Sustainable Development Law & PolicyVolume 11Issue 1 Fall 2010: Sustainable Development in theUrban Environment

Article 13

Resource Recovery and Materials Flow in the City:Zero Waste and Sustainable Consumption asParadigms in Urban DevelopmentSteffen Lehmann

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Recommended CitationSteffen Lehmann (2011) "Resource Recovery and Materials Flow in the City: Zero Waste and Sustainable Consumption as Paradigmsin Urban Development," Sustainable Development Law & Policy: Vol. 11: Iss. 1, Article 13.Available at: http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/sdlp/vol11/iss1/13

Fall 2010 28

InTroducTIon

Wastewasonceseenasaburdenonourindustriesandcommunities;however,shiftingattitudesandbetterunderstandingofglobalwarmingandthedepletion

ofresourceshaveled to the identificationofwasteasavalu-ableresourcethatdemandsresponsiblesolutionsforcollecting,separating,managing, and recovering. Inparticular, over thelastdecadetheholisticconceptofa“zerowaste”lifecyclehasemergedaspartofaculturalshiftandanewwayofthinkingabouttheage-oldproblemofwasteandtheeconomicobsessionwithendlessgrowthandconsumption.

Aglobalunderstandinghasemerged,whichwidelyacceptsthatthebroadimpactofclimatechange—whichincludesbiodi-versityloss:increasingair,water,andsoilpollution;deforesta-tion;andashortageofresourcesandmaterials—isaconsequenceofover-consumptionandunsustainableproductionprocesses.Emergingcomplexglobalissues,suchashealthandtheenviron-ment,orlifestylesandconsumption,anddevelopmentrequireapproaches that transcend the traditionalboundariesbetweendisciplines.Today,itisincreasinglyunderstoodthatweneedtodiscussresource-efficiencyandresource-recoveryinthesamewaythatwecurrentlydiscussenergy-efficiency.Thisincludeswaste minimization strategies and the concept of “designingwasteoutofprocessesandproduct[s].”1

At the local level, every municipality or company cantakeimmediateactiontoidentifyitsownparticularsolutions.Separatingrecyclablematerials,suchaspaper,metals,plastics,andglassbottles,andconsolidatingallidentifiedwastecatego-ries intoonecollectionpointaresomebasicmeasures.How-ever,awastestreamanalysisshouldbeconducted, involvinganinventoryoftheentirewastecomposition,measurementofthevolumesofdifferentmaterialcategories,andtheiroriginsanddestinations.Municipalitiescancreatedatabases to trackallwaste typesand tocross referencebyfacility type,so theamountandtypeofwasteeachfacility,district,orprecinctgen-eratescanbeidentified,thuspinpointingwherereductionsaremostfeasible.

Theconceptof“zerowaste”directlychallengesthecom-monassumptionthatwasteisunavoidableandhasnovaluebyfocusingonwasteasa“misallocatedresource”thathastoberecovered. Italso focuseson theavoidanceofwastecreationin thefirstplace. InAustralia for instance,households throwoutapproximatelyfivebilliondollarsoffoodeveryyear.2Thisraisesmuchwidersocialquestionsofattitudeandbehavior,and

has further implicationsonurbandevelopment.Howwillwedesign,build,andoperatecities in thefuture?Whatrolewillmaterialsflowandwasteplayinthe“cityoftomorrow”?Howwillwebetterengagesustainableurbandevelopmentprinciplesand“zerowaste” thinking?Thesearesomeof the topicsdis-cussedinthispaper.

The lInK beTween wasTe, maTerIal consumpTIon, and urbanIzaTIon

limitS to growth: unDerStanDing waSte aS a reSource anD part oF a cloSeD-cycle urban ecology

Inrecentyears,theneedformoresustainablelivingchoicesandafocusonbehavioralchangehasbeenincreasinglyartic-ulated. The estimated yearly world waste production is nowaroundfourbillionmetrictonsofwaste,ofwhichonlytwentypercent is currently recovered or recycled.3 Globally, wastemanagementhasemergedasahugechallenge,andwemusttakeafreshlookathowwecanbestmanagethewasteandmaterialstreamsofcitiesandurbandevelopments.Theissueofourcit-ies’evergrowingwasteproductionisofparticularsignificanceifweviewthecityasalivingeco-systemwithclosed-loopman-agementcycles(See:Figure1).

AnnaTibaijukanotesthat“managingsolidwasteisalwaysinthetopfiveofthemostchallengingproblemsforcitymanag-ersanditissomewhatstrangethatitreceivessolittleattentioncomparedtootherurbanmanagementissues.Thequalityofwastemanagementservicesisagoodindicatorofacity’sgovernance.”4Clearlytherearesomeseriousimplicationsaroundthetopicofwaste.Itisobviousthatitisnotjustaboutwasterecycling,butalso waste prevention. Avoidance is the priority, followed byrecyclingand“wasteengineering”(up-scaling)tominimizetheamountthatgoestowasteincinerationandlandfills.

Waste Disposal in LandfillsLandfillrunoffandleachateareathreattosoilandground-

water,andmethanegasdischarges—mainlyfromorganicwaste

reSource recovery anD materialS Flow in the city: Zero waSte anD SuStainable conSumption aS paraDigmS in urban Development

by Dr. Steffen Lehmann*

* Dr. Steffen Lehmann is the Professor of Sustainable Design and Inaugural Director of the Zero Waste SA Research Centre for Sustainable Design and Behaviour (“sd+b”) at the University of South Australia, in Adelaide. He has held the UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Urban Development for the Asia-Pacific Region (2008 to 2010), and was the Professor and Chair of the Architecture School at the University of Newcastle (NSW) from 2002 to 2010. He is General-Editor of the US-published Journal of Green Building (since 2006) and the con-vener of the international conference on ‘Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development’ held in Amman, Jordan in July 2010.

SuStainable Development law & policy29

inlandfills—areathreattotheatmosphere.Atthesametime,manylargecitiesareproducingastronomicalamountsofwastedailyandarerunningoutoflandfillspace.Thelandavailableforfillingwithrubbishisrunningoutandthesituationworldwideissimilar,wherecitiesare runningoutofspace tobury theirwaste.IntheEuropeanUnion(“EU”),legislationfromBrusselsismakingtheburialofrubbishinlandfillsitesmoreexpensiveandincreasingthepressuretore-useandrecycle.5Unfortunatelyseveral countries, such as the United Kingdom, are unlikelytomeettheEUdeadlinesonlandfilldiversion,astheyarenotdiverting waste away from landfill quickly enough.6 Beijingwill run out of space in its thirteen landfill sites in the nextthreeyears.7NewDelhiisopeninganewlandfillsite,asexist-ingsites’capacityhasbeenexhausted.8SanFranciscohasonlyenoughlandfillcapacitytolastuntil2014,andthesameappliestoSydney.9Totransportwasteontruckstodistantlandfillsiteswouldbeveryinefficientanddamagingfortheenvironment.10

E-WasteAparticularconcernisdisposalofelectricalandelectronic

equipment,knownase-waste.Ofabout16.8milliontelevisionsandcomputersthatreachedtheendoftheirusefullifeinAus-traliain2008and2009,onlyabouttenpercentwererecycled.11Mostofthehighlytoxice-wastestillgoesintolandfills,threat-eninggroundwaterandsoilquality,andanunknownpropor-tionisshippedoverseas(legallyandillegally),mainlytoChina.Aboutthirty-sevenmillioncomputers,seventeenmilliontele-visions,andfifty-sixmillionmobilephoneshavealreadybeenburiedinlandfillsaroundAustralia.12Thiswastecontainshighlevelsofmercuryandother toxicmaterials common toelec-tronicgoods,suchaslead,arsenic,andbromide.Severalcoun-triesareactivelypushingforindustry-ledschemesforcollectingand recycling televisions, printers, and computers, known asextendedproducerresponsibility(“EPR”)andproductsteward-ship.13Inaddition,wemustexpectthattheamountofe-wastecreatedinthedevelopingworldwilldramaticallyincreaseoverthenextdecade.

Waste IncinerationIncinerationofwastehasfinallygoneoutoffashion,asit

isawasteoffinite resourcesandhas thedisadvantage that itreleasespoisonoussubstances,suchasdioxinsand toxicash,intotheenvironment.14Incineratorashcanoftenbecategorizedas hazardous waste because it is extremely toxic, containingconcentratedamountsoflead,cadmium,andotherheavymet-als.15Companiesproducingincineratortechnologyhadtofaceshrinking markets in pollution-conscious northern countriesandasconsequencehavebeenturningtoAsiaandLatin-Amer-icawhere theystill seea lucrativemarket for theirout-datedtechnology.16

Burningwastewithveryhigh-embodiedenergyisgenerallynotanefficientwayofdealingwithmaterialsandresources,andthereforeranksrightlyatthebottomofthewastemanagementhierarchy.Environmentalgroupshavesuccessfullypreventedtheconstructionofnewwaste incineratorsaround theworld;

thereisresistancebysocietytothedevelopmentofnewlandfillsandincinerationfacilities.17

Outdated linear systems like burning waste or dumpingwaste on landfill sites will have to be replaced with circularsystems,takingnatureasitsmodel.Acombinationofrecyclingandcompostingorganicwasteismuchmoreappropriate.Thetransformationofwastemanagementhasemergedasalucrativefield:in2006,forexample,SitaUK,asubsidiaryoftheFrenchgroup Suez Environment, signed a £1 billion contract withCornwallCountyCounciltomanageitswasteforthenextthirtyyears,followedbyatwenty-eightyear,£690milliondealwithNorthumberland.CumbriacountycouncilmadeShanksitspre-ferredbidderfora£400millioncontracttomanageitswastefortwenty-fiveyearsinNovember2010.Manyotherlocalauthor-itycontractsareupforgrabs.18

Alternatives to Waste DisposalIntheavailableliterature,onecanfrequentlyfindarecom-

mendedsplitforacity’smunicipalwastemanagementwherenowastegoestolandfillisasfollows:

• Recyclingandreusingminimumsixtypercent• Compostingoforganicwastethirtytofortypercent• Incinerationofresidualwaste(waste-to-energy)maximum

twentypercent19

Organicwasteisplayinganincreasinglyimportantrole,andcompostingisaneffectivewaytobringbacknutrientsintothesoil.Butalsoforenergygeneration:thesmallAustriantownofGüssing,forinstance,activatesthebiomassfromitsagriculturalwaste and has reached energy autonomy by composting andusingthebio-energytogenerateitspower.20

Today, recycling fifty to sixty percent of all waste hasbecomeanachievablestandardfigureformanycities.Forexam-ple,theBrazilianmodelcityofCuritibahasmanagedtorecycleoverseventypercentofitswastesince2000.21SanFranciscoboaststhehighestdiversionrateintheUnitedStates,atseventy-sevenpercent;thecityhasseta“zerowaste”goalby2020.22

However,recentresearchfromVeoliashowsthatrecyclinginitselfisinefficientinsolvingtheproblemasitdoesnotdeliverthenecessary“decoupling”ofeconomicdevelopmentfromthedepletionofnon-renewablerawmaterials.23Grosseandothersarguethat“thedepletionofthenaturalresourceofrawmaterialisinevitablewhenitsglobalconsumptionbytheeconomygrowsbymorethan1percentperannum....Theonlyeffectofrecy-clingisthatthecurveisdelayed.”24Thereisevidencethatrecy-clingcanonlydelaythedepletionofvirginrawmaterialsforafewdecadesatbest.Researchshowsthatonlyrecyclingratesabove eightypercentwould allowa significant slowdownofthedepletionofnaturalresources.25Therefore,theroleofrecy-clingtoprotectresourcesisnotsignificantfornon-renewableresourceswhoseconsumptiontendstogrowatarateofmorethanonepercentperyear.

