RESILIENT AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS - Agrifutures Australia · Sub-program 4.2 - Resilient Agricultural...

RIRDC Completed Projects in 1997-1998 and Research in Progress as at June 1998

RESILIENT AGRICULTURAL

SYSTEMS

RIRDC Sub-Program 4.2

November 1998 RIRDC Publication No 98/98

Sub-program 4.2 - Resilient Agricultural Systems


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© 1998 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 0 642 57860 5 ISSN 1440-6845 "RIRDC Completed Projects in 1997-98 and Research in Progress as at June 1998 - 4.2 Resilient Agricultural Systems” Publication No 98/98 The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report. This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

RIRDC Resilient Agricultural Systems Research Manager Dr George Wilson RIRDC Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: (02) 6281 2160 Fax: (02) 6285 1195 Email: [email protected] RIRDC Publications Manager Eva Hickman Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: (02) 6272 3186 Fax: (02) 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in November 1998 Reprinted June 1999 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint



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FOREWORD This year RIRDC has produced Research in Progress, June '98, which contains short summaries of continuing projects as well as those that were completed during 1997-98 for all of the Corporation’s 21 program areas. The complete report on all the programs is only available in electronic format on our website at http://www.rirdc.gov.au The following report is a hardcopy extract covering Sub-Program 4.2. It contains all entries from continuing and completed Resilient Agricultural Systems research projects funded by RIRDC. This program aims to enable agricultural production systems that have sufficient diversity, flexibility and robustness to be resilient and respond to challenges and opportunities. This report is an addition to our extensive catalogue of over 350 research reports, videos and CD-Roms of projects supported by RIRDC. Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it on our website at www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/cat/contents.html Peter Core Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation



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CONTENTS

COMPLETED PROJECTS

PROJECT

No PROJECT TITLE RESEARCHER PHONE ORGANISATION PAGE

No DAQ-139A Evaluation of the Impact of Climate Change on

Northern Australian Grazing Industries Dr. Greg McKeon (07) 3896 9548 Department of Primary

Industries (Qld) 1

MDC-1A Innovative approaches to poly tunnel technology

Mr. Clarry Fisher (08) 8572 3611 Coorong District Council 1

UMU-14A Modelling water and energy requirements of livestock for sustainable rangeland management

Dr Ken Johnson (08) 9360 2257 Murdoch University, WA 2

UQ-39A Development of generic DNA-based technologies for identification of Phytophthora pathogens of a wide range of plant species

Professor J.A.G. Irwin, Dr. D.J. Maclean, Dr. A. Drenth

(07) 3365 2790, (07) 3365 2387, (07) 3365 4772

Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Plant Pathology (CRCTPP), Queensland

2

VCA-1A Developing indicators of sustainability for the WCFA conservation cropping trial

Dr. R John Petheram (03) 5362 2222 The University of Melbourne 4

DAW-58A Soil and land management systems for the diversification of pastoral land in the Gascoyne horticultural districts

Mr. Matt Darcey (08) 9941 0111 Agriculture Western Australia 4

UWS-4A Influence of alternative vegetable farming systems on cadmium levels

Dr. Jann Conroy (02) 4570 1311 Faculty of Horticulture, University of Western Sydney – Hawkesbury

5

CSE-68A Feasibility analysis of an enzyme-based bioremediation technology for reducing organophosphate residues in certain commodities

Dr. J.G. Oakeshott; Dr. R.J. Russell

(02) 6246 4157 CSIRO Entomology 6

CSO-10A Application of GC-FAME and mid-infrared analysis of soils as measures of soil health

Dr. C. Pankhurst (08) 8303 8482 CSIRO Land and Water 6

MAG-1A Evaluating sustainable and profitable farming systems

Peter Wylie (076) 624899 Horizon Rural Management 7

UCQ-5A Australian farm families’ experience of the drought in the 1990s: a sociological investigation

Dr. D. Stehlik, Dr. I. Gray, Professor G. Lawrence

(07) 4930 6401 Rural Social and Economic Research Centre, Rockhampton

8

CSD-48A Potential impact of climate change on runoff and water availability for irrigation

Dr. A. Barrie Pittock; Dr. A. Jakeman

(03) 9239 4527 (02)6249 4277

CSIRO; CRES-ANU

8

CSE-59A Management and control of mastotermes in northern Australia

Dr. Michael Lenz (02) 6246 4143 CSIRO Entomology 10

CSE-73A The identification of free-living soil-dwelling nematode assemblages as indicators of sustainable soil use

Dr. M Hodda & Dr. B.C. Longstaff

(02) 6246 4371 CSIRO Entomology 11

CSL-4A National Workshop on research and development needs for managing soil biology to optimise resilience and sustainability in agroecosystems

Dr. Clive Pankhurst 08 8303 8482 CSIRO Land and Water 11

UM-19A Determination of the mode of action of phosphonates and related compounds in plant pathogens

Assoc. Professor Bruce Grant

(03) 9344 5938 The University of Melbourne 12

UM-20A Adjustment in low net income wool, wheat and mixed farming businesses

Mr. Bill Malcolm (03) 9344 5015 The University of Melbourne 13



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RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

PROJECT No

PROJECT TITLE RESEARCHER PHONE ORGANISATION PAGE No

RCS-1A The development of industry standards (benchmarks) for the long term sustainability and viability of grazing businesses

Mr. Terry McCosker (07) 4939 5255 Resource Consulting Services Pty Ltd (RCS Group)

13

UNE-52A Dynamic interactions between indices of farm profitability and sustainability

