely from reading research suggest that standard protocol interventions should consist of at least three to five 30-minute sessions per week, in a group size not to exceed 6 students. Standard protocol interventions should also supplement, rather than replace, core instruction taking place in the classroom.

Sources: Burns, Al Otaiba, S. & Torgesen, J. (2007). Effects from intensive standardized kindergarten and first-grade interventions for the prevention of reading difficulties. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 212-222).

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health & Human Development, National Institutes of Health.



Tier 2: Exploring Use of Non-Instructional Personnel

To expand their intervention capacity, schools may want to explore using people other than teachers to assist with some RTI interventions, including:

– peer or older student tutors– adult volunteers– graduate students– paraprofessionalsOf course, any person serving as a tutor would need to be trained appropriately and their tutoring activities overseen by a certified educator. (Burns & Gibbons, 2008).




Tier 2 Resources: Maintain Flexibility by Assigning to Grade Levels

If there are personnel resources available to support classroom RTI (e.g., paraprofessional time, push-in support available from a reading teacher), those resources should be allocated to the grade level, not to individual classrooms. This permits greater flexibility in moving resources around to target shifting student needs.

Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools: Procedures to assure scientific-based practices. New York: Routledge.



Scheduling Elementary Tier 2 Interventions


Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3Grade K

Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3Grade 1





Anyplace Elementary School: 9:00 a.m. – 9:30 a.m.

Option 1: Independent Scheduling. Teachers independently schedule their own Tier 2 intervention time. An advantage is flexibility. A disadvantage is that scheduling outside providers to assist is difficult.



Scheduling Elementary Tier 2 Interventions


Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3Grade K






Anyplace Elementary School: RTI Daily Schedule

Option 3: ‘Floating RTI’:Gradewide Shared Schedule. Each grade has a scheduled RTI time across classrooms. No two grades share the same RTI time. Advantages are that outside providers can move from grade to grade providing push-in or pull-out services and that students can be grouped by need across different teachers within the grade.

9:00-9:30

9:45-10:15

10:30-11:00

12:30-1:00

1:15-1:45

2:00-2:30




Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3






Tier 3: Intensive Individualized Interventions

Tier 3 interventions are the most intensive offered in a school setting.

Students qualify for Tier 3 interventions because:– they are found to have a large skill gap when compared to their class or grade

peers; and/or– They did not respond to interventions provided previously at Tiers 1 & 2.

Tier 3 interventions are provided daily for sessions of 30 minutes. The student-teacher ratio is flexible but should allow the student to receive intensive, individualized instruction.

The reading progress of students in Tier 3 interventions is monitored at least weekly.




Tier 3 Interventions Are Developed With Assistance from the School’s RTI (Problem-Solving) Team

Effective RTI Teams:• Are multi-disciplinary and include classroom teachers among

their members• Follow a structured ‘problem-solving’ model• Use data to analyze the academic problem and match the

student to effective, evidence-based interventions• Develop a detailed research-based intervention plan to help

staff with implementation• Check up on the teacher’s success in carrying out the

intervention (‘intervention integrity’)



The Problem-Solving Model & Multi-Disciplinary Teams

A school consultative process (‘the problem-solving model’) with roots in applied behavior analysis was developed (e.g., Bergan, 1995) that includes 4 steps: – Problem Identification– Problem Analysis– Plan Implementation– Problem EvaluationOriginally designed for individual consultation with teachers,

the problem-solving model was later adapted in various forms to multi-disciplinary team settings.

Source: Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2), 111-123.



Tier 3 Targets: Intervention, Curriculum, and Environment

“For [a tier 3] intervention to be effective and robust, it must focus on the specific needs of the student. It should also address the reason that the student is experiencing difficulty…. Rather than considering a [student] problem to be the result of inalterable student characteristics, teams are compelled to focus on change that can be made to the intervention, curriculum or environment that would result in positive student outcome. The hypothesis and intervention should focus on those variables that are alterable within the school setting. These alterable variables include learning goals and objectives (what is to be learned), materials, time, student-to-teacher ratio, activities, and motivational strategies.” p. 95




Tier 3: Scripting Interventions to Promote Better Compliance

Interventions should be written up in a ‘scripted’ format to ensure that:– Teachers have sufficient information about the

intervention to implement it correctly; and– External observers can view the teacher implementing the

intervention strategy and—using the script as a checklist—verify that each step of the intervention was implemented correctly (‘treatment integrity’).