Eventhoughrecyclingisanimportantcomponentofreduc-ingwastegoingtolandfillsandincinerators,sustainabledevel-opmentpoliciescannotrelysolelyonrecycling.Policiesmustaimat reducing theconsumptionof eachnon-renewable raw

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materialsothattheannualgrowthrateremainsunderoneper-cent.Decouplingeconomicdevelopmentfrommaterialityseemstobetheonlylongtermsolution.Recyclingisnotsomuchtheprimary goal since the objective is not merely to reduce theamountofwasteingeneral,butrathertoencourageareductioninthequantitiesofmaterialsusedtomaketheproductsthatwilllaterbecomewaste.

Increasingly, countries are collecting reliable data andpublishingannualwastereportstomonitorthedevelopmentofwaste management. For instance, the National Waste Report 2010ofAustraliabringstogether,forthefirsttimeinonedocu-ment,dataand informationonwastemanagement (includingrecycling,reuse,andresourcerecovery)fromacrossAustralia.26Theproductionof theNational Waste Reportwaspartof theAustralian Government’s Strategy 16 of the National Waste Policy: Less Waste More Resources,whichwas launchedbytheEnvironmentProtectionandHeritageCouncil(“EPHC”)inNovember2009.27

conStantly growing amountS oF waSte

Globalurbanpopulationgrowthisexpectedtostabilizein2050ataroundninebillionhumanbeings.28However,popula-tiongrowthisfarfrombeingthemaindriverofrecenteconomicexpansionandtheincreaseofconsumptionofmaterials,water,fossil fuels, and resources. The process by which emergingcountriescatchupwiththestandardoflivingofmoreadvancedeconomiesis,infact,anevenmorepowerfulactuator.29Whiletheworldwideaverageforwastegenerationisabout1to1.5kgpercapitaperday,countrieslikeKuwaitandUnitedArabEmir-atestopthelistbygeneratinganaverageofover3.5kgofwastepercapitaperday.Bycomparison,Australiacreatesaround3kgpercapitaperdayofsolidwaste.30

Withtheconstantincreaseintheworld’seconomicactivity,therehasbeenalargeincreaseintheamountofsolidwastepro-ducedperperson.31Themixofindustrialandurbanwastehasbecomeevermorecomplex,andoftencontainslargeamountsoftoxicchemicals,oriscontaminatedwithorganicwasteandfoodwaste,makingitimpossibletorecoverandrecycle.Forinstance,the United Nations Environment Programme (“UNEP”) hasexploredthevariouswastecategorieswiththeurbanwastemix,andtheirpotentialpublichealthimpacts.32

waSte in the oceanS

Asaconsequenceof increasingglobalproduction,wasteisaccumulatingintheoceans.Inrecentyears,ouroceanshavedevolvedintovastgarbagedumps.Everyyear,around250mil-lionmetrictonsofplasticproductsareproduced,someofwhichtakeupto200yearstodegrade,andmuchofwhichendsupintheoceans.33The“GreatPacificGarbagePatch”ishalfthesizeofEurope(somecallitcynicallytheworld’slargestman-madestructure),andintheAtlantichugeamountsofplasticgarbagehaverecentlybeendiscovered;thehighestconcentrationfoundclosetoCaribbeanislandshasover200,000plasticpiecespersquarekilometer.34IntheNorthandBalticSeas,dumpinghasbeenillegalforovertwodecades,yettheamountofwastefound

inthemhasnotimproved.35Itisestimatedthateachyear20,000metrictonsofwasteenterstheNorthSea,primarilyfromshipsandthefishingindustry.36

Thethousandsofmetrictonsofwastethrownintotheseaeachyearareendangeringhumansandwildlife.37Wildlifecon-sumessmallpiecesofplastic,whichcausesmanyof themtodie.38Expertswarnthatwehavereachedapointwhereitcouldbecomedangerousforhumanstoconsumeseafood.39Oneprob-lemisthethrowawayplasticwaterbottlesmadeofpolyethyleneterephthalate(“PET”),notonlybecausetheysignificantlycon-tributetowastecreationandCO2emissionsfromtransportingdrinkingwateraround theglobe,butbecause thebottlesalsoreleasechemicalssuspectedofbeingharmfultohumansandani-malsintothewater.40This,togetherwiththedevastatingoilspillintheGulfofMexicoin2010,showshowadvancedhumanity’sdestructionofentireecosystemsintheoceanshasbecome.41

The international community has been pushing for fourdecadesformassivebureaucraticeffortsaimedatclearingtheoceansofwaste.In1973,theUnitedNationssponsoredapactforprotectingtheoceansfromdumping,andin2001,theEUestablished directives that forbade any dumping of maritimewasteintotheoceanwhileinport.42However,suchdirectiveshave been ineffective and many experts agree that laws andinternationaleffortsaimedatprotectingtheoceanshavefailedacrosstheboard.

emergIng and InnovaTIve approaches To wasTe reducTIon and managemenT

Obviously,thefirstaimofasustainablefutureistoavoidthecreationofwasteandtoselectmaterialsandproductsbasedontheirembodiedenergy,theirlife-cycleassessment,andsup-plychainanalysis.Transportationofinputmaterials,aswellasthetransportationofthefinalproducttoconsumers(ortotheconstructionsite),isacommoncontributortogreenhousegasemissions.Thewayinwhichaproductusesresources,suchaswaterandenergy,influencesitsenvironmentalimpact,whileitsdurabilitydetermineshowsoonitmustenterthewastestream.Careneedstobetakenintheoriginalselectionofinputmate-rials,andthetypeofassemblyusedinfluencesend-of-lifedis-posaloptions,suchaseaseofrecyclabilityortake-backbythemanufacturer.Constructioncomponentsinsteelcanrelativelyeasilyberecycled;steel is thereforebyfar themost recycledmaterialworldwideandhasthelongest“residencetime.”How-ever,withahugeamountofwastefromtheconstructionanddemolitionsectorstillgoingtolandfillsandincinerators,drasticactionisrequiredinurbanplanningtodevelopintelligentcircu-larmetabolismsfornewdistricts,andwastecollectionandtreat-mentsystems.

MalWilliams,CEOofCylch,amajorrecyclingcompanyinWales,pointsoutthat“ninetypercentofhouseholdwasteisactuallyreusablewithouttheneedforincineration.Wastemeansinefficiencyandlostprofit.Alargeamountofwastefromhouse-holdsisorganic.Evenso,alotofitendsupinwastedumpsontheedgeof thecitywhere itproducesmethanegasformany

SuStainable Development law & policy31

yearsthuscausingfurtherdamagetotheclimate.Thiscannotcontinue.”43

Accordingtothe“polluterpays”principle,thosewhogen-eratelargeamountsofwasteshouldberesponsibleforbearingthe costs.Collecting, sorting, and treatingwaste incurshugecosts,44sothefocushastobeonavoidingandminimizingwastecreation in the first place. Waste management and recyclingschemeshavegreatlyreducedthevolumeofwastebeingland-filled,whilewastesegregationandrecyclinghavesubstantialeconomicbenefitsandcreatenew“green”jobs.45

Today,noothersectorofindustryusesmorematerials,pro-ducesmorewaste,andcontributeslesstorecyclingthanthecon-structionsector.46

Zero waSte anD cloSeD loop thinking in the conStruction Sector

There is a growing interest from architects and urbanplannersin“zerowaste”concepts.Citiesaretheareaswherethese concepts can be embeddedintopracticebyredesigningurbansystems with “zero waste” andmaterialflowinmind,transform-ing existing cities and upgrad-ing recycling infrastructure inlow-to-no carbon city districts.It is time to include prefabrica-tionand“designfordisassembly”buildingresilienceintourbansys-tems.Thiswillchangethedesign,building, and operation of citydistrictsinthefuture.

Energycostisnotlimitedtoheatingorcoolingenergyorlight-ingenergy;itisalsorelatedtoallmaterialflows relevant to build-ings. Building materials too oftenuseprimaryresourcesthateventuallyendupinlandfillsandwastefromtheproductionofconstructionmaterialsandcom-ponentscanbemuchgreater thanallotherwaste streams.47Façade systems made of composite materials currently cre-aterecyclingandresourcerecoveryproblems.48Nobuildingdebris should go to landfills; therefore, manufacturers mustchange thecompositionofmaterials tomake them reusableor recyclable. In addition, concrete companies could switchtousingrecycledconcreteaggregatestomaketheirproductsmoresustainable.49Tomakeiteasierforarchitectsandplan-nerstospecifymaterialsaccordingtotheirimpact(includingimpactscausedbymaterialextraction,orwastecreationfromtheproductionprocess),informationonmaterialsandcompo-nentsneedstobereadilyavailable.

Urbanplannersfrequentlyraisethequestionaboutwhichisthebestscaletooperateonforintroducing“zerowaste.”Thecitydistrictasaunitappearstobeagood,effectivescale.Neigh-borhoodandprecinctplanningmustconsidertheclimatecrisis,whichwillmeanlinkingtheurbanwiththeruralcommunity.

Planningbettercitieswillalsorequirethatcompostingfacilitiesandrecyclingcentersareincloseproximitytoavoidtransport-ingmaterialsoverlongdistances.Keepingtheexistingbuildingstockisimportant,asthemostsustainablebuildingisalwaystheonethatalreadyexists.Retrofittingexistingdistrictsis,there-fore,essential.50

Re-using building components and integrating existingbuildings(insteadofdemolition)isabasicprincipleofanyeco-cityandeco-buildingproject.

changing manuFacturing anD packaging proceSSeS

New agreements with industry have to be made to dra-maticallyreducewastefrompackaging.Onthewaytowardsa“zerowaste”economy,manufacturerswillincreasinglybemaderesponsible for theentire life-cycleof theirproducts, includ-ing their recyclability,by introducingan“extendedproducerresponsibility”(“EPR”)policy.