Mr. Geoff Kaine (02) 6773 5146 University of New England 15

UQ-68A Development of routine DNA based diagnostic tests for Phytophthora

Dr. Andre Drenth (07) 3365 4772 CRC for Tropical Plant Pathology

15

US-26A Population changes and biocontrol of Meloidogyne on roots of woody perennial plants

Professor Brian Deverall (02) 9351 2531 The University of Sydney 15

CSE-75A Determination of effective fumigant concentrations in different soil types for methyl bromide and other soil fumigants

Dr. Jim Desmarchelier (02) 6246 4206 CSIRO Entomology 16

CSE-80A Strategic R&D in waste management and bioremediation: Pyrethroid bioremediation

Dr. John Oakeshott (02) 6246 4157 CSIRO Entomology 16

BRR-2A Opportunities for reducing pesticide use in Australian Agriculture

Dr. Graeme Evans (02) 6271 6368 Bureau of Resource Sciences 17

CST-4A Impact of climate change on important plant diseases in Australia

Dr. Sukumar Chakraborty

(07) 3365 2711 The University of Queensland 17

ABA-3A Using agricultural management to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Mr. Ali Abdalla (02) 6272 2000 ABARE Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics

17

CSW-29A Land use in northern Australia: impact of markets, policy and climate change

Dr. Mark Stafford-Smith (08) 8950 0162 CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology 18

UA-31A Nematodes as biocontrol agents of helicid snails

Dr. Kerrie Davies (08) 8303 7255 The University of Adelaide 18

BRR-3A Incursion management for exotic pests of plant industries

Dr. Graeme Evans (02) 6271 6368 Bureau of Resource Sciences 19

UWS-9A Impact of climate change on productivity, quality and water use of warm season and sub-tropical pastures

Dr. Jann Conroy (02) 4570 1311 University of Western Sydney – Hawkesbury

19

CSE-70A Bacterial toxin genes for engineering insecticidal viruses

Dr. Peter East (02) 6246 4001 CSIRO Entomology 20

DCM-1A Agriculture/aquaculture systems integration to enhance farm productivity and water use efficiency

Mr. Geoff Gooley (03) 5774 2208 Department of Conservation & Natural Resources

20

CSO-8A Sustainable agricultural systems: indicators for rural industry and community use

Dr Doug Reuter (08) 8303 8409 CSIRO

21

BCP-1A Development of monitoring services for nematode pests

Dr. Graham Stirling (07) 3202 7419 Australasian Association of Nematologists

21

CRP-1A Molecular diagnostic system for soil borne plant pathogens

Dr. John Curran (02) 6246 4294 CRC for Plant Science 22

DAN-144A Improved technology for mapping and monitoring of serrated tussock and scotch thistle infestations

Mr. Ian McGowen (02) 6391 3195 Department of Agriculture (NSW)

22

UQ-42A Use of a simulation model to predict future distributions of exotic woody weeds under climate change

Dr. Steve Adkins (07) 3365 2072 The University of Queensland 23

DAQ-223A Further development and application of Australian Rainman to improve management of climate variability

Dr. Jeff Clewett (07) 4688 1244 Department of Primary Industries (Qld)

23

DAV-121A Biological control of green peach aphid with a fungal pathogen

Dr. Peter Ridland (03) 9810 1511 Department of Natural Resources & Environment

23



COMPLETED PROJECTS

Project Title Evaluation of the impact of climate change on northern Australian grazing industries RIRDC Project No: DAQ-139A Researcher: Dr G M McKeon Organisation: QCCA

80 Meiers Road INDOOROOPILLY QLD 4068

Contacts: Phone: (07) 3896 9548 Fax: (07) 3896 9606

Objective • To evaluate the impact of climate change and CO2

increase on the management of northern Australian grazing industries.

Background Climate change, increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, and policies on greenhouse gas emissions are important issues for the northern Australian grazing industries. The majority of sheep and beef cattle graze the large extent of native pastures in this region. The number of animals stocked, individual animal production, and the risks of land and pasture degradation are strongly affected by climatic variability. As well as emissions from grazing animals, land use management options such as tree clearing and pasture burning are important components of the national greenhouse gas inventory. Thus, the grazing industries are in a difficult position with their production and sustainability being sensitive to climate change and the industries also being seen to be a major contributor to national greenhouse gas emissions. This project sought to kick start climate change impact studies and to commence analysis on the impact of grazing and climate on soil organic carbon. Research To address these issues, the project examined current trends in the climate of Queensland grazing lands; developed models of animal production from native pastures in cooperation with other RIRDC and LWRRDC projects, and two PhD theses; evaluated different approaches to simulate climate change scenarios; modified a native tropical pasture model GRASP to include the effects of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration; and developed comprehensive maps of soil organic carbon, soil phosphorus, soil nitrogen and other resource attributes. Outcome Most of the project's limited objectives were met in combination with other RIRDC and LWRRDC projects. However, several aspects proved too difficult to complete given a rapidly changing work environment. Resources

have now been allocated in the new Queensland Centre for Climate Applications (QCCA) to improve the models developed in this project and to simulate the possible economic impact of climate change scenarios. The simulation models will require further development to more correctly represent the effects of different climate variables (such as temperature, vapour pressure deficit) and the interaction of C02 concentration and biological responses (for example, water stress on growth, nutrient concentration). The major outcome of the project will be an evaluation of the impact of climate change and possible adaptive strategies for each grazing industry. The evaluation will be the first analysis of its type and is designed to convert industry from a reactive to a pro-active approach to climate change. Implications Although climate change has been firmly established as a core business research activity, the lack of clear view of likely climate change for northern Australia limits current extension or policy formulation. The major policy issues for the grazing industries (tree clearing, woodland thickening, possible negative impacts of global warming) can not be separated from other major issues such as property viability. Project Title Innovative approaches to poly tunnel technology RIRDC Project No: MDC-1A Researcher: C E Fisher Organisation: Coorong District Council PO Box 28 MENINGIE SA 5264 Contact: Phone: (08) 8572 3611

Fax: (08) 8572 3822 Objective • To establish the economic and technical feasibility of

utilising saline ground water for the production of Beta-Carotene, for aquaculture, production of potable water and production of commercial salt.