Intervention Script Builder Form



Advancing Through RTI: Flexibility in the TiersFor purposes of efficiency, students should be placed in small-group instruction at Tier 2. In early reading instruction, this intervention option is usually simple to implement.

However, group interventions may not always be possible because –due to scheduling or other issues—no group is available. (For example, students with RTI behavioral referrals may not have a group intervention available.)

In such a case, the student will go directly to the problem-solving process (Tier 3)—typically through a referral to the school RTI Team.

Nonetheless, the school must still document the same minimum number of interventions attempted for every student in RTI, whether or not a student first received interventions in a group setting.



Increasing the Intensity of an Intervention: Key Dimensions

Interventions can move up the RTI Tiers through being intensified across several dimensions, including:

• Type of intervention strategy or materials used• Student-teacher ratio• Length of intervention sessions• Frequency of intervention sessions• Duration of the intervention period (e.g., extending an intervention

from 5 weeks to 10 weeks)• Motivation strategies


Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., & Kalymon, K. M. (2007). Response to intervention: Conceptual and methodological issues in implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer.



Research-Based Elements of Effective Academic Interventions

• ‘Correctly targeted’: The intervention is appropriately matched to the student’s academic or behavioral needs.

• ‘Explicit instruction’: Student skills have been broken down “into manageable and deliberately sequenced steps and providing overt strategies for students to learn and practice new skills” p.1153

• ‘Appropriate level of challenge’: The student experiences adequate success with the instructional task.

• ‘High opportunity to respond’: The student actively responds at a rate frequent enough to promote effective learning.

• ‘Feedback’: The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work completed.

Source: Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Boice, C. H. (2008). Best practices in intensive academic interventions. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.



Essential Elements of Any Academic or Behavioral Intervention (‘Treatment’) Strategy:

• Method of delivery (‘Who or what delivers the treatment?’)Examples include teachers, paraprofessionals, parents, volunteers, computers.

• Treatment component (‘What makes the intervention effective?’)Examples include activation of prior knowledge to help the student to make meaningful connections between ‘known’ and new material; guide practice (e.g., Paired Reading) to increase reading fluency; periodic review of material to aid student retention. As an example of a research-based commercial program, Read Naturally ‘combines teacher modeling, repeated reading and progress monitoring to remediate fluency problems’.



Interventions, Accommodations & Modifications: Sorting Them Out

• Interventions. An academic intervention is a strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an existing skill to new situations or settings.

An intervention is said to be research-based when it has been demonstrated to be effective in one or more articles published in peer–reviewed scientific journals. Interventions might be based on commercial programs such as Read Naturally. The school may also develop and implement an intervention that is based on guidelines provided in research articles—such as Paired Reading (Topping, 1987).




• Accommodations. An accommodation is intended to help the student to fully access the general-education curriculum without changing the instructional content. An accommodation for students who are slow readers, for example, may include having them supplement their silent reading of a novel by listening to the book on tape.

An accommodation is intended to remove barriers to learning while still expecting that students will master the same instructional content as their typical peers. Informal accommodations may be used at the classroom level or be incorporated into a more intensive, individualized intervention plan.




• Modifications. A modification changes the expectations of what a student is expected to know or do—typically by lowering the academic expectations against which the student is to be evaluated.

Examples of modifications are reducing the number of multiple-choice items in a test from five to four or shortening a spelling list. Under RTI, modifications are generally not included in a student’s intervention plan, because the working assumption is that the student can be successful in the curriculum with appropriate interventions and accommodations alone.



Building Teacher Capacity to Deliver Tier 1 Interventions: An 8-Step Checklist Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org




Tier I

Tier II

Tier III

Tier I: Universal interventions. Available to all students in a classroom or school. Can consist of whole-group or individual strategies or supports.

Tier II: Individualized interventions. Subset of students receive interventions targeting specific needs. An RTI Team may assist with the plan.

Tier III: Intensive interventions. Students who are ‘non-responders’ to Tiers I & II may be eligible for special education services, intensive interventions.