Inthefuture,withEPR,thecreatorofpackagingwillhavetopayforthecollectionofthatpack-

aging.EPR,orProductSteward-ship, policies come at a cost tomanufacturers,as theymust takefinancialownershipoftheirprod-ucts from creation to disposal.The rising costs of waste fromlandfill levieswill likelybecomea main driver. Essentially, oneneeds to ask how much packag-ing is really necessary. Can theproductbepackedinanotherway?Forinstance,inGermanyeighty-two percent of all packaging isrecycled,anoutcomeofthelegis-lationGruenerPunkt(the“GreenDot”),introducedasearlyas1991

andlegislated in1993.51Economicgrowthhasbeendecoupledfromtheamountofwastefor thefirst timeinGermanyin2008.There isaneedfor leadershipfromgovernmentandaselectgroupofcompanies(thisisusu-allynotmorethanfivepercentofallcompanies)toshowhowpackagingcanbereducedorhowproductscanbetakenbackfromtheconsumeroncetheendoflife-cyclehasbeenreached,asisdonewitholdtires.52

Fortunately, many companies are now doing extraordi-narythingsintheareaofrecyclingandareprolongingthelife-cycleofproducts.Forinstance,Ohio-basedfirmWeisenbachRecycledProducts,amanufacturerofconsumergoodsmadefromrecycledmaterials,holdsnumerouspatentsonrecyclingawarenessandpollutionpreventionproducts.Itisbothaspe-cialtyprintingfirmandan innovative recyclerofwasteandscrap,repurposingand“up-cycling”suchmaterialsasplasticcaps,glassbottles, andcircuitboards intoover sixhundredpromotionalitemsandretailconsumerproducts.53Accordingtothecompany’spresident,DanWeisenbach,therehasbeenachangingperceptioninthebusinessworld,whereyouaremore

Today, no other sector of industry

uses more materials, produces more waste, and contributes less to recycling than the construction sector.46

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valued ifyourcompany isacertifiedgreenbusiness,withahistoryofenvironmentalleadership:“Eventhoughconserva-tionhasbeenacoreprincipleinourculturesincewestarted,webelieveitisimportantthatwetakeasteptoformalizeourcommitment to sustainable business. The competitive land-scapehasshiftedandasmorecompetitionentersthefield,wewanttohelpourbusinesspartnersandcustomersunderstandhowdistinctivewetrulyare.Wecreatedthisreportasmuchforthemasforourselves.”54

Ikea and Woolworth have been setting new standardsinthisarea,andBASF,achemicalcompany,onlyputsnewproductsonthemarketwhenthereisevidencethatthenewproducthasabetterlife-cycleassessmentthanthepreviousone.55Therehavebeeninnova-tive recycling initiatives formattresses, bicycles, carpets,paints, construction timber,andfurniture.56Productswillneed tobemanufactureddif-ferently, with “zero waste”conceptsandEPRprincipleinmind.

While there are a hand-ful of outstanding examplesof EPR, the global picturelooks unfortunately differ-ent: too many companies arestill resisting the necessarychangeinproductionmethods,wastemanagement, andEPR.Onemajor reason is thecostsinvolved:productstewardshipcomesatacosttothemanufac-turers,whoarenowbecomingresponsibleforthewholelife-cycleoftheirproducts,fromcre-ationtodisposal.

Butaculturalshiftisnowoccurring.Whileforcenturieswastewasregardedaspollutionthathadtobecollected,hid-den,andburied, todaywasteisnolongerseenassomethingtobedisposedof,butasaresourcetoberecycledandreused.It is clear thatweneed toclose thematerial life-cycle loopbytransformingwasteintoamaterialresource.Overthenextdecades, theEarthwillbe increasinglyunderpressure frompopulationgrowth,continuingurbanization,andshortagesoffood,water,resources,andmaterials.Wastemanagementandmaterialflowsare someof themajorchallengesconcerningsustainableurbandevelopment.Thereisagrowingconsensusthatwasteshouldberegardedasa“valuableresourceandasnutrition.”57 It has been argued that the concept of “waste”shouldbesubstitutedby theconceptof“resource.”MichaelBraungartpointsoutthatthepracticeofdumpingwasteintolandfillisasignofa“failuretodesignrecyclable,sustainableproductsandprocesses.”58Inhisresearch,Braungartfocuses

on flows of energy, water, materials, nutrients, and waste.Process-integratedtechnology,asadvocatedbythe“cradle-to-cradle”approach, includesthecascadinguseofresources inwhichhigh-gradeflowsareusedinhigh-gradeprocessesandresidualwasteflowsareusedin lower-gradeprocesses, thusutilizing the initial valueof a resource in themost efficientway.Itbecomesobvious:alleco-citieshavetoembed“zerowaste”conceptsaspartoftheirholistic,circularapproachtomaterialflows.

Forty-fourpercentof all greenhousegas (“GHG”) emis-sionsintheU.S.resultfromtransportingandpackagingprod-ucts,illustratingthelargepotentialinthisfield.59BillSheehan,the executive director of the Product Policy Institute, noted:

“Climateactionhassofarlargelyfocusedontransportation,heat-ingandcooling,andfood.Now we know that reducing waste offers the largest opportunity to combat global warming.”60JoshuahStolaroff“emphasizedthe importance of improvingproduct design to address cli-matechange‘[b]ecauseproductdesign influences all stagesoftheproductlifecycle.Improv-ingproductdesignhasthemostpotentialtoreducegreenhousegas emissions associated withproducts.’”61

“DesignforDisassembly”means thepossibilityof reus-ingentirebuildingcomponentsinanotherfutureproject,pos-sibly twenty or thirty yearsafter construction.62 It means

deliberatelyenabling“chainsofreuse” in the design. Recycling resources that have alreadyenteredthehumaneconomyusesmuchlessenergythandoesminingandmanufacturingvirginmaterialsfromscratch.Forinstance, there is a ninety-five percent energy saving whenusingsecondary(recycled)aluminum;eighty-fivepercentforcopper; eightypercent forplastics; seventy-fourpercent forsteel; andsixty-fourpercent forpaper.63Through reuseandrecyclingtheenergyembodiedinwasteproductsisretained,thereby slowing down the potential for climate change. Ifburnedinincinerators,thisembodiedenergywouldbelostfor-ever.Itbecomesobviousthatallfutureeco-citieswillhavetointegrateexistingstructuresandbuildingsforadaptivereuseintotheirmasterplanning.

Inclosed-loopsystems,ahighproportionofenergyandmaterials will need to be provided from re-used waste, andwaterfromwastewater.Wecannowmovethefocustowasteavoidance,behavioralchange,andwastereduction.

In closed-loop systems, a high proportion of energy and materials

will need to be provided from re-used waste, and water from wastewater. We can now move the

focus to waste avoidance, behavioral change, and

waste reduction.

SuStainable Development law & policy33

Figure1.Theflowofnaturalresourcesintocitiesandthewastepro-ducedrepresentsoneofthelargestchallengestourbansustainability.Circularmetabolismsaremore sus-tainable,comparedtolinearones.This also has economic advan-tages. Recycling will continue tobeanessentialpartofresponsiblematerials management, and thegreater the shift from a “river”economy (linear throughput ofmaterials),towardsa“lake”econ-omy(stockofcontinuouslycircu-lating materials), the greater thematerialgainsandgreenhousegasreductions. Even so, recycling isonlyhalfwayupthewastehierar-chy. The greenhouse gains lyingintheupperhalf(wasteavoidanceand reduction) are, largely, yettobe tapped.The focusof atten-tion needs now to expand fromthe downstream of the materialscycle, from a post-consumer stage,toincludetheupstream,pre-consumerstage,andbehavioralchange.64Source:1Blue:Water,EnergyandWaste29(AndrewWhalleyed.,2010).65

a cloSeD-cycle urban economy will Deliver a SerieS oF Further aDvantageS

Theadvantagesof the“zerowaste”economyincludethereduction in waste generation, which will therefore reduceCO2emissions.Moreover,benefitswillincludethecreationofclosed-loopeco-economiesandurbaneco-systemswith“greencollar”jobs;thetransformationofindustriestowardsbetteruseofresources,non-toxicandcleanerproductionprocesses,andEPR;creationofeconomicbenefitsthroughthemoreefficientuseofresources;anincreaseinsupporttoresearchdurable,localgoods,andproductsthatencouragereuse;moregreenpurchas-ing;andcreationofaproductstewardshipframework.

Thekeyissueiswhethersuchasystemisfeasible.WhatarethecostsassociatedwithEPR?Itplacestheresponsibilityofthefuturedisposalofanitemontheinitialproducerofthatproductinsteadofonthelastowner,asintraditionalsegmenta-tion.66Thiswillleadanincreasingnumberofmanufacturerstoincludeanadditional fee in theprice to theconsumerfor thefuturerecoveryandtheprocessingoftheproductattheendofitsusefullife.Italsoincludesextendingtheresponsibilitiestoconsumers toparticipate in recycling schemes.A recent sur-veyshowedthateighty-threepercentofAustralianswantedanationalbanonnon-biodegradableplasticbags,whileseventy-ninepercentwantedelectronicwaste(“e-waste”)tobelegallybarredfromlandfills.67

Citieswillalwaysbeaplaceofwasteproduction,butthereare possibilities available that will help them achieve “zerowaste,” where the waste is recycled, reused, or composted(usingorganicwasteforbiomass).TheMasdar-CityprojectintheUnitedArabEmiratesisagoodexampleofaprojectofa“zerowaste”city,asis thelargeJapanesecityofYokohama,

which reduced its waste bythirty-nine percent between2001and2007,despitethecitygrowingby165,000peopledur-ingthisperiod.68Theyreachedtheir goal by raising publicawarenessaboutwastefulcon-sumptionandthroughtheactiveparticipation of citizens andbusinesses.69 In Australia, theZeroWasteSAinitiativebytheSouth Australian government,discussedbelow,isalsohighlycommendable.

behavior change For waSte prevention

Thegrowthoftheeconomycannot continue endlessly as

waspointedout byTheClubofRomein1972,intheirreportLimits to Growth.70Therefore,thecorequestionisabouthowtobestchangebehaviortoreduceconsumption,thereforeavoidingthecreationofwasteinthefirstplace.Howdoweconvincesocietytoconsumeless?Educationprogramsaimedatalllevelsofschoolinghaveproveneffective.Publiceducationaimedat“zerowaste”participationisakeytosuccess.Changingbehaviormaybeeasierinsmallertownsthaninlargecitiesbecauseofthescaleofeducationeffortsneededtoachievemeasurableresults.

The increase inworldflowsof scrap,e-waste, recoveredplastics,andfibershasturneddevelopedcountriesintoasourceofmaterialsupplyforinformaltradeinemergingcountries.

ResearcharoundtheUnitedNations’initiative,ADecadeofEducationforSustainableDevelopment(2005-2014),clearlyshows that an important age group for applying behavioralchangeisschoolchildrenandadolescents,particularlyinrelation

The increase in world flows of scrap, e-waste,

recovered plastics, and fibers has turned

developed countries into a source of material

supply for informal trade in emerging countries.

Fall 2010 34

totheirconsumptionandwaste.Theinitiativeaimstoeducatethemtobecomeenvironmentalcitizens,ratherthanconsumers,andtoactasagentsofchangewithintheirfamiliesandschools.71Severalstudieshavefoundthatenvironmentaleducationraisesawarenessofenvironmentalissues,butdoesnotnecessarilyleadtochangesinyoungpeople’sbehaviororanincreasedlevelofconcernfortheenvironment.Whenadolescentsdecideonhowmuchtoconsumeandwhattoconsume,theyusuallydonottakeintoaccounthowmuchwastetheyproduce.72Forinstance,onestudyfoundthehigh importanceofconvenience in thewastemanagementprocessforadolescentslivinginmulti-apartmentdwellings.73Theimpactofincomeonwastedisposalandrecy-clingbehavior iswell documented.74 It is obvious thatmoreresearchisrequiredintothesocialmechanismsthatwill trig-gernecessarybehavioralandattitudinalchanges,particularlyinschoolchildrenandadolescents.