Background Inland aquaculture has the potential to be one of the biggest growth industries in Australia. Saline water is relatively cheap to obtain and at the same time its removal addresses a significant land degradation problem. Furthermore, inland aquaculture is not be affected by the problems such as toxic algae and tidal fluctuations. The cost of setting up an inland aquaculture industry could be cheaper than a sea based aquaculture. Access is easier during all types of weather and supplying fin fish all year round to markets.



Research Saline ground water was pumped into PVC covered horticultural tunnels containing shallow pool liners. Evaporation was high. On a 25°C day, temperatures in a PVC tunnel reached 40-50°C. The stored saline water was found to be suitable to grow fin fish, brine shrimp, Beta-Carotene (a food additive) as well as for extracting salt and bitterns. The project was run by the Coorong District Council, SA and also supported by the South Australian Research and Development Institute. Outcome Fish, beta carotene and other saleable commodities were produced. The process was comparatively cheap to set up. It uses solar energy which allows for extended months of operation. During winter, the tunnel structures can be used to propagate plants and for other experiments. Implications A pilot groundwater salinity project in South Australia has revealed an innovative and profitable approach to addressing Australia’s rising saline groundwater problems by using what is an emerging problem and turning it into a resource. Project Title Modelling water and energy requirements for sustainable rangeland management RIRDC Project No: UMU-14A Researcher: Dr Ken Johnson Organisation: Murdoch University South Street

MURDOCH WA 6150 Contacts: Phone: (08) 9360 2257

Fax: (08) 9310 4144 Objective • To measure energy and water turnovers of exercising

sheep and thus define minimal pasture density and water availability below which land degradation is certain to occur.

• To apply the results for sheep for rangeland conditions to improve the predictive reliability of the management program 'RANGEPAK Paddock'

Background Land degradation on grazed semi-arid rangeland is greatly influenced by the climate, the density and quality of pasture, and the placement of water sources. Analysing biological and physical exchanges of heat and water between livestock and their environment in semi-arid regions should assist development of mathematical models for planning livestock and land management. A series of laboratory and field experiments were undertaken to provide direct measurements of the effects

of these factors on livestock so as to allow comparison with mathematical models being developed by other workers to monitor the sustainability of such agricultural systems. The data were used to verify the CSIRO grazing model 'RANGEPACK Paddock' and the mathematical model of energy balance being developed at the University of Nottingham. Research Firstly, water and thermal balances were measured on sheep in laboratory conditions. Oxygen use and water losses via skin, respiration, urine and faeces were recorded at air temperatures of 20 - 38C on exercising and resting sheep with fleece lengths of 10-85 mm. Secondly, water turnovers and feeding behaviours were recorded outdoors in commercial sheep flocks grazing high protein lupin or lower protein wheat stubbles. Laboratory data permitted calculation of thermal and water balances of grazing animals, after allowances were made for the effects of solar heating. Indoor values could be reconciled with field grazing observations, although in paddocks of stubble, grazing patterns were different to those expected on rangeland. Outcomes The modelling of field performance of sheep in semi-arid environments appears to be feasible, though at present not with precision to determine grazing range accurately. The concordance between field and computer-generated data suggest that most fundamental processes have been accounted for. Several possible sources of disparity have been identified. Including them in future computer models should improve predictability, but would complicate the procedure to some extent. Implications The researchers believe that data produced in this series of laboratory and field trials will provide a resource base of thermal and water balance information on which further development of computer models could be based. Project Title Development of generic DNA-based technologies for identification of Phytophthora pathogens of a wide range of plant species RIRDC Project No: UQ-39A Researcher: Professor J.A.G. Irwin, Dr.

D.J. Maclean, Dr. A. Drenth Organisation: Cooperative Research Centre

for Tropical Plant Pathology (CRCTPP). Level 5, John Hines Building The University of Queensland

ST. LUCIA, QLD 4072 Contacts: Phone: (07) 3365 2790, (07)

3365 2387, (07) 3365 4772 Fax: (07) 3365 4771, (07) 3365 4771, (07) 3365 4771



Objectives • The objective of this project was to design a

diagnostic test for a number of species of the fungus Phytophthora which are economic important pathogens in Australia. The latest developments in biotechnology and molecular genetics have been used to develop quick and reliable tests which are highly specific and very sensitive and amenable for routine screening of plant material and soil for the presence of Phytophthora pathogens.