Tier 1 (Classroom) Interventions: Building Your School’s Capacity

1. Train Teachers to Write Specific, Measureable, Observable ‘Problem Identification Statements’

2. Inventory Tier 1 Interventions Already in Use

3. Create a Standard Menu of Evidence-Based Tier 1 Intervention Ideas for Teachers

4. Establish Tier 1 Coaching and Support Resources



Tier 1 (Classroom) Interventions: Building Your School’s Capacity (Cont.)

5. Provide Classroom (Tier 1) Problem-Solving Support to Teachers.

6. Set Up a System to Locate Additional Evidence-Based Tier 1 Intervention Ideas.

7. Create Formal Guidelines for Teachers to Document Tier 1 Strategies.

8. Develop Decision Rules for Referring Students from Tier 1 to Higher Levels of Intervention.



Team Activity: Building Tier 1 Capacity

At your tables:

• Consider the eight steps to building Tier 1 teacher capacity to deliver effective classroom interventions.

• Discuss the strengths and challenges that your school or district presents in promoting Tier 1 interventions.

• Be prepared to share your discuss with the larger group!



A Review of RTI Literacy Assessment/ Monitoring ToolsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



Apply the ’80-15-5’ Rule to Determine if the Focus of the Intervention Should Be the Core Curriculum, Subgroups of Underperforming Learners, or Individual Struggling Students (T. Christ, 2008)

– If less than 80% of students are successfully meeting academic or behavioral goals, the intervention focus is on the core curriculum and general student population.

– If no more than 15% of students are not successful in meeting academic or behavioral goals, the intervention focus is on small-group ‘treatments’ or interventions.

– If no more than 5% of students are not successful in meeting academic or behavioral goals, the intervention focus is on the individual student.

Source: Christ, T. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 159-176).



CBM Literacy Measures: Sources

• DIBELS (https://dibels.uoregon.edu/)• AimsWeb (http://www.aimsweb.com)• Easy CBM (http://www.easycbm.com)• iSteep (http://www.isteep.com)• EdCheckup (http://www.edcheckup.com)• Intervention Central

(http://www.interventioncentral.org)



Reading: 5 Big Ideas• Phonemic Awareness/Specific Subskill Mastery• Alphabetics• Fluency with Text• Vocabulary• Comprehension



Reading: 5 Big Ideas• Phonemic Awareness• Alphabetics/Specific Subskill Mastery• Fluency with Text• Vocabulary• Comprehension



Reading: 5 Big Ideas• Phonemic Awareness• Alphabetics• Fluency with Text/General Outcome Measure• Vocabulary• Comprehension



Reading: 5 Big Ideas• Phonemic Awareness• Alphabetics• Fluency with Text• Vocabulary• Comprehension/General Outcome Measure



Comparison of RTI Assessment/Monitoring Systems

DIBELS [Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills]• Initial Sound Fluency: Preschool > Middle K• Letter Naming Fluency: Beginning K > Beginning Gr 1• Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: Middle K > End Gr 1• Nonsense Word Fluency: Middle K > Beginning Gr 2• Oral Reading Fluency: Middle Gr 1 > Gr 6




Easy CBM• Letter Naming Fluency: K > Gr 1• Letter Sound Fluency: K > Gr 1• Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: K > Gr 1• Word Reading Fluency: K > Gr 3• Oral Reading Fluency: Gr 1 > Gr 8




AimsWeb• Letter Naming Fluency: Beginning K > Beginning Gr 1• Letter Sound Fluency: Middle K > Beginning Gr 1• Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: Middle K > Middle Gr 1• Nonsense Word Fluency: Middle K > End Gr 1• Oral Reading Fluency: Gr 1 > Gr 8• Maze (Reading Comprehension Fluency): Gr 1 > Gr 8



Comparison of 2 RTI Assessment/Monitoring Systems

DIBELS• Initial Sound Fluency:

Preschool > Middle K• Letter Naming Fluency:

Beginning K > Beginning Gr 1•

• Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: Middle K > End Gr 1

• Nonsense Word Fluency: Middle K > Beginning Gr 2

• Oral Reading Fluency: Middle Gr 1 > Gr 6

•

AimsWeb•

• Letter Naming Fluency: Beginning K > Beginning Gr 1

• Letter Sound Fluency: Middle K > Beginning Gr 1

• Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: Middle K > Middle Gr 1

• Nonsense Word Fluency: Middle K > End Gr 1

• Oral Reading Fluency: Gr 1 > Gr 8

• Maze (Reading Comprehension Fluency): Gr 1 > Gr 8



‘Elbow Group’ Activity: ‘RTI-Ready’ Literacy Measures: A Guide for Elementary Schools

In your ‘elbow groups’:

• Review the set of CBM literacy assessment tools in the handout.