Ashasalreadybeenpointedout,educationtoraiseaware-nessisessential,butequallyimportantisthattherulesofwasteseparation are well explained. The real problem may not betechnology,butratheracceptanceandbehaviorchange.Whatisneededissocialinnovationratherthanasolefocusontech-nologicalinnovation.Thenecessaryconnectionbetweenwastepoliciesandemissionreductionsarenotalwayswellunderstoodandmade.Themainbarriers to“zerowaste” include thefol-lowing:shorttermthinkingofproducersandconsumers,lackofconsistencyinlegislationacrossthestates,procurementversussustainability,theattitudethatthecheapestoffergetscommis-sioned,andlackofcommunitywillingnesstopay.75

Thefollowingcasestudiesincludedetailsofhowsomecit-iesandregionsaretryingtoovercomethebarrierstoachieving“zerowaste.”

caSe StuDieS oF waSte management

Case 1: South Australia’s Leadership in Waste Management and Resource Recovery

Afterfiveyearsofdevelopment,SouthAustralia(“SA”)hasproducedtheDraft South Australia’s Waste Strategy 2010-2015,whichincorporates“zerowaste”principles.76ThestrategyoffersstrongguidelinesforSA’swasterecyclingandwasteavoidanceefforts.Thestrategyfocusesontwoobjectives:“Firstlyitseekstomaximizethevalueofourresources,andsecondlyitseekstoavoidandreducewaste.”77These twoobjectivesare inter-related,andsomeoftheactionscontainedintheStrategyapplytobothobjectives,includingnewproposedtargetsformunicipalsolidwaste,commercialandindustrialwaste,andconstructionanddemolitionwastestreams.78ZeroWasteSAisoneofthefew“zerowaste”governmentagenciesintheworldandisattheforefrontofwasteavoidanceinAustralia.ZeroWasteSAwasestablishedin2003andisfinancedbyleviesfromlandfills.79TheagencypioneeredtheintroductionofthebanoncheckoutstyleplasticbagsinAustraliainMay2009.80

Increasingrecyclingandreducingconsumptionwillrequireabetterunderstandingofthecompositionofhouseholdwaste.RecentresearchattheUniversityofSouthAustraliaindicates

that thecompositionofwastevariesaccording to the incomelevelofthepeopleproducingthewaste.Forinstance,theamountoffoodwastetendstobelessamonglower-incomeearners.81Suchresearchispioneeringandcanhelpreachhigherrecyclingratesbyaidinginthedevelopmentofprogramsforseparationatthesourcepointofwastecreation.

AlthoughtheSADraftWasteStrategyisat theforefrontof“zerowaste”planning,itisbynomeansunique.EachoftheEUmemberstatesmustcompileawastepreventionprogrambytheendof2013,asrequiredbythe2008revisionofthe“WasteFrameworkDirective.”82TheEUguidelinesareintendedtosup-porttheformulationofsuchprogramsbasedonthirtybestprac-ticesidentifiedbytheEuropeanCommission.83

Case 2: The Waste Situation in New South Wales, Australia: A Looming Crisis?

Australiaisthethirdhighestgeneratorofwastepercapitaintheworld.84During2006-2007,onlyaroundfiftypercentofwastecollectedinthestateofNewSouthWales(“NSW”)wasrecycled.85Landfillingwasteisaninexpensiveoptioncomparedto treatingand recycling,buthasdangerous sideeffects.Forinstance,electronicwasteisstillfillingupAustralianandU.S.landfills(somethingnotallowedintheEUfortenyears),con-taminatingsoilandgroundwaterwithtoxicheavymetals.86Inthemeantime,awastecrisisislooming:theCityofSydney’sfour landfill sites (Eastern Creek, Belrose, Jacks Gully, andLucasHeights)arereachingcapacityandwillbefullby2015.87Afterthelandfillsreachcapacity,thecity’sannualtwomillionmetrictonsofwastewillhavetobemoved250kilometerssouth,byrail,toTarago.88Thestategovernmenthasbeeninactiveandhasfailedtomaketherecyclingshift.Itlacksrecyclingpoliciesandinvestmentinrecyclingtechnology.Recyclingneedstobelessexpensiveforcitizensthandisposalinlandfills,andstrongeconomicincentivesarerequired,asarestrategiestogethouse-holdstodramaticallyreducethecreationofwaste.Thiscanbeachieved,forinstance,byreducingbinsizes,raisingawarenessandbyintroducingthethree-binsystemtoseparateorganic/gar-denwaste,recycling,andresidualwaste.

WhileSydney’slandfillsitesarerapidlyfillingup,andtheNSW government has currently no clear plan to address thecrisis,Sydney’swaste is forecast tokeepgrowingbyat least1.4 percent a year due to population increase and increasingconsumption.89AlthoughcurbsiderecyclingcollectedinNSWincreasedfrom450,000metrictonsin2000to690,000metrictonsin2007,thisincreasemustbemuchgreatertohaveanysig-nificantimpactonthewasteproblem.90Tomakethingsworse,theNSWgovernmenthas“raisedover$260million inwasteleviesbutreturnedjust$40millionofthattolocalcouncilsforrecycling initiatives.”91 By contrast, the state government ofVictoriaprovidesbettersupport:itraised$43millioninland-fillleviesandchanneleditstraightbacktotheagenciesrespon-sibleforwastemanagement.Despitethesmallerlevy,VictoriarecycledalmosttwentypercentmorewastethanNSWin2009.92Thefederalgovernmentwill introduceaNational Waste Pol-icyin2011aimingforasixty-sixpercentlandfillreductionby

SuStainable Development law & policy35

201493andhopesarehighthatthiswillbringabouttheurgentlyrequiredchanges.

Case 3: Waste Management Case Study from Aalborg, Denmark

Developedcountries suchasGermany,TheNetherlands,Japan,Switzerland,andDenmarkhavebeencalledthe“world-wideleaders inadvancedwastemanagement technologies.”94Forinstance,insomeJapanesemunicipalitiesuptotwenty-fourdifferentcategoriesofwasteareseparated.95

Itistimethatwebetterintegratethelinkagesbetweenmate-rialflow,use,andrecoverywithenergyandwaterconsumption.Todate,littleresearchhasbeendoneonmeasuringtheimpactofwastetreatmentsystemsthemselvesandwastemanagementchanges over the longer term. However, the Danish city ofAalborghasproventhatbetterwastemanagementcanreducegreenhousegas(“GHG”)emissionsandthatamunicipalitycanproducesignificantamountsofenergywithsustainablewaste-to-energy concepts.96 Two Danish researchers, Poulsen andHansen,usedhistoricaldatafromthemunicipalityofAalborgtogainalonger-termoverviewofhowa“joined-up”approachto waste can impact a city’s CO2 emissions.97 Their assess-mentincludedsewagesludge,foodwaste,yardwaste,andotherorganic waste. In 1970, Aalborg’s municipal organic wastemanagement systemshowednetGHGemissionsbymethanefromlandfillofalmostonehundredpercentofthetotalemis-sions.98 Between 1970 and 2005, the city changed its wastetreatment strategy to includeyardwastecomposting,and thecity’sremainingorganicwastewasincineratedforcombined-heatand-power(“CHP”)production.99Poulsenstatedthat“[o]fthis,wasteincinerationcontributedeightypercenttonetenergyproductionandGHGturnover,wastewatertreatment(includingsludgedigestion)contributedanothertenpercent,whileotherwaste treatment processes (composting, transport, and landapplicationof treatedwaste)hadminor impacts.”100 “Gener-ally,incinerationwithorwithoutenergyproduction,andbiogasproductionwithenergyextraction,arethetwomostimportantprocessesfortheoverallenergybalance.Thisismainlyduetothesubstitutionof fossil fuel-basedenergy,”saysPoulsen.101The researchers calculated “that the energy potential tied upinmunicipalorganicwasteinDenmarkisequivalentto5per-centofthecountry’stotalenergyconsumption,includingtrans-port.”102Theyalsopredictedthatfurtherimprovementsby2020werepossible,“by reducingenergyconsumedbywastewatertreatment (for aeration), increasing anaerobic digestion andincinerationprocessefficiencyandsourceseparatingfoodwasteforanaerobicco-digestion.”

Alborg has shown that with an understanding of naturalsystems,technologycanbeharnessedtoresolveenvironmentalchallenges.“Aalborg’sprogressshowshowfarreachingwastemanagement can be in reaching energy and GHG reductiongoals,andshouldofferencouragementtoothercitiesembark-ingongreenerwastemanagementstrategiesforthefuture.”104Thepotential foremissionreduction inwastemanagement isverylarge.ItisestimatedthatwithintheEU,municipalwaste

management reducedGHGemissionsfrom“64 to28millionmetrictonsofCO2peryearbetween1990and2007,whichisequivalenttoadropfrom130to60kilogramsCO2eachyearper capita.”105 With such innovation in waste treatment, theEUmunicipalwastesectorwillachieveeighteenpercentofthereductiontargetsetforEuropebytheKyotoagreementbefore2012.106

uSing Fewer materialS to better exploit the value oF waSte

IncontrasttotheClub of Rome’swarningof1972,107today,the“limits togrowth”aredefinedbyclimatechangeand thedepletionofmaterialresources.Thescarcityofrawmaterialspresents an increasing challenge. With natural resources andmaterialsrunningout,weneedbetterresourceprotectionandmoreeffectivewaystousethem.Severalessentialmetalsandresourcesarealreadybecominglessavailable—includingplati-num,zinc,tantalum,lead,copper,cadmium,wolfram,andsili-con—andsuppliesareconcentratedinahandfulofcountries,underthecontrolofafewcompanies.108ThiswillsooncreatemajorchallengesforindustriesinEuropeandtheUnitedStatesthatusemanyofthesemetalsintheirmanufacturing,suchastelevisionsorcomputers.

Thedepletionofseveralnaturaldepositsisdrawingcloser.In2008, the Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft (“IDW”)esti-matedtheavailabilityandcoverageofessentialresourcesandselected metals, as part of a risk assessment for the Germanindustryinresponsetothethreatcausedbyscarcityofrawmate-rials.Itfound:

RawMaterial ReservesAvailable(estimated)Lead 20yearsZinc 22yearsTantalum 29yearsCopper 31yearsCadmium 34yearsWolfram 39yearsNickel 44years109

Thesemetalsarebecomingscarceandconsequentlymoreexpensive,e.g.,ironore,lithium,andcopperarealreadymuchrarerthanoil.110Inaddition,itisalsoimportanttoknowwhatresourcesareusedintheproductswebuy.Manyoftheextractiveprocessesforobtainingmineralsareharmfultotheenvironment.Inaddition,fortypercentoftheproductsinourweeklyshoppingbasketcontainpalmoil,which,ifnotproducedsustainably,cancausedeforestationof ecologicallyprecious rainforests.111Amoreconscioususeofmaterials,metals,resources,andproductsisimperativewhensupportedbyreuseandrecycling.