Background Phytophthora incited diseases cause severe devastation to a great variety of tree, ornamental and crop plant species. Although the severity of disease can vary greatly from year to year, depending on differences in climatic conditions (e.g. temperature, waterlogging) and cultivation practices, good diagnostic procedures are essential to identify potential problems prior to widespread outbreaks of disease and for quarantine purposes. Management options to control Phytophthora are rather limited in many situations. Resistance or tolerance is often used in field crops but this is not always a valid option in forestry, nursery, or fruit crops. The use of chemicals is limited to drenching the soil with metalaxyl or injection of phosphonates which has proven to be successful in some cases such as avocado root rot. Phosphonates and metalaxyl do not have a curative effect. Therefore, as soon as application of these compounds stops the Phytophthora root rot comes back very quickly. In the nursery industry, which is increasingly moving towards container grown plants, disease free planting material and disease free soil is the sole means to produce healthy plants. Research Recent advances made in the CRC for Tropical Plant Pathology, in the understanding of the genus Phytophthora (especially P. cinnamomi) at the molecular level have led to the development of PCR-based diagnostic tests with a high level of specificity and sensitivity, allowing specific detection at very low inoculum levels. These tests show enormous potential for use in commercial diagnostic laboratories. However, the tests are currently only applicable in research laboratory situations, and require rigorous testing and further development before commercial use is feasible. More research is also required on other species of Phytophthora of importance to the nursery and horticultural industries (target species include P . cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. parasitica, P. nicotianae, P. palmivora, and P. cactorum) so that routine PCR protocols can be developed for these economically important Phytophthora species. Outcomes The final outcome of this project is a PCR based diagnostic test specific for the targeted Phytophthora species and the genus Phytophthora. Specific outcomes are: • Insight in genetic diversity within important species

of Phytophthora in Australia.

• DNA sequence information of variable and conserved parts of genes encoding ribosomal RNA (rDNA) in Phytophthora species showed little diversity within species and considerable diversity between species, allowing the design of both highly specific species and genus specific primers.

• Design and testing of DNA based diagnostic tests for the following targeted Phytophthora species; P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. parasitica, P. nicotianae, P. palmivora, and P. cactorum.

Successful design of a DNA based test which can detect all species within the genus Phytophthora Genus and species specific diagnostic test that can detect as little as 2 pg of Phytophthora DNA in a given sample. Implications The availability of rapid diagnostic tests for Phytophthora will change the way in which diagnostics are used in the nursery and horticultural industries. The availability of cheap test which can be routinely applied will lead to improvements of nursery hygiene, the routine testing of planting material and soil and forms an integral part of accreditation schemes. The tests do not prevent disease but they are important in detecting disease before they become troublesome. Rapid and correct identification of Phytophthora species will help resolve problems in crops from which Phytophthora is hard to isolate and in root diseases on crops from which Phytophthora has not been reported before. New and exotic species of Phytophthora can be more easily and accurately identified than before. When routine diagnostics is put into place more samples can be routinely screened. This will lead to better disease management strategies and diseased plants can be identified more quickly before spread of Phytophthora can take place. Rapid identification and detection of species is of extreme importance in import and export of plant material. The availability of such test will put Australia at the forefront of diagnostic capabilities in the world. Publications A full patent has been filed (No. 16330797; DNA-based methods for detection of Phytophthora species) on 14-3-97 based on the outcomes of this project. RIRDC, GRDC, HRDC, and the CRCTPP share the equity. In order to protect the intellectual property of our findings no publications have been written concerning the outcomes of this research.



Project Title Developing indicators of sustainability for the WCFA conservation cropping trial RIRDC Project No: VCA-1A Researcher: Dr. R J Petheram Organisation: Longerenong College University of Melbourne RMB 3000 HORSHAM VIC 3401 Contacts: Phone: (03) 5362 2222

Fax: (03) 5362 2213 Objective • To increase the rate of adoption of sustainable

cropping systems by providing information on the sustainability of common farmer practices.

• To produce a report on results of the WCFA Conservation Farming Trial, at the five year stage which tests indicators of sustainability and relates these to profitability in four dryland farming systems.

Background A long term trial has been established at Longereong. Funds were required to enable a mid term assessment of the trial which forms the basis of the report. Research Eight paddocks with different treatments and rotations were compared. Outcome All trials appear sustainable with expenditure on labour and chemicals being the most significant economic variables. Full implications cannot be assessed until the close of the full trial. Implications Dependent on the completion of the long term trial. Project Title Soil and land management systems for the diversification of pastoral land in the Gascoyne Horticultural Districts RIRDC Project No: DAW-58A Researcher: Richard Greene Organisation: Geography Department

Australian National University CANBERRA 0200, ACT

Contacts: Phone: (02) 62493822 Fax: (02) 62493770

E-mail: [email protected]

Objectives • To produce management guidelines for the

sustainable use of the alluvial and sodic clay soils of the southern pastoral area of the Gascoyne region of Western Australia when used for intensive horticultural enterprises.

• This will be achieved by carrying out research on areas of the already established horticultural industry in the Gascoyne Region. Potential soil degradation problems will be identified and management techniques developed to enable other areas of horticultural land to be established.