• Select a ‘starter’ set of literacy measures by grade level that you would like your school to adopt. (If your school already has a standard set of CBM literacy/tools, discuss ways to optimize its use.)



Example: Using Local Reading Norms in Coordination with Research Norms



Baylor Elementary School : Grade Norms: Correctly Read Words Per Min : Sample Size: 23 StudentsGroup Norms: Correctly Read Words Per Min: Book 4-1: Raw Data31 34 34 39 41 43 52 55 59 61 68 71 74 75 85 89 102 108 112 115 118 118 131

LOCAL NORMS EXAMPLE: Twenty-three 4th-grade students were administered oral reading fluency Curriculum-Based Measurement passages at the 4th-grade level in their school.

In their current number form, these data are not easy to interpret.

So the school converts them into a visual display—a box-plot —to show the distribution of scores and to convert the scores to percentile form.

When Billy, a struggling reader, is screened in CBM reading fluency, he shows a SIGNIFICANT skill gap when compared to his grade peers.



Baylor Elementary School : Grade Norms: Correctly Read Words Per Min : Sample Size: 23 Students January Benchmarking

Low Value=31 Hi Value=131

Median (2nd Quartile)=71

3rd Quartile=1081st Quartile=43

Billy=19

Group Norms: Correctly Read Words Per Min: Book 4-1: Raw Data31 34 34 39 41 43 52 55 59 61 68 71 74 75 85 89 102 108 112 115 118 118 131

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160Correctly Read Words-Book 4-1

Group Norms: Converted to Box-Plot

Source: Tindal, G., Hansbrouck, J., &

Jones, C. (2005).Oral reading fluency: 90

years of measurement

[Technical report #33]. Eugene, OR:

University of Oregon.

National Reading Norms: 112 CRW Per Min



Using RTI to Determine Special Education Eligibility: Building the Foundation

• Collect Benchmarking/Universal Screening Data on Key Reading and Math (and Perhaps Other) Academic Skills for Each Grade Level. Benchmarking data is collected on all students at least three times per year (fall, winter, spring). Measures selected for benchmarking should track student fluency and accuracy in basic academic skills that are key to success at each grade level.



Using RTI to Determine Special Education Eligibility: Building the Foundation

• Hold ‘Data Meetings’ With Each Grade Level. After each benchmarking period (fall, winter, spring), the school organizes data meetings by grade level. The building administrator, classroom teachers, and perhaps other staff (e.g., reading specialist, school psychologist) meet to:– review student benchmark data.– discuss how classroom (Tier 1) instruction should be changed

to accommodate the student needs revealed in the benchmarking data.

– select students for Tier 2 (supplemental group) instruction/intervention.



Reading Interventions toPromote Fluency & Comprehension

Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



Savvy Teacher’s Guide: Reading

Interventions That Work

(Wright, 2000)



Big Ideas in Beginning Reading• “Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate

sounds in words. • Alphabetic Principle: The ability to associate sounds with letters

and use these sounds to form words. • Fluency with Text: The effortless, automatic ability to read words

in connected text. • Vocabulary: The ability to understand (receptive) and use

(expressive) words to acquire and convey meaning. • Comprehension: The complex cognitive process involving the

intentional interaction between reader and text to convey meaning.”

Source: Big ideas in beginning reading. University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php



Building Reading Fluency



NRP Conclusions Regarding Importance of Oral Reading Fluency:

“An extensive review of the literature indicates that classroom practices that encourage repeated oral reading with feedback and guidance leads to meaningful improvements in reading expertise for students—for good readers as well as those who are experiencing difficulties.”-p. 3-3



• Assisted Reading Practice• Listening Passage Preview

(‘ListeningWhile Reading’)

• Paired Reading • Repeated Reading

Interventions for…Increasing Reading Fluency



Paired Reading (p.17)

The student reads aloud in tandem with an accomplished reader. At a student signal, the helping reader stops reading, while the student continues on. When the student commits a reading error, the helping reader resumes reading in tandem.