A resource-constrained future can therefore help lead torecycling-friendly designs with extended producer responsi-bility;multiple-usedevices and expandedproduct lifecycles;long-lifeproductsandbuildings,withoptimizedmaterialuse;productsusinglesspackaging;reducedlossofresourcesduringtheproduct’slife-cycle;andresourcerecoverythroughreuse,remanufacturing,andrecycling.

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In his research on sustainable consumption, Paul-MarieBoulangercametothefollowingconclusion:“Thereisagradu-allyemergingconsensus that transition towardssustainabilitywillneedinnovationsandchangesatthreedifferentlevels:

• atthetechnologicallevelwhereproductsandserviceswithalighterecologicalfootprintmustreplacelesseco-efficientones;

• attheinstitutionallevelwherenon-marketbasedmodesofprovisioncanbepromotedalongsidemarked-basedones;

• attheculturallevelwherelessmaterialisticvaluesandlife-stylesshouldbedevelopedandfosteredwithoutalossinthewelfareofpeople.”112

Onlyholistic and integrated approacheswill lead to thisdesirable shift at the technological, institutional, andculturallevel.Wastethatcontainspreciousminerals,rareearthmetals,andothernutrientsisnowfullyunderstoodtobevaluable.Thesurvivalpathandreboundeffectofmaterialsisunderstoodasextremelycritical.Faulstichasks ifour landfillsitesof today“willbecometheurban minesofthefuture?”113Girardetpre-dicts that in future“wewillobserve theemergenceofanewsustainableindustrialsociety,wherenewindustrialsystemsareintroducedthatbetterreuseandrecyclewaste,andwhicharebasedonanewcircularfloweconomy.”114

compoSting organic waSte anD improving urban ecology

Organicwasteisincreasinglyviewedasapreciousresource,whichmustbe returned to the soil.Compost is an importantsourceofplantnutrientsandisalow-costalternativetochemi-calfertilizers.Ithasbecomeanecessarypartofcontemporarylandscapemanagementandurbanfarming,asituses“reversesupplychain”principles,givingorganiccomponentsbacktothesoil,thusimprovingthequalityofagriculture.Payingattentiontothenutrientcycleandtophosphorusreplacementispartofsustainableurbanagriculture.Althoughindustrialcompostingcanhelp to improvesoils,apropercomposting infrastructureneedstobeestablishedfirst.InSweden,forinstance,thedump-ingoforganicwastetolandfillhasbeenillegalsince2005.115Allorganicwasteshouldbeusedforcomposting,returnedtothesoil,orforanaerobicdigestiontogenerateenergy.

Foodwasteisanothermajorconcern.Twenty-twopercentofallwasteinAustralia isfoodwaste.116Newbiodegradablepackaginghelpstofacilitateprocessingoffoodwaste.Biode-gradableandcompostablesolutionsforfoodwasterecoverysys-tems,suchasusingakitchencaddywithabiodegradablebagthatiscollectedweekly,hasbecomeacommonsolution.IainGulland,directorofZeroWasteScotland,pointsoutthat“oversixtypercentoffoodwasteisavoidable.However,ifallunavoid-ablefoodwasteinScotlandwasprocessedbyanaerobicdiges-tion,itcouldproduceenoughelectricitytorunacitythesizeofDundee.”117InSouthAustraliamorethan90,000metrictonsperannumoffoodwastegoestolandfillsandonaverage,eachhouseholdthrowsoutthreekilogramsoffoodwasteperweek.118Thefoodwasteneedstobetakenoutofthewastestreamand

divertedintocompostingoranaerobicdigestionsystems,whicharebestdonethroughpublic–privatepartnerships.119

In 2002, William McDonough and Michael Braungartbeganpromotingtheir“Cradle-to-Cradle”closed-loopsystem,arguingfor“adaptingproduction tonature’smodel.”120Theyarguethat“[w]asteequalsfood.Innature,theprocessesofeveryorganismcontributetothehealthofthewhole.Oneorganism’swastebecomesfoodforanother,andnutrientsflowperpetuallyinregenerative,cradle-to-cradlecyclesofbirth,death,decay,and rebirth. Design modeled on these virtuous cycles elimi-natestheveryconceptofwaste:productsandmaterialscanbedesignedofcomponentsthatreturneithertosoilasanutrientortoindustryforremanufactureatthesameorevenahigherlevelofquality.”121

inFormal waSte management approacheS in the Developing worlD

Astaggeringninety-sevenpercentofglobalgrowthoverthenextfortyyearswillhappeninAsia,Africa,LatinAmerica,andtheCaribbean.122Thefollowingcitiesprovideexamplesofhowdevelopingcountriesareaddressingurbanwasteproblems.

Curitiba, BrazilTherearewaystoimprovewastemanagementandchange

behavior in developing countries, even if there is no budgetfor it. For instance, in Curitiba innovative waste collectionapproachesweredeveloped,suchasthe“GreenExchangePro-gram,”toencourageslumdwellerstocleanuptheirareasandimprovepublichealth.123Thecityadministrationofferedfreebusticketsandfreshvegetablestopeoplewhocollectedgarbageandbroughtwastetoneighborhoodcenters.124Inaddition,chil-drenwereallowedtoexchangerecyclablesforschoolsuppliesortoys.125

Delhi, IndiaCitiesalwaysneedtofindlocalsolutionsforwasteman-

agementappropriatetotheirownparticularcircumstancesandneeds.InDelhithereisanarmyofover120,000informalwastecollectors(so-calledKabari)inthestreets,collectingpaper,alu-minumcans,glass,andplastic,whosellthewastetomini-scrapdealersaspartofasecondaryrawmaterialsmarket.126

Itisaninformalindustrywhichprocessesfifty-ninepercentofDelhi’swasteandsupportsthelivelihoodofcountlessfami-lies.127InDelhi,theprivatesectordoesthewastemanagementandthebusinessofcollectingandrecyclingisaseriousoneformanyofthepoor,andarelativelylucrativesourceofincome.AccordingtoBharatiChaturved,oneoutofevery100residentsinDelhiengagesinwasterecycling.128Chaturvedalsoestimatedthatasinglepieceofplasticincreases700percentinvaluefromstarttofinishintherecyclingchainbefore it is reprocessed.129Thisinformalsectorofwastecollectorssavesthecity’sthreemunicipalitiesa largeamountofcostsofotherwisearrangingwastecollection,particularlyininaccessibleslumareas.Morethanninety-fivepercentofhomesinDelhidonothaveformalgarbagecollection.130

SuStainable Development law & policy37

ForcountrieslikeIndiaorBangladesh,theintroductionofanindustrializedclean-upsystemandperfectedinfrastructurelikeinthedevelopedworldwouldtakejobsfromthousandsofpoorpeasantswhoarewillingtoworkhardandgetdirtycollectingandrecyclingthewasteofthemetropolisinordertofeedthemselves.Anestimated sixmillionpeople in India earn their livelihoodthroughwasterecycling.131Ontopofalowstandardofliving,they now face joblessness with India’s new business-modelapproachtowastemanagement—replacingthepreexistinginfor-malKabarisystemwithamodelfromdevelopedcountries.132ItisanareawhereIndiacouldprobablylearnfromtheirneighborChina,sincetheircitieshavesimilarpopulationdensities.

Cairo, EgyptAnotherinterestingexampleistheEgyptiancityofCairo,

whichhasgrowntooverfifteenmillionpeopleandisoneofthemostdenselypopulatedcitiesintheworldwith32,000peoplepersquaremile.133Theeconomyofthe“GarbageCity,”aslumsettlementontheoutskirtsofCairo,revolvesentirelyaroundthecollectionandrecyclingofthecity’sgarbage,mostlythroughtheuseofpigsbythecity’sminorityCopticChristianpopula-tion.134 In “Garbage City” “[f]amilies typically specialize inaparticulartypeofgarbagethattheysortandsell—oneroomofchildrensortingoutplasticbottles,while in thenextroomwomenseparatecansfromtherest.”135Typicallyfortheurbanpoorinvolvedintheinformalwastemanagementsector,any-thingthatcansomehowbereusedorrecycledissaved.Variousrecycledpaperandglassproductsaremadeandsoldtothecity,whilemetalissoldtobemelteddownandreused.

The involvementof the informal sector inacity’swastemanagement can lead to amazing results and high recyclingrates.Thecirculareconomicsystemin“GarbageCity”isclas-sifiedasaninformalsector,wherepeopledonotjustcollectthetrashbutliveamongit.GarbageCityishometoover15,000peopleandmostfamiliestypicallyhaveworkedforgenerationsinthesameareaandtypeofwastespecialization,andtheycon-tinue tomakeenoughmoney to support themselves.136Theycollectandrecycle thegarbagetheypickupfromapartmentsandhomesinwealthierneighborhoods.Thisincludesthousandsofmetrictonsoforganicwaste,whichisfedtothepigs.137Byraisingthepigs,thepeopleprovideaservicetothosewhoeatporkinthepredominantlyMuslimcountry,whilethepigshelptoridneighborhoodsofmetrictonsofodorouswastethatwouldotherwiseaccumulateonthestreets.138Atnocosttothemunici-pality,theinformalrecyclingsectorprovideslivelihoodstohugenumbersoftheurbanpoor,whiletheysavethecityasmuchastwentypercentofitswastemanagementbudgetbyreducingtheamountofwastethatwouldotherwisehavetobecollectedanddisposedofbythecity.139Likethefamous“SmokeyMountain”rubbishdumpinManila,Philippines,couldthisplacebecomeanofficialrecyclingcenter?

Figure2.Manydevelopingcountrieshavesuchactiveinformalsec-torrecycling,reuse,andrepairsystems,whichareachievingrecyclingratescomparabletothoseindevelopedcountries,atnocosttotheformalwastemanagementsector,savingthecityasmuchastwentypercentofitswastemanagementbudget.CourtesyofBasPrincen.

conclusIon: buIldIng The cITIes oF The FuTure–maKIng “zero wasTe” a realITy

Decoupling waSte generation From economic growth

Increasedmaterialandenergyconsumptioninallnations,coupledwithaninadequateandunsustainablewastemanage-mentsystem,hasforcedgovernments,industry,andindividualstoputintopracticenewmeasurestoachieveresponsible,closedloop solutions in waste management and resource recovery.Achieving“zerowaste”remainsdifficultandrequirescontinuedandcombinedeffortsbyindustry,governmentbodies,universityresearchers,andthepeopleandorganizationsinourcommunity.Moreholisticandintegratedapproachesarerequired,combinedwith initiatives forwasteavoidanceandsegregationofwasteatthesource,andimprovedtechnologiestoincreasetheusefullifeofproducts.Governmentswillneedtoformulateeffectivepolicies to reduce theenvironmental impactsofconsumptionandproduction,addressingissuessuchashouseholdconsump-tion,publicprocurement,corporatebehavior,andtechnologicalinnovation.AsBerglundnoted,wewillneedtoarriveatabetterunderstandingofthedeterminantsofenvironmentalbehaviorinkeyareaswherehouseholdsexertpressureontheenvironment,suchasenergyuse,transport,wastegeneration,foodconsump-tion,andwateruse.

improving waSte management anD recovery

Thereareescalatingchallengesinsolidwastemanagementacrosstheglobe.Theconstructionanddemolitionsectorhasaparticularlyurgentneedtocatchupwithothersectorsinbet-termanagingitswastestream,toincreaseitsfocusonreusingentirebuildingcomponentsattheendofabuilding’slife-cycle.Increasingtheeconomicvalueofrecycledcommodities,such

Fall 2010 38

asraremetalsine-waste,aswellaspaper,glass,andplastics,remainsanareaforfuturedevelopmentandinvestment.