Background Low wool prices in the extensive pastoral regions of W.A. are resulting in graziers attempting to diversify into other enterprises to supplement their incomes. In the Gascoyne pastoral region of W.A. one possible enterprise to diversify into is horticulture. However, very little is known about the management systems required on the soils in this region to ensure sustainable production under intensive irrigated horticulture. Already many of these horticultural soils in the Carnarvon Irrigation District have severe problems such as hardpan formation and poor water infiltration due to soil aggregate breakdown. Research We began by initially surveying the current problems in the district and based on these problems set up a trial to investigate different management systems for these soils. As the results from the initial survey of soils in the Carnarvon Horticultural District clearly established that high levels of sodicity and low levels of organic matter in the surface soil were common in many plantations, we studied 3 rates of gypsum application, i.e. 0, 2 and 10 t/ha, and combine these rates with two cultivation regimes, i.e. normal and minimum tillage, over 5 successive crops. Soil samples were taken at intervals to determine the effect of gypsum on dispersive properties and the cultivation treatments on slaking. Outcomes The results of the dispersion measurements indicated that application of gypsum prevented dispersion, but this effect only occurred as long as there was gypsum remaining in the soil. As the gypsum was dissolved by irrigation and moved lower in the profile the surface soil began to disperse again. By the end of the second crop the 2t/ha rate was dissolved and at the end of the fifth crop the entire 10t/ha rate had dissolved. Other results indicated that the minimum till treatments had no significant effect on improving the structural stability of the surface soil in terms. of macro or micro-aggregation. Due to the need to occasionally cultivate the no-till beds, it is probable that the overall amount of cultivation used on the minimum till and cultivated treatments was not sufficiently different to cause major differences in aggregation. At the same time there was no improvement in organic matter content in the minimum

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tillage treatments compared with the cultivated treatments. Implications To improve soil structure and build up soil organic matter levels under continuous cropping in the Carnarvon Irrigation District, green manure crops grown on permanent beds will need to become part of the system. The green manure crops need to be sown after the cash crop and then left to die off. Other ideas include growing a deep-rooted crop such as lucerne between permanent beds and using mowings for mulch on the cash crops. Even though gypsum did not improve yield, improved workability of the soil and better drainage would still justify its application. To improve its efficiency of application, small more frequent applications instead of infrequent large applications are more economical. Project Title Influence of alternative vegetable farming systems on cadmium contamination of produce RIRDC Project No: UWS-4A Researcher: Dr. Jann Conroy Organisation: Faculty of Horticulture

University of Western Sydney Hawkesbury Bourke Street RICHMOND NSW 2753

Contacts: Phone: (02) 4570 1311 Fax: (02) 4570 1314 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To quantify the source and extent of cadmium (Cd)

contamination in the key vegetable growing areas of the Greater Sydney Region.

• Compare differences between vegetable species in physiological and biochemical responses to Cd.

Background Intensive production of vegetables overseas has caused Cd to accumulate in soil mainly due to phosphatic fertiliser. Should this be occurring in Australia it would threaten the vegetable industry from both marketing and production perspectives. Research Cd contamination was surveyed on 29 vegetable farms in the Sydney Region. Effects of Cd on cabbage, lettuce, radish, tomato, corn and capsicum, with at least two varieties per species were also studied under controlled conditions. Finally, lines of cabbage which differed in Cd-tolerance were tested for short and long-term physiological, nutritional and biochemical responses. Outcomes Cd contamination in the soils and vegetables of the Sydney Basin was much greater than expected and ~60% of leafy vegetables equalled or exceeded the (then) MPC

(0.05 mg kg-1 fwt). At least ten times more Cd is being applied to soil than is being removed. A new index for available soil Cd has been developed. Under controlled conditions, yields of some varieties of cabbage, lettuce and radish were decreased by ~20% at tissue Cd concentrations equal to the raised MPC (0.1 mg kg-1 fwt). Similar tissue concentrations occurred in the field survey. Cd-tolerance differed widely between varieties of each species. Exposure of plants to excess Cd resulted in: reduced photosynthetic capacity, reduced shoot and root growth, induction of detoxifying compounds (phytochelatins) and modified nutrition. Results of the survey were communicated to all 29 participating farmers and the information prompted NSW Agriculture to launch a program to minimise the uptake of Cd by vegetables. Implications • Public awareness of the high levels of Cd in leafy

vegetables grown in and around Sydney could damage both the domestic and the international markets for these products.

• Cadmium uptake and partitioning in plants are genetically controlled, raising the possibility of using conventional breeding techniques and genetic engineering, to reduce Cd loads in the edible parts of crops.

• The yields of commercial crops of some varieties of lettuce, cabbage and radish are probably depressed due to Cd toxicity. Further information is needed on the Cd-tolerance.

• Soil Cd levels in Australia are rising rapidly under intensive cropping, due mostly to the Cd added in P-fertilisers. The Cd content of such fertilisers should be reduced from ~300 mg Cd kg-1 P to ~20 mg Cd kg-1 P,. Contamination of less intensively farmed land must also be occurring albeit at a slower rate. Crop producers should be energetically lobbying fertiliser manufacturers to drastically reduce Cd/P ratios in P fertilisers.

• There is some prospect of developing a soil test for available Cd.

Publications Ahamdi-Esfahani, F.Z. and Locke, C.G. (1998) ‘Wholesale Food Markets with ‘Chinese characteristics”, Food Policy 23, forthcoming. Ahamdi-Esfahani, F.Z. and Locke, C.G. (1998) ‘The Industrial organisation of the Chinese Food Economy: Socialistic of Capitalistic?’ Contemporary Economic Policy 16, 34-46. Ahamdi-Esfahani, F.Z. and Stanmore, R.G. (1997) ‘Demand for Vegetables in a Chinese Wholesale Market” Agribusiness: An International Journal 13, 549-559.




Project Title Feasibility analysis of an enzyme-based bioremediation technology for reducing organophosphate residues in certain commodities and the environment Project Details: CSE-68A Researchers: Drs John G Oakeshott and

Robyn J. Russell Organisation: CSIRO Entomology : PO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6246 4157;

(02) 246 4160 Fax: (02) 246 4173 Email Nos: [email protected];

[email protected] Objectives • To determine the feasibility of using two mutant

esterase enzymes from the Olgamophosphate (OP) resistant sheep blowfly for detoxifying OP residues in certain commodities, waste water and soil.