Building Reading Comprehension



Processing Before Reading (Pressley & Wharton-McDonald, 1997)

• Good readers– have clear goals in mind before reading– overview the text before reading to:

• determine whether text is worth reading• identify sections that may be most relevant• Create a ‘reading plan’



Processing During Reading (Pressley & Wharton-McDonald, 1997)

• Good readers– pay ‘differential’ attention to information

that pertains to their goals– may jump back and forth in the text to clarify

confusion, review specific information– anticipate what will come next in the text and updare

their predictions based on new information– make inferences based on reading– ‘demonstrate passion’ for their reading



Processing After Reading (Pressley & Wharton-McDonald, 1997)

• Good readers– may reread or ‘reskim’ the text just read– may take notes on text or attempt to restate

main ideas– continue to think about and reflect on text once they

are done reading



‘Click or Clunk’ Self-Check

(p.25)

Students periodically check their understanding of sentences, paragraphs, and pages of text as they read. When students encounter problems with vocabulary or comprehension, they use a checklist to apply simple strategies to solve those reading difficulties.



‘Click or Clunk’ Check Sheet



‘…The combination of lack of practice, deficient decoding skills, and difficult materials results in unrewarding early reading experiences that lead to less involvement in reading related activities. Lack of exposure and practice on the part of the less skilled readers delays the development of automaticity and speed at the word-metacognition level. Slow, capacity-draining word-recognition processes require cognitive resources that should be allocated to higher-level process of text integration and comprehension.’- Stanovich, K., (1986)




‘Click or Clunk?’ Example





RTI: Best Practicesin MathematicsInterventionsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



National Mathematics Advisory Panel Report13 March 2008



Math Advisory Panel Report at:

http://www.ed.gov/mathpanel



2008 National Math Advisory Panel Report: Recommendations• “The areas to be studied in mathematics from pre-kindergarten through

eighth grade should be streamlined and a well-defined set of the most important topics should be emphasized in the early grades. Any approach that revisits topics year after year without bringing them to closure should be avoided.”

• “Proficiency with whole numbers, fractions, and certain aspects of geometry and measurement are the foundations for algebra. Of these, knowledge of fractions is the most important foundational skill not developed among American students.”

• “Conceptual understanding, computational and procedural fluency, and problem solving skills are equally important and mutually reinforce each other. Debates regarding the relative importance of each of these components of mathematics are misguided.”

• “Students should develop immediate recall of arithmetic facts to free the “working memory” for solving more complex problems.”

Source: National Math Panel Fact Sheet. (March 2008). Retrieved on March 14, 2008, from http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-factsheet.html



“Mathematics is made of 50 percent formulas, 50 percent proofs, and 50 percent imagination.”

–Anonymous



An RTI Challenge: Limited Research to Support Evidence-Based Math Interventions

“… in contrast to reading, core math programs that are supported by research, or that have been constructed according to clear research-based principles, are not easy to identify. Not only have exemplary core programs not been identified, but also there are no tools available that we know of that will help schools analyze core math programs to determine their alignment with clear research-based principles.” p. 459

Source: Clarke, B., Baker, S., & Chard, D. (2008). Best practices in mathematics assessment and intervention with elementary students. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 453-463).



Who is At Risk for Poor Math Performance?: A Proactive Stance

“…we use the term mathematics difficulties rather than mathematics disabilities. Children who exhibit mathematics difficulties include those performing in the low average range (e.g., at or below the 35th percentile) as well as those performing well below average…Using higher percentile cutoffs increases the likelihood that young children who go on to have serious math problems will be picked up in the screening.” p. 295

Source: Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early identification and interventions for students with mathematics difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 293-304.



Profile of Students with Math Difficulties (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003)

[Although the group of students with difficulties in learning math is very heterogeneous], in general, these students have memory deficits leading to difficulties in the acquisition and remembering of math knowledge.

Moreover, they often show inadequate use of strategies for solving math tasks, caused by problems with the acquisition and the application of both cognitive and metacognitive strategies.

Because of these problems, they also show deficits in generalization and transfer of learned knowledge to new and unknown tasks.

Source: Kroesbergen, E., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics interventions for children with special educational needs. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 97-114..