Energymarketswillsooncompetewithmaterialmarketsforresources.Therecyclingsector inGermanyemploysover220,000peopleingreenjobs.Wasteisincreasinglybeingseenintermsofeconomicsustainability,anditisapolicyissuethatoffersgreatopportunitiesforthecreationofgreenjobs.

Thispaperhastouchedonsomeofthecomplexitiesaroundwastemanagementand the linksbetweenwastemanagementandurbandevelopment.ThecasestudiesfromSouthAustralia,Aalborg,Denmark,andtheinformalurbanwastemanagementindevelopingcountriesprovidehopefulmodelsofwhatmustbeachievedglobally.Itisessentialthatwecontinuetoreducewastefulconsumption,avoidthecreationofwaste in thefirstplace,promotethecyclicalreuseofmaterialsintheeconomy,and maximize the value of our resources to make resourcerecoverycommonpractice.Ourobjectivemustbetoreconcilethescarcityofournaturalresourceswiththehugequantitiesofwasteproducedbyourcitiesand industries;wastewhichwemust,unfailingly,recover.

Figure3.Diagram:Wastemanagementisanimportantkeystoneintheefforttowardsachievingholisticallya“SustainableCity.”Courtesyoftheauthor.

1 Zero waSte Sa, South auStralia’S waSte Strategy 2010-2015: conSultation DraFt24(2010), http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/upload/about-us/waste-strategy/DraftWasteStrategyV2.pdf.2 DaviD baker et al., what a waSte: an analySiS oF houSeholD expenDiture on FooD(2009), http://foodwise.com.au/media/72673/tai%20what%20a%20waste.pdf.3 philippe chalmin & catherine gaillochet, From waSte to reSource: an abStract oF worlD waSte Survey2009(2009),http://www.veolia-environmentalservices.com/veolia/ressources/files/1/927,753,Abstract_2009_GB-1.pdf.4 uniteD nationS human SettlementS programme(un-habitat), SoliD waSte management in the worlD’S citieS: water anD Sanitation in the worlD’S citieS 2010, U.N.Doc. HS/105/10E(2010).5 Dr.DomonicHogg,Costs for Municipal Waste Management in the EU,http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/studies/pdf/eucostwaste.pdf.6 markMilner,Rubbish Reaches Its Tipping Point, the guarDian, Jan.19, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/jan/19/waste.7 ZhangYunxing, Beijing Running Out of Landfill Space, china.org.cn(June9,2009),http://www.china.org.cn/environment/news/2009-06/09/content_17917149.htm.8 MCD Gets Nod for Bawana Landfill Site, the hinDu, Aug.9,2010,http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/article560231.ece.9 John Upton, S.F. Expected to Exhaust Landfill Space by 2014, the exam-iner, mar.27,2009,http://www.sfexaminer.com/local/SF-expected-to-exhaust-landfill-capacity-by-2014-41957797.html.10 See Jack lauber et al.,comparative impactS oF local waSte to energy verSuS long DiStance DiSpoSal oF municipal waSte3(2006),http://www.energyanswers.com/pdf/awma_final.pdf.11 StevieEaston,Manufacturers to Arrange for Recycling of Australia’s E-Waste,UPIU, (Aug.7,2010),http://www.upiu.com/articles/manufacturers-to-arrange-recycling-for-australia-s-e-waste.

12 JeFF angel, total environment centre,tipping point: auStralia’S e-waSte criSiS (2008),available at www.tec.org.au/component/docman/doc_download/337-tipping-point-2.13 henk De Folter management conSultancy, extenDeD proDucer reSpon-Sibility in the electric anD electronic equipment inDuStry(2007),http://milieu.defolter.nl/English/Note-EPR%20071114s.pdf.14 bernt Johnke, emiSSionS From waSte incineration,http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/bgp/5_3_Waste_Incineration.pdf.15 See GreenpeaceInternational,The Problem,greenpeace (Nov.30,2004),http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/toxics/incineration/the-problem/.16 Id.17 See id.18 Milner,supranote6.19 SteFFen lehmann, the principleS oF green urbaniSm262(2010).20 Güssing Biomass Fueled Heat and Power Plant, Renewable Energy Network Austria,renewable energy network auStralia, available at http://www.renet.at/english/sites/guessing.php.21 KiraKuehn,‘Garbage is Not Garbage’ & “Bus Tubes”: Recycling and Transport in the Sustainable City: Curitiba, Brazil, uw-l Journal oF unDergraDuate reSearch x(2007),http://www.uwlax.edu/urc/JUR-online/PDF/2007/keuhn.pdf.22 Zero Waste, SFenvironment, http://www.sfenvironment.org/our_programs/overview.html?ssi=3(lastvisitedOct.27,2010).23 philippe chalmin & catherine gaillochet, From waSte to reSource: an abStract oF worlD waSte Survey 2009(2009),http://www.veolia-environ-mentalservices.com/veolia/ressources/files/1/927,753,Abstract_2009_GB-1.pdf.

Endnotes:ResourceRecoveryandMaterialsFlowintheCity:ZeroWasteandSustainableConsumptionasParadigmsinUrbanDevelopment

Endnotes:ResourceRecoveryandMaterialsFlowintheCitycontinued on page 66

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24 FrancoisGrosse,Is Recycling “Part of the Solution”? The Role of Recycling in an Expanding Society and a World of Finite Resources,3:1S.A.P.I.EN.S(2010),available athttp://sapiens.revues.org/index906.html.25 Id.26 Seeenv’t prot. & heritage council, national waSte report(2010),http://www.ephc.gov.au/sites/default/files/WasteMgt_Nat_Waste_Report_FINAL_20_FullReport_201005_0.pdf.27 Id.28 UN-Habitat,15thSessionoftheCommitteeonSustainableDevelopment,Apr.30-May11,2007,Background Information: Climate Change-The Role of Cities,http://www.unhabitat.org/documents/csd15/15thsession1.pdf.29 See generally mathiS wackernagel & william reeS, our ecological Footprint(1996)(explainingtheconceptof“overshooting”).Globalworldpopulationsin2010were6.8billion.ItispredictedbyUN-Habitattoincreaseto9billionby2050.Whilethepopulationinsomecountriesisshrinking(Japan,Germany,Italy,Russia),othercountries,suchasIndia,haveafastgrowingpopulation.ThepopulationinIndiaisforecasttoovertakethatofChina’sby2050(Indiaispredictedtohave1.6billionpeople).WewillsoonreachthelimitsoftheEarth’s“carryingcapacity”(whatWackernagelandReescall“overshooting”),forinstance,theEarth’sreducedcapacitytosupplyfreshdrinkingwatertoallcitizensofacity(aswehaveseeninSub-SaharanAfricancitiesandinMexicoCity).Id. Theworld’spopulationhasbeengrowingsignifi-cantlysincearound1800duetotheimprovedcontrolofdiseasesandlongerlifeexpectancy.Asaconsequence,numerousscientistsrecommendhaltingfurthergrowthincitiesinarid,hotclimaticregions.Atthesametime,globalagricul-tureisapproachinganaturallimit.Whiletheamountoffoodproductionneedstokeepincreasinginpacewithpopulationgrowth,thereishardlyanyundevel-opedfarmlandleftontheplanet.Experienceshowsthatbirthratesfallwhenwomenarewelleducated,whentheyaspiretoacareer,orwhentheychosetomarrylaterandtohaveonlyonechild.Clearlytoslowdownthisimmensepopulationgrowthandtodelayafood/water/energysupplydisaster,wehavetosucceedinthreeimportantareas:reducingconsumptionandchangingbehavior;improvingtechnology;andlimitingpopulationgrowththrougheducationprograms.30 Seeenv’t prot. & heritage council,supranote26.31 Municipalsolidwastegenerationhasgrownsignificantlyoverthelastdecadesasaresultofhigherincomes,moreintensiveuseofpackagingmaterialsanddisposablegoods,andincreasedpurchasesofdurablematerialgoods.Thisproblemisprojectedtocontinuetogrow,despitecurrenteffortstoreducethematerialcontentofproductsandtostimulatethereuseofproductsandpackagingandtherecyclingofmaterialsandsubstances.TheinternationalOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(“OECD”)com-pilesworldwidedata,includingenvironmentalstatisticsanddataonwastegenerationandrecyclingrates(environmentalindicators),foritsthirtymembercountries,whichcanbefoundat:organiSation For economic cooperation anD Development, http://www.oecd.org(lastvisitedNov.13,2010).32 E.Giroult,etal.,Public Health Aspects of Municipal Solid Waste Management,in l. roSenberg, int’l envtl tech. ctr., uniteD nationS env’t programme, international Source book on environmentally SounD technologieS For municipal SoliD waSte management 395–406(1996).33 manFreD StepanSki & manFreD wackerlin, SoDa cupS maDe oF Sugar, SulZer technical review(2008),http://www.sulzerchemtech.com/en/portaldata/11/Resources//mixingreaction/publications/2008_1_stepanski_e.pdf.34 KaraLawetal.,Plastic Accumulation in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre,Sci. expreSS(Aug.19,2010), http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/329/5996/1185?ijkey=o7duXkENkVaDs&keytype=ref&siteid=sci.35 LjubomirJeftic,etal.,Marine Litter: A Global Challenge,uniteD nationS environment programme(2010),http://www.unep.org/pdf/unep_marine_litter-a_global_challenge.pdf.36 Id.37 Id.38 Id.39See What You Need to Know about Mercury in Fish and Shellfish,envtl. prot. agency, http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/fishshellfish/outreach/advice_index.cfm(lastupdatedJune17,2010).40 See, e.g.,PaulWesterhoffet.al.,Antimony Leaching From Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Plastic Used for Bottled Drinking Water,42water reSearch551(2008).