Background Residues of various OPs threaten both the production systems and the marketing of many of Australia's agricultural commodities. The problems for the production systems arise because of the contamination of soil and water supplies, while residues on commodities cause problems for both domestic and overseas markets Research This project involved cloning and expressing the esterase genes in vitro and developing the products as bioremediation agents. Outcomes This project resulted in the production, in cheap bacterial expression vectors, of two enzymes with the ability to degrade the oxon forms of the two major subtypes of OPs in use. Implications We believe that our enzymes could function as OP bioremediants in decontaminating waste water, commodities and, with appropriate formulation, soil as well. Waste water could be treated before it is released into regional drainage systems or overflows off-farm, causing problems for downstream users and the environment. Implementation of an effective bioremediation technology for decontaminating commodities should help secure existing markets for Australian commodities and enhance our access to new ones. Publications 1. Smyth, K-A et al. (1996) Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 54 : 48-55. 2. Robin, C. et al. (1996) Journal of Molecular Evolution 43: 241-252. 3. Newcomb, R.D. et al. (1997). Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

27: 15-25. 4. Campbell, P.M. et al. (1997). Biochemical Genetics 35 : 17-39. 5. Newcomb, R.D. et al. (1997) PINS 94: 7464-7468. 6. Smyth, K-A. et al. Submitted to Heredity. 7. Campbell, P.M. et al. Submitted to Journal of Economic Entomology. 8. Smyth, K-A.et al. Submitted to Australian Journal of Entomology. 9. Campbell, P.M. et al. Submitted to Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Project Title Application of GC-FAME and mid-infrared analysis of soils as measures of soil health RIRDC Project No: CSO-10A Researcher: Dr. Clive Pankhurst Organisation: CSIRO Land and Water

Private Bag No. 2, Glen Osmond, SA 5064

Contacts: Phone: (08) 8303 8482 Fax: (08) 8303 8550 E-mail: [email protected] Objective: • To examine the relationship between analysis of soil

biology based on GC-FAME technology and analysis of soil organic matter / chemistry based on mid-infrared (MIR) technology as the basis of providing two rapid, multi-factored and inexpensive measures of soil health.

Background In the quest for the development of sustainable agricultural production, there has developed a requirement for simple, inexpensive and easy to interpret measurements that can be used as indicators of soil health. Significant benefits to land managers would result if they were able to use information from soil indicators to make improvements to their land management practices that resulted in long-term sustainable crop production. A number of soil chemical properties (eg. % C content, pH, cation exchange capacity) and soil physical properties (eg. water holding capacity) have been found suitable for this purpose, but it is currently difficult to assess the biological health of soils. New technology based on the extraction and gas chromatography of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from soils provides a new way to characterise (in qualitative and quantitative terms) the composition of soil organism communities. Similarly, new technology based on MIR spectroscopy provides and new way to characterise the chemical and mineralogical attributes of soils and has been used to develop models which can accurately predict a range of soil properties including % C content and pH. As both GCFAME and MIR are full spectrum techniques, it was hypothesised that there may be a relationship between the two measures that would reveal linkages between the biological and chemical /

mailto:[email protected];





mineralogical attributes of the soil. If this were so, then the two techniques used separately or together, could provide rapid and inexpensive information concerning a number of attributes of soil health, and eliminate the need for multiple, expensive and time-consuming measurements based on traditional soil biology and chemistry. Research GC-FAME and MIR analysis was performed on a set of soils obtained from two long-term trial sites in NSW. The soils used came from trial plots exposed to two different tillage and crop residue management practices at each site. Individual components (chromatogram peaks) from the FAME analysis were correlated with the MIR spectra of the same soils using a number of statistical procedures. This showed that there was a strong positive correlation between the two measures and that individual FAME peaks representing the bacterial and fungal components of the soil microflora were among those showing the strongest correlation. This lead to the development of a model which was able to predict selected FAME peaks (R2 values > 0.75) from the MIR soil spectra. Outcomes The outcome of the project was the development of a model with the capacity to predict attributes of the soil biology (eg. bacterial and fungal biomass) from MIR data. This is a major scientific advance. As MIR spectra take only seconds to generate it may be possible using this approach to determine the essential elements of the biological health of soils rapidly, and at a range of scales. Implications Further research is necessary to validate the relationship between FAME and MIR analysis of soils over a wide range of soil types. The possibility of using the same approach to develop models for the prediction of other biological attributes of the soil such as microbial biomass, microbial activity and plant root disease, should be investigated. Publications The research will be published in the Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. Project Title Evaluating profitable and sustainable farming systems RIRDC Project No: MAG-1A Researcher: Peter Wylie Organisation: Horizon Rural Management

56 Drayton St. DALBY QLD 4405

Contacts: Phone: (07) 4662 4899 Fax (07) 4662 5244

E-mail: [email protected] Objectives

• To develop practical methods for economic analysis of sustainable rotations and farming systems.

• To evaluate environmental outcomes to provide a practical sustainability index.

• To use these methods of evaluating profit and sustainability to evaluate 'state of the art' farming systems for several regions across Australia.