The Elements of Mathematical Proficiency: What the Experts Say…



Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

5 Strands of Mathematical Proficiency

1. Understanding

2. Computing

3. Applying

4. Reasoning

5. Engagement

5 Big Ideas in Beginning Reading

1. Phonemic Awareness

2. Alphabetic Principle

3. Fluency with Text

4. Vocabulary

5. ComprehensionSource: Big ideas in beginning reading. University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php



Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency1. Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts,

operations, and relations--knowing what mathematical symbols, diagrams, and procedures mean.

2. Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures, such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately.

3. Applying: Being able to formulate problems mathematically and to devise strategies for solving them using concepts and procedures appropriately.




Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (Cont.)

4. Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to a problem or to extend from something known to something less known.

5. Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and doable—if you work at it—and being willing to do the work.




Five Strands of Mathematical

Proficiency (NRC, 2002)1. Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts,

operations, and relations--knowing what mathematical symbols, diagrams, and procedures mean.

2. Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures, such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately.

3. Applying: Being able to formulate problems mathematically and to devise strategies for solving them using concepts and procedures appropriately.

4. Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to a problem or to extend from something known to something less known.

5. Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and doable—if you work at it—and being willing to do the work.

Table Activity: Evaluate Your School’s Math Proficiency…

• As a group, review the National Research Council ‘Strands of Math Proficiency’.

• Which strand do you feel that your school / curriculum does the best job of helping students to attain proficiency?

• Which strand do you feel that your school / curriculum should put the greatest effort to figure out how to help students to attain proficiency?

• Be prepared to share your results.



Three General Levels of Math Skill Development (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003)

As students move from lower to higher grades, they move through levels of acquisition of math skills, to include:

• Number sense• Basic math operations (i.e., addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division)• Problem-solving skills: “The solution of both verbal

and nonverbal problems through the application of previously acquired information” (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003, p. 98)

Source: Kroesbergen, E., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics interventions for children with special educational needs. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 97-114..



What is ‘Number Sense’? (Clarke & Shinn, 2004)

“… the ability to understand the meaning of numbers and define different relationships among numbers.

Children with number sense can recognize the relative size of numbers, use referents for measuring objects and events, and think and work with numbers in a flexible manner that treats numbers as a sensible system.” p. 236

Source: Clarke, B., & Shinn, M. (2004). A preliminary investigation into the identification and development of early mathematics curriculum-based measurement. School Psychology Review, 33, 234–248.



What Are Stages of ‘Number Sense’?

(Berch, 2005, p. 336)

1. Innate Number Sense. Children appear to possess ‘hard-wired’ ability (neurological ‘foundation structures’) to acquire number sense. Children’s innate capabilities appear also to be to ‘represent general amounts’, not specific quantities. This innate number sense seems to be characterized by skills at estimation (‘approximate numerical judgments’) and a counting system that can be described loosely as ‘1, 2, 3, 4, … a lot’.

2. Acquired Number Sense. Young students learn through indirect and direct instruction to count specific objects beyond four and to internalize a number line as a mental representation of those precise number values.

Source: Berch, D. B. (2005). Making sense of number sense: Implications for children with mathematical disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 333-339...



Internal NumberlineAs students internalize the numberline, they are better able to perform ‘mental arithmetic’ (the manipulation of numbers and math operations in their head).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

2 + 4 = 628 ÷ 4 = 79 – 7 = 23 X 7 = 21



Math Computation: Building FluencyJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



"Arithmetic is being able to count up to twenty without taking off your shoes."

–Anonymous



Benefits of Automaticity of ‘Arithmetic Combinations’ (Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005)

• There is a strong correlation between poor retrieval of arithmetic combinations (‘math facts’) and global math delays

• Automatic recall of arithmetic combinations frees up student ‘cognitive capacity’ to allow for understanding of higher-level problem-solving

• By internalizing numbers as mental constructs, students can manipulate those numbers in their head, allowing for the intuitive understanding of arithmetic properties, such as associative property and commutative property




How much is 3 + 8?: Strategies to Solve…Least efficient strategy: Count out and group 3 objects; count out and group 8 objects; count all objects:

+ =11

More efficient strategy: Begin at the number 3 and ‘count up’ 8 more digits (often using fingers for counting): 3 + 8More efficient strategy: Begin at the number 8 (larger number) and ‘count up’ 3 more digits: 8 + 3Most efficient strategy: ‘3 + 8’ arithmetic combination is stored in memory and automatically retrieved: Answer = 11




Math Skills: Importance of Fluency in Basic Math Operations

“[A key step in math education is] to learn the four basic mathematical operations (i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Knowledge of these operations and a capacity to perform mental arithmetic play an important role in the development of children’s later math skills. Most children with math learning difficulties are unable to master the four basic operations before leaving elementary school and, thus, need special attention to acquire the skills. A … category of interventions is therefore aimed at the acquisition and automatization of basic math skills.”