41 Recentresearchexploredtheconnectionbetweentheproductionofplasticandtheamountofplasticwastefoundinoceans.Surprisingly,moreterrestrialwastedoesnotnecessarilyimplymoreleakageinthesea:thereseemstobenolinkbetweenanincreaseindiscardedplasticandconcentrationofplasticmarinedebris.Despitearapidincreaseinplasticproductionanddisposalduringthetimeperiodofthelasttenyears,notrendinplasticconcentrationwasobservedintheregionofhighestaccumulation.Lawetal.,supra note34.42protocol oF 1978 relating to the international convention For the prevention oF pollution From ShipS, 1973,Feb.17,1978,17I.L.M.546,1340U.N.T.S.61;EuropeanDirective2000/59/EC.43 InterviewwithMalWilliams,CEO,Cylch,inSyndey,Austl.(Sept.14,2010).44 SeeDepartment oF DeFenSe, uFc-1-900-01, Selection oF methoDS For the reDuction, reuSe, anD recycling oF Demolition waSte,at3-13-2(2002),http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UFC/ufc_1_900_01.pdf(notingdisposalcostsincurredduringdemolitionalonecanamounttouptofiftypercentofthetotaldemolitioncost.Thisamounttakesintoaccountrecyclingcosts,whichincludecostsforseparation,removal,andrecoveryofbuildingwastes).45 Seeenv’t prot. & heritage council,supranote26at233–35(notingthelargenumberofandwidevarietyofjobopportunitiescreatedthroughthepromotionofwastemanagementandrecycling).46 lehmann,supranote19at261-68.47 Seeenvtl. prot. agency, recover your reSourceS: reDuce, reuSe, anD recycle conStruction anD Demolition materialS at lanD revitaliZation proJectS (2009),http://epa.gov/brownfields/tools/cdbrochure.pdf(estimatingthatonlyfortypercentoftheconstructionanddemolitionbuildingmaterialswerereused,recycled,orsenttowaste-to-energyfacilitiesandtheremainingsixtypercentwassenttolandfills).48 See,e.g.,StephenJ.Pickering,Recycling Technologies for Thermoset Composite Materials—Current Status,37compoSiteS part a: applieD Sci. & mFg. 1206,1206–07(2005)(reviewingtheproblemsfacedwithrecyclingthermosetcompositematerials,whichincludetheinabilitytoremouldthermosettingpolymersofthematerial).49 SeeTomNapier,Construction Waste Management,whole blDg. DeSign guiDe,http://www.wbdg.org/resources/cwmgmt.php(lastupdatedJune9,2010)(statingthatconcreteandmasonrymaterialscanberecycledon-sitewithmobileequipmentorcanbetakentoapermanentrecyclingfacility).50 Theadaptivere-useofexistingbuildingsisalwaysamoresustainablestrategythanbuildingnew.Insteadoftearingdownandrebuilding(whichusuallymeanslosingthematerialsandembodiedenergyoftheexistingbuilding),adaptivere-useallowsthebuildingtobegivenanewleaseoflife;anapproachthatwasthenormuntilagenerationago.Now,ourfocusneedstoreturntoupgradingtheexistingbuildingstock.RecentresearchconductedbytheAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(“ACHP”)intheU.S.indicatesthateveniffortypercentofthematerialsofdemolishedbuildingsarerecycled,itwouldstilltakeoversixtyyearsforagreen,energy-efficientnewofficebuildingtorecovertheenergylostindemolishinganexistingbuilding.Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan,aDviSory council on hiStoric preS.,http://www.achp.gov/sustplan.html(lastvisitedOct.22,2010)(summarizingtheACHP’seffortstoaddressissuesincludingenergyefficiencyandcommunitylivability).51 See gruener punkt,http://www.gruener-punkt.de/en/duales-system-deutschland-gmbh.html(lastvisitedOct.30,2010)(providinginformationontheGermanrecyclingsystem).52 SeeFrequent Questions,envtl. prot. agency,http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/faq.htm(lastupdatedFeb.2,2010)(providinginformationonrecyclingtires,thepollutionthatcanresultfromtirefires,andinnovativewaystirescanberecycled);see alsoauStralian packaging covenant,http://www.packagingcovenant.org.au(lastvisitedOct.30,2010)(regardingpackaging).53 SeeweiSenbach recycleD proD.,2010 SuStainability report For year enDing December 31, 2009(2010),http://www.recycledproducts.com/wsp_i/PDFs/WeisenbachSustainabililtyReport2010.pdf(statingthatWeisenbachRecycledProductsuses“cast-offscollectedfromothercompanies,communitymembers,and[its]owninternaloperationsastherawmaterialforthecreationofnewproducts”).54 BetsyKraat,Weisenbach Recycled Products “Up-cycles” Trash into Treasure,metrogreen+buSineSS(Mar.2,2010),http://www.

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metrogreenbusiness.com/news/green.php/2010/03/02/weisenbach_recycled_products_up_cycles_t(quotingMr.WeisenbachandprovidingbackgroundonWeisenbachRecycledProducts).55 Seeclimate protection with baSF,BASF6–7(2009),http://basf.com/group/corporate/en/function/conversions:/publish/content/sustainability/environment/climate-protection/images/BASF_Climate_Protection_Brochure_e.pdf(describingitscomprehensiveanalysisofgreenhousegasemissionsassociatedwithitsoperationsfortheentirelifecycleofitsproducts);seealsoAndreasKünkel,Sustainable Products—Just a Mouse Click Away,baSF(June30,2010),http://www.basf.com/group/pressrelease/P-10-296(describingBASF’snewonlinetoolthatassistsindeterminingwhethertheuseofbiodegradableplasticspromotessustainability).56 E.g,The Ultimate Re-cycling Project 14.09.10,lonDon borough oF Sutton,http://www.sutton.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=10975&onOff=OFF(lastvisitedOct.22,2010);Mattress Recycling Program Reaches 10,000 Mark,SuStainabilitymatterS(Oct.8,2008),http://www.sustainabilitymatters.net.au/news/27293-Mattress-recycling-program-reaches-1-mark?topic_id=1066;MichelleHucal,Closing the Loop,envtl. DeSign + conStr.(Mar.11,2003),http://www.edcmag.com/Articles/Sustainable_Flooring/fdc1f34f5a697010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0.57 SeeLet’s Treat Waste as Valuable ‘Resource’, Says Averda,ameinFo(May30,2009,3:59PM),http://www.ameinfo.com/198589.html(drawinginspirationfromMcDonough’sphilosophythat“[e]verythinghasaninfinitelifecycle.Societieswithalinearresourcepatterndiscarditemsataparticularstage.Yetthatisn’tthedeathofthematerial.”).58 PresentationbyMichaelBraungartatSASBEConference,TechnicalUniversityofDelft,Neth.(June18,2009).59 JoshuahStolaroff,Products, Packaging and US Greenhouse Gas Emissions,proD. policy inSt.(2009),http://www.productpolicy.org/ppi/attachments/PPI_Climate_Change_and_Products_White_Paper_September_2009.pdf.60 PressRelease,ProductPolicyInstitute,ProductsandPackagingContribute44PercentofU.S.GreenhouseGasEmissions(Sept.18,2009),available at http://www.productpolicy.org/ppi-press-release/products-and-packaging-con-tribute-44-percent-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions.61 Id.(quotingStolaroff,supra,note59).62 SeeDesign for Disassembly Guidelines,active DiSaSSembly reSearch ltD. (2005),http://www.activedisassembly.com/guidelines/ADR_050202_DFD-guidelines.pdf(notingthattheimplementationofdesignfordisassemblycanreducetheamountofresourcesrequiredtocreatenewproducts).63 Zero Wasteand Climate Change,gov’t oF S. auStl.,http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/about-us/climate-change(lastvisitedOct.20,2010)(citingRecyclingInternational,whichisareferencetoolontheworld’srecyclingindustry).64 SeeMargaretWalls,Extended Producer Responsibility and Product Design,reS. For the Future,Mar.2006,at1,http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-06-08-REV.pdf(statingthatthisshiftcan“improv[e]productrecyclabilityandreusability,reduc[e]materialusage,downsiz[e]products,andengag[e]inahostofother‘designforenvironment’(DfE)activities.”).65 HerbertGirardetpointsouttheimportanceforcitiestoadoptacircularmetabolism:“Innature,wastematerialsareabsorbedbeneficiallybackintothelocalenvironmentasnutrients.Citiesdon’tdothat.Theyworkbywayoftak-ingresourcesfromoneplaceanddumpingthemsomewhereelsecausingdam-agetonature.Weneedtoturnthislinearprocessintoacircularprocessinstead.Therecyclingofparticularlyorganicwasteisimportantforthesustainabilityoflargecities.Weneedtomeetthischallengeandcreateametabolismthatmim-icsnaturalsystems.Materialsandproductsthatweuseneedtobebiodegrad-able.Plastic,whichdoesnotdecomposeeasily,canbeproducedsothatnaturecanabsorbitmoreeffectively.”herbert girarDet, creating SuStainable cit-ieS, 2 Schumacher brieFingS(1999).66 Id.(notingthatthisshiftcouldincentivizeproducerstoconsidertheenvironmentaleffectsoftheirproductsduringthedesignstage).67 Eight in 10 Aussies Want Plastic Bag Ban: Survey,the Daily telegraph(May22,2009,12:17AM),http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/breaking-news/eight-in-10-aussies-want-plastic-bag-ban-survey/story-e6freuyi-1225714569177.68 Seethe worlD bank,eco2 citieS205(2010),http://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9780821380468?mode=embed&layout=http%3A%2F%2Fskin.issuu.com%2Fv%2Flight%2Flayout.xml&showFlipBtn=true;maSDar city, http://www.masdarcity.ae/en/index.aspx(lastvisitedNov.11,2010).69 See id.70 Donella h. meaDowS et al., the limitS to growth (1972).71 SeeUNESCO–EducationforSustainableDevelopment(ED/PEQ/ESD),