Background Reduced crop yield from land degradation is putting farmers out of business, yet many of the answers are in the form of more profitable cropping systems and practices. Farming can be made more profitable and sustainable, by designing better farming systems and rotations which minimise land degradation. There is a need for a practical means of examining rotation programs over several years. Farming programs which have pastures in a rotation or different crop frequencies cannot be compared using gross margins. A more complicated program, which takes into account rotation benefits and differences in labour and overhead costs is needed, but not too complicated that it can't be used at a farm level. Research As part of the research other systems for evaluating sustainability and profit were examined. Most of these models, such as MIDAS, PRISM and PLANETOR (USA), have been developed for research purposes and are not practical for use by advisers to assist individual farmers. The particularly innovative component of the research has been to convert land degradation into a sustainability cost which reflects the loss of production which will occur after ten years or so of the farming system being analysed. The constraints to sustainability were reviewed and discussed with researchers and in workshops with farmers, researchers, advisers and other consultants. Outcomes Estimates of profit from some of the best crop rotations and farming systems are generally around 5-8% return on capital (ROC). But it is normal for budgets to use conservative estimates of yields and prices and in most cases a 10% return is achievable, after family labour and machinery replacement. With few exceptions, the most profitable farming systems appear also to be the most sustainable. In some cases, there needs to be provisos on practices, such as minimum tillage for optimum control of wind and water erosion, but for the most part these practices will also improve yield and therefore be the most profitable. Implications The project has provided more quantified results to confirm that the most profitable farming systems appear also to be the most sustainable. It has demonstrated the importance of farming systems in reducing land degradation. This has important implications in




motivating farmers to improve farming systems to be only improve profit, but to reduce further production losses from land degradation. Publications and products 1. Booklet on Profitable and Sustainable Farming

Systems 2. The FARM Budget Quickstart Manual 3. The FARM Budget Excel spreadsheet (on disc) Project Title Australian farm families’ experiences of drought of the 1990s; A sociological investigation. Project No: UCQ-5A Researcher:/s: Dr. Daniela Stehlik, Dr. Ian

Gray, Professor Geoffrey Lawrence

Organisation: Rural Social and Economic Research Centre, Central Queensland University. Bruce Highway, Rockhampton. Qld. 4702.

Contacts: Phone: (07) 4930 6401. Fax: (07) 40930 6402

E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To understand the way in which drought is socially

constructed and how such constructions then influence on-farm drought strategies. To identify and analyse in what ways resource management strategies used by farm families were altered during the drought.

Background This study is the first of its type in Australia. It presents a picture drawn from narratives of how producers (both male and female) construct/interpret drought, how they act upon those interpretations, and how such actions influence not only farm family behaviour and on-farm production activities, but also the environment and their communities. Research The study was conducted in two regions of Australia, both drought declared during the time the research was underway. In the Central Queensland region, 24 men and 25 women (beef producers) were interviewed and in the western rangelands of New South Wales 27 men and 27 women (sheep/wheat producers) were interviewed. In addition, a number of focus groups with producers and stakeholders were held in both regions, and a media and policy analysis was undertaken. Outcomes The study has undertaken an approach with integrates farmers' views, attitudes, ideologies and cultural values into a critical and structurally-based account of farming. While governments have been redefining drought, it

remains for many a disaster, not one which is sudden in occurrence or impacts, but one which can profoundly affect health and well-being. Changing roles within farm families combined with changing practices on the property have meant that farm families are beginning to realise that the effect of the drought has fundamentally changed the way in which they now manage their lives and their production and how they relate to their families and communities. Implications We conclude that 'drought' for farm families is more than a word - it is about management - of their water, soil, livestock, family life and community well-being. However 'managing' drought has a lot of unintended consequences which makes treating drought as just a matter for management potentially contradictory and self-defeating. Services in regional/rural Australia require more integration and more connection with the lived experiences of farm families. There is strong evidence within our report that shows the impact of the drought of the 1990s is such that rural Australia will never be the same again as regional community infrastructure and viability remains fragile and under great stress. Publications There have been a number of publications produced during the study. Project Title Potential impact of climate change on runoff and water availability for irrigation RIRDC Project No: CSD-48A Researchers: Dr. A.B. Pittock Dr. A. Jakeman Organisation: CSIRO Atmos-

pheric Research CRES

PMB1, ANU ASPENDALE VIC

3195 CANBERRA, ACT 0200

Contacts: Ph: (03) 9239 4527 Ph: (02) 6249 4277 (03) 9239 4444 Fax: (02) 6249 0757 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Objectives • To assess the impact of a range of climate change

scenarios on runoff and water availability for irrigation.

• Estimate effects on flood frequency, soil moisture and seasonality of runoff.

• Include effects of snowmelt, changes in plant water use efficiency and in irrigation demand.

• Communicate results to stakeholders.

Background Key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Second Assessment Report, include: the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate; climate is expected to continue to change; and






general warming is expected, although there are major uncertainties about rates of warming and rainfall changes. Australia's limited water resources are vulnerable to climate change, since water supply results essentially from the relatively small difference between rainfall and evapotranspiration, and warming will increase evapotranspiration. Therefore rural industries need advice on the range of possible changes in water supplies which could result from climate change. Such advice will influence water resource and agricultural planning, management, and adaptation. Research The research covered three main tasks: Development of climate change scenarios, spanning the range of uncertainties. Calibration and verification of runoff models for snow-free and snow-affected catchments. Using the models to calculate the impact of climate change on daily, seasonal and annual runoff and soil moisture. Communication of the results and their implications to stakeholders was via non-technical presentations, a colour brochure (the subject of a separate project, CSD-49A), and scientific reports. Outcomes The Goulburn, Ovens, Kiewa, and Mitta-Mitta catchments were modelled. These supply a large fraction of the water used for irrigation in Victoria and the Riverina. "Most wet" and "most dry" scenarios, based on a range of global climate models and IPCC scenarios, were developed for the years 2030 and 2070. The wet case took maximum increases in rainfall consistent with minimum warmings, while the dry case took the reverse. Results for all catchments were that in the wet case there was little change in average annual flow, but a large increase in the frequency of heavy flow (flood) events. In the dry case, average annual flows decreased by 30-35% by 2030, and 50-65% by 2070, with a large increase in the frequency of low soil moisture (drought) conditions. Snow-affected catchments showed a small increase in runoff in the dry case. Seasonality of runoff was not greatly affected in the lower catchments. Clearly, a more probable intermediate case would result in reduced annual flow but more frequent heavy flow events. Preliminary estimates of changes in water demand for irrigation due to climate indicate a possible increase in demand of 1% to 3% by 2030 for pasture at Kerang, and possibly up to 50% greater increases for taller crops. Increased water use efficiency of crops due to higher CO2 concentrations is expected to increase productivity but not significantly reduce water demand, while the same effect on vegetation in the higher runoff upper catchments is expected to have an uncertain but probably negligible impact on runoff, due to compensating increases in vegetative cover. Further revisions of the climate change scenarios are expected as improved climate models become available. There is thus a need

for versatile impact assessment models capable of providing updated assessments. Implications Results indicate a strong sensitivity of water supply, drought, and flood frequency, to plausible climate changes over the coming decades. The timescale and magnitude of these impacts suggests that serious account should be taken of climate change impacts in planning water supply and irrigation infrastructure and management. A strong emphasis on water conservation through greater on-farm water-use efficiency, and measures to protect agriculture from increasing aridity, soil erosion and salinisation is required. Serious attention should be given to reducing the uncertainties and to developing optimal adaptation strategies, including the use of on-farm water management systems. A more "user-friendly" climate change impacts model is needed to assist in exploring adaptation options. Publications Jakeman, A.J., Post, D.A., Schreider, S.Yu. and Ye, W. 1994. Modelling Environmental Systems: Partitioning the Water Balance at Different Catchment Scales. In: Computer Techniques in Environmental Studies V, Vol II: Environmental Systems, Zanetti, P. (ed.), Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton, 157-170. Jakeman, A.J., Hornberger, G., Schreider, S.Yu. and Ye, W. 1994. Assessing the Impacts of Climate Variability and Climate Change on Water Resources using Rainfall-Runoff Models. In: Climate Impact Assessment Methods for Asia and Pacific, Jakeman, A.J. and Pittock. A.B. (eds.), Canberra, 43-47. Jakeman, A.J., Oglesby, R.J., Schreider, S.Yu., Hansen, D.P., Larson, J.W., Post, D.A. and Taylor, J.A. , 1995. Modelling Land Surface - Atmosphere Interaction and Water Resource Impacts: Alternative Approaches. Proc. Second International Study Conference on GEWEX in Asia and GAME, Government of Thailand, pp. 69-75. Oglesby, R.J., Fan, Z., Jakeman, A.J., Post, D.A., Schreider, S.Yu., Hansen, D.P., Taylor, J.A. and Larson, J.W., 1995. Coupling a Regional Precipitation-Runoff Model to Global and Regional Climate Models. In: Proc. of International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, MODSIM95, Newcastle, 27-30 November, Vol. 2, pp. 11-14. Schreider, S.Yu., Jakeman, A.J., Whetton, P.H. and Pittock, A.B., 1996. Comparative Analysis of Climate Impacts on Streamflow for Snow-free and Snow-affected Catchments. In: Climate Impacts Assessment Workshop Abstracts: Development and Application of Climate Change Scenarios, Hennessy, K.J. and Pittock, A.B. (eds.), CSIRO Div. Atmospheric Research /Commonwealth Dept. of Environment, Sport and Territories, Melbourne, pp. 88-92.



Schreider, S.Yu., Jakeman, A.J., Whetton, P.H. and Pittock, A.B. , 1996. Large Scale Streamflow Modelling in the South-East of the Murray-Darling Basin for Current and Future Climate Conditions. Abstracts, 1996 Western Pacific Geophysics Meeting, AGU, Brisbane, Australia, July 23-276, p. W30. Schreider, S.Yu, Jakeman, A.J. and Pittock A.B. , 1996. Modelling Rainfall-Runoff from Large Catchment to Basin Scale: the Goulburn Valley, Victoria. Hydrological Processes, 10, 863-876. Schreider, S.Yu., Jakeman, A.J., Pittock, A.B. and Whetton, P.H., 1996. Estimation of Possible Climate Change Impacts on Water Availability, Extreme Flow Events and Soil Moisture in the Goulburn and Ovens Basins, Victoria. Climatic Change, 34, 513-546. Schreider, S.Yu., Jakeman, A.J., Whetton, P.H., Pittock, A.B, 1997. Estimation of Climate Impact on Water Availability and Extreme Events for Snow-Free and Snow-Affected Catchments of the Murray-Darling Basin, Australian Journal of Water Resources, 2, 35-46. Schreider, S.Yu., Whetton, P.H., Jakeman, A.J., Pittock, A.B. and Li, J., (in press). Runoff Modelling for Snow-Affected Catchments in the Australian Alpine Region. Journal of Hydrology. Also, CRES Working Paper, 1996/5, ANU, Canberra, 26 pp.. Project Title Management and control of mastotermes in northern Australia RIRDC Project No: CSE-59A Researcher: Dr. Leigh R. Miller Organisation: CSIRO Division of

Entomology GPO Box 1700

CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone (02) 6246 4223

Fax (02) 6246 4000 E-mail [email protected] Objectives • To replace the current use of persistent