Source: Kroesbergen, E., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics interventions for children with special educational needs. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 97-114.



Big Ideas: Learn Unit (Heward, 1996)

The three essential elements of effective student learning include:1. Academic Opportunity to Respond. The student is presented with

a meaningful opportunity to respond to an academic task. A question posed by the teacher, a math word problem, and a spelling item on an educational computer ‘Word Gobbler’ game could all be considered academic opportunities to respond.

2. Active Student Response. The student answers the item, solves the problem presented, or completes the academic task. Answering the teacher’s question, computing the answer to a math word problem (and showing all work), and typing in the correct spelling of an item when playing an educational computer game are all examples of active student responding.

3. Performance Feedback. The student receives timely feedback about whether his or her response is correct—often with praise and encouragement. A teacher exclaiming ‘Right! Good job!’ when a student gives an response in class, a student using an answer key to check her answer to a math word problem, and a computer message that says ‘Congratulations! You get 2 points for correctly spelling this word!” are all examples of performance feedback.

Source: Heward, W.L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M.S ainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman,& T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp.283-320). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.



Math Intervention: Tier I or II: Elementary & Secondary: Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills With Performance

Self-Monitoring & Incentives

1. The student is given a math computation worksheet of a specific problem type, along with an answer key [Academic Opportunity to Respond].

2. The student consults his or her performance chart and notes previous performance. The student is encouraged to try to ‘beat’ his or her most recent score.

3. The student is given a pre-selected amount of time (e.g., 5 minutes) to complete as many problems as possible. The student sets a timer and works on the computation sheet until the timer rings. [Active Student Responding]

4. The student checks his or her work, giving credit for each correct digit (digit of correct value appearing in the correct place-position in the answer). [Performance Feedback]

5. The student records the day’s score of TOTAL number of correct digits on his or her personal performance chart.

6. The student receives praise or a reward if he or she exceeds the most recently posted number of correct digits.

Application of ‘Learn Unit’ framework from : Heward, W.L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M.S ainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman,& T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp.283-320). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.



Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills:Examples of Student Worksheet and Answer Key

Worksheets created using Math Worksheet Generator. Available online at:http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/tools/mathprobe/addsing.php



Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills…

No Reward

Reward GivenReward GivenReward Given

No RewardNo Reward

Reward Given



How to… Use PPT Group Timers in the Classroom



Math Computation: Problem Interspersal Technique• The teacher first identifies the range of ‘challenging’ problem-types

(number problems appropriately matched to the student’s current instructional level) that are to appear on the worksheet.

• Then the teacher creates a series of ‘easy’ problems that the students can complete very quickly (e.g., adding or subtracting two 1-digit numbers). The teacher next prepares a series of student math computation worksheets with ‘easy’ computation problems interspersed at a fixed rate among the ‘challenging’ problems.

• If the student is expected to complete the worksheet independently, ‘challenging’ and ‘easy’ problems should be interspersed at a 1:1 ratio (that is, every ‘challenging’ problem in the worksheet is preceded and/or followed by an ‘easy’ problem).

• If the student is to have the problems read aloud and then asked to solve the problems mentally and write down only the answer, the items should appear on the worksheet at a ratio of 3 ‘challenging’ problems for every ‘easy’ one (that is, every 3 ‘challenging’ problems are preceded and/or followed by an ‘easy’ one).

Source: Hawkins, J., Skinner, C. H., & Oliver, R. (2005). The effects of task demands and additive interspersal ratios on fifth-grade students’ mathematics accuracy. School Psychology Review, 34, 543-555..



How to… Create an Interspersal-Problems Worksheet

Response to Intervention Developing an Effective RTI Model: Guidelines for Educators Jim Wright .

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Transcript of Response to Intervention Developing an Effective RTI Model: Guidelines for Educators Jim Wright .