UNDecadeofEducationforSustainableDevelopment:The DESD at a glance, ED/2005/PEQ/ESD/3(2005),available athttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001416/141629e.pdf(statingthattheDecadewill(1)promoteandimprovethequalityofeducation,(2)reorienteducationalprograms,(3)buildpublicunderstandingandawareness,and(4)providepracticaltrainingtomovetowardsmeetingtheobjectives).72 SeeIngridPramlingSamuelsson&YoshieKaga,Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures for Sustainability,the worlDwatch inSt.57(2010),http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Early-Childhood-Education-to-Transform-Cultures-for-Sustainability-Samuelsson-and-Kaga.pdf(describingacasestudyperformedonyoungchildrenonwastemanagementinSweden);getting out getS reSultS: environmental eDucation reSearch From boSton anD beyonD,boSton youth envtl. network(2008),http://www.peecworks.org/PEEC/PEEC_Research/035F4D9A-007EA7AB.0/BYEN%202008%20Getting%20Out%20Gets%20Results%20web.pdf(highlightingtheimportanceofstudentinvolvementinexposuretoanenvironmentaleducation).73 AmyAndo&AnneY.Gosselin,Recycling in Multifamily Dwellings: Does Convenience Matter?, cbS buSineSS network (2005),http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5814/is_2_43/ai_n29175444/.SeegenerallySeonghoonHong&RichardM.Adams,Household Responses to Price Incentives for Recycling: Some Further Evidence,75lanD econ.505(1999)(studyingthecorrelationbetweenwastedisposalservicefeesandrecyclingratesandwastegenerationandconsideringtheimpactofthechoiceofthecontainersize).74 Seegenerally id.(studyingthecorrelationbetweenwastedisposalservicefees,recyclingrates,andwastegeneration,andconsideringtheimpactofthechoiceofthecontainersize).75 SeeSriDhar r. & Shibu k. nair, thanal conServation action & inFormation network, Zero waSte kovalam anD employment opportunitieS,(2004),http://krpcds.org/report/ZEROWASTE.pdf(identifyingthehighcostofwasteandtheneedforlong-termplanningandsensibledecision-makingasbarrierstozerowaste);seealsoLeeAnneFrenchetal.,Zero WasteStrategies for Gills Onions Sustainable Innovation and Waste Management,at16–17(2010),http://www.bren.ucsb.edu/research/documents/onions_proposal.pdf(listingtechnicalandeconomicalfeasibility,healthsafetyrequirements,andproductqualityarethemoreprominentbarrierstozerowaste).76 Zero waSte Sa, supranote 1.77 Id. at15.78 Id.at20.79 Id.at18-19.80 Id.at3.81 JulianParfittetal.,Food Waste Within Food Supply Chains: Quantification and Potential for Change to 2050,27phil. tranSactionS oF the royal Soc’y oF britain3065,3077(2010),http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/3065.full.pdf+html.Moreinformationonfoodwastecanbefoundatthefollowingwebsites:http://www.foodwise.com.au;http://www.resourcesnotwaste.org;http://www.lovefoodhatewaste.com;http://www.ozharvest.org.au(lastvisitedOct.30,2010).82 Directive2008/98/EC,oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof19November2008onWasteandRepealingCertainDirectives,2008O.J.(L312)3,18,http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:312:0003:0030:EN:PDF.83 EuropeanCommissionDGEnvironment,Analysis of the evolution of waste reduction and the scope of waste prevention, Framework contract ENV.G.4/FRA/2008/0112,at181(Mar.24,2010),http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/prevention/pdf/draft3_2.pdf.84 Seeenv’t prot. & heritage council, supranote 26.85 4613.0–Australia’s Environment: Issues and Trends, Jan 2010,auStr. bur. oF Stat.(Feb.5,2010),http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4613.0Chapter40Jan+2010.86 KarenBarlow,Landfills “Busting at Seams” with E-Waste,auStl. broaD. corp. (June25,2010,6:58PMAEST),http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/06/05/2919217.htm;PatrickMcMahon,E-Waste Flooding Landfills,uSa toDay,Jan21,2002,http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002/01/22/usat-recycle.htm.87 MatthewBennis,Waste Solution Left to Rot as Landfill Capacity Runs Out,SyDney morning heralD (Mar.21,2010),http://www.smh.com.au/environment/waste-solution-left-to-rot-as-landfill-capacity-runs-out-20100320-qn6z.html(citingState government oF new South waleS, public review lanDFill capacity anD DemanD report (2009),available athttp://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=Xtm8jz6j7WI%3D&tabid=70&language=en-AU).88 Id.

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89 Id.90 MatthewBennis,Microchips, Recycling Ramped Up to Cut Waste,SyDney morning heralD(Mar.21,2010),http://www.smh.com.au/environment/microchips-recycling-ramped-up-to-cut-waste-20100320-qn70.html.91 Bennis,supranote87.92 Id.93 Bennis,supranote90.94 herbert girarDet, citieS people planet: urban Development anD climate change238(2008).95 yoShiFumi FuJii,SucceSSFul Source Separation in aSian citieS: leSSonS From Japan’S experience anD an action reSearch in thailanD (2008),http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Download/Spot/pdf/30/002.pdf.96 city oF aalborg, aalborg commitmentS-baSeline review19(2005),http://www.aalborgplus10.dk/media/pdf2005/aalborg_commitments_engelsk.pdf.97 TjalfeG.Poulsen&JensAageHansen,Assessing the Impacts of Changes in Treatment Technology on Energy and Greenhouse Gas Balances for Organic Waste and Wastewater Treatment Using Historical Data,27waSte mgmt. & reSearch 861, 861-62 (2009).98 Id.99 Id.100See TjalfeG.Poulsen,Danish Eco City Proves Waste Management Can Reverse Greenhouse Trend,SAGE,(Nov.26,2009),http://www.uk.sagepub.com/press/2009/november/26_november2.sp.101Id.102Id.103Id.104Id.105Id.106Id.107SeeThe Story of the Club of Rome,the club oF rome,http://www.clubofrome.org/eng/about/4/(lastvisitedOct.21,2010)(detailingthehistoryoftheClubofRomeandwarningofthedangersofunrestrainedgrowthofmaterialconsumptioninaworldoffiniteresources).108See the hague centre For Strategic StuDieS, Scarcity oF mineralS: a Strategic Security iSSue10-11(2009),http://www.hcss.nl/en/download/1286/file/HCSS_Scarcity%20of%20Minerals.pdf.109DatafrominStitut Der DeutSchen wirtSchaFt,http://www.idw-online.de(lastvisitedOct.30,2010).110InterviewwithMartinFaulstich,Professor,TechnicalUniversityofMunich,Sydney,Austl.(Mar.28,2010).111LucySiegle,Is it Possible to Avoid Unsustainable Palm Oil?,the obServer(Nov.15,2009),available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/nov/15/lucy-siegle-sustainable-palm-oil.112Paul-MarieBoulanger,Three Strategies for Sustainable Consumption,3SapienSNo.2,at8–9(2010),available at http://sapiens.revues.org/index1022.html#tocto1n1.113InterviewwithMartinFaulstich,Professor,TechnicalUniversityofMunich,Sydney,Austl.(Mar.28,2010).114herbert girarDet, citieS people planet: urban Development anD climate change238(2008).115CourtneyA.Dahl,ConnectingConsumptionwithEnvironmentalImpact:WastePreventionandPayasYouThrow,aCollectiveCaseStudyinSweden(May2010)(unpublishedMastersthesis,LundUniversityCentreforSustainabilityStudies),http://www.lumes.lu.se/database/alumni/08.10/Thesis/Dahl_Courtney_Thesis_2010.pdf.116oZharveSt,http://www.ozharvest.org.au(lastvisitedOct.30,2010);see

alsoThe National Waste Report 2010 Fact Sheet,Dept. oF SuStainability, env’t, water, population anD communitieS, auSt. gov’t.,available athttp://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/waste/publications/pubs/fs-national-waste-report-2010.rtf(puttingfoodwasteat7.6mmetrictonsoutof43.7mmetrictons,orabout18percent).117InterviewwithIainGulland,Dir.,ZeroWasteScotland,inSydney,Austl.(Sep.14,2010).118The National Waste Report 2010 Fact Sheet,supranote116.119InterviewwithVaughanLevitzke,ChiefExec.Officer,ZeroWasteSA,Adelaide,Austl.(Oct.28,2010).120william mcDonough & michael braungart, craDle to craDle: remaking the way we make thingS(2002).121WilliamMcDonough&MichaelBraungart,Cradle to Cradle: Adapting Production to Nature’s Model, in worlDwatch inSt., State oF the worlD 2010: tranSForming cultureS: From conSumeriSm to SuStainability 106 (2010).122population reFerence bureau, 2009 worlD population Data Sheet (2009), http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf.123Curitiba, Brazil,intl ct. ForSuStainable citieS, http://sustainablecities.net/plusnetwork/plus-cities/curitiba-brazil(lastvisitedOct.29,2010).124Id.125Id.126BharatiChaturved,Ragpickers: The Bottom Rung in the Waste Trade Ladder,int’l plaSticS taSk Force,www.ecologycenter.org/iptf/Ragpickers/indexragpicker.html(lastvisitedOct.30,2010).127The Human Scale of Recycling in India,the artblog(Apr.2,2009),http://theartblog.org/2009/04/the-human-scale-of-recycling-in-india.128Chaturved,supranote126.129Id.130AmeliaGentleman,Picking Up Trash by Hand, and Yearning for Dignity,n.y. timeS,Sept.27,2007,http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/27/world/asia/27ragpickers.html.131ChrisBonner,Waste Pickers Without Frontiers(Oct.-Nov.2008),http://www.wiego.org/papers/5334%20SALB%20Waste%20Pickers.pdf.132ShrijaAgrawal,Multi-Billion Dollar Waste Management Companies to Emerge from India(July27,2010,10:43:01IST),vccircle,http://www.vccircle.com/500/news/‘multi-billion-dollar-waste-management-companies-emerge-india’.133Cairo, Egypt Statistics,tour egypt,http://www.touregypt.net/cairo/cairostatistics.htm(lastvisitedNov.15,2010).134From:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manshiyat_naser(lastvisitedOct.30,2010).135Id.136See ClaireA.Williams,Cairo’s Garbage City,the wip(Mar.10,2007),http://www.thewip.net/contributors/2007/03/cairos_garbage_city.html.137SarahGauch,Egypt Dumps ‘Garbage People,’chriStian Sci. monitor,Jan.6,2003,http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0106/p07s02-woaf.html.138Id.139uniteD nationS human SettlementS programme(un-habitat), supra note 4.140ChristerBerglund,The Assessment of Households Recycling Costs: The Role of Personal Motives,56ecological econ.560(2006).141SeeDaten und Fakten der Abfallwirtschaft in Deutschland,bunDeSminiSterium Für umwelt, naturSchutZ unD reaktorSicherheit,http://www.bmu.de/abfallwirtschaft/doc/6497.php(Sept.2007)(providingdatafortheGermanrecyclingandwastemanagementsector)(inGermanlanguage).

1 AnnieMurphyPaul,How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life,time,Sept.22,2010,available at http://www.time.com/time/print-out/0,8816,2020815,00.html.2 Id.3 See robert D. putnam, bowling alone: the collapSe anD revival oF american community 209, 214 (2000) (arguingthatAmericansmovedtothesuburbsfortheir“greaterspace,largerhomes,[and]lower-costshoppingandhousing”).4 SeeChristopherB.Leinberger,The Next Slum?,the atlantic,Mar.2008,available at http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2008/03/the-next-slum/6653/(explainingthat,beginninginthe1970s,parentsbelievedtheyhad

tomovetothesuburbstoensuretheirchildrengrewupinsafetyandhadaccesstogoodschools).5 SeeJamesF.Sallis&KarenGlanz,The Role of Built Environments in Physical Activity, Eating, and Obesity in Childhood,the Future oF chilDren,Spring2006,at92-94(suggestingthatthelackofwalkableneighborhoodsinthesuburbsmaycorrelatewithincreasedchildhoodobesity);WillemvanVliet,Neighborhood Evaluations by City and Suburban Children,47J. am. plan. aSS’n458,460(1981)(explaininghowsuburbanchildrenbecomeincreasinglysociallyisolatedastheygrowup).6 SeeSallis&Glanz,supranote5,at92-94.7 BarryCheckowayetal.,Young People as Competent Citizens,38cmty. Dev.

endnoTes: StanDing on their own: the parallel rightS oF young people to participate in planning proceSSeS anD DeFenD thoSe rightS continued from page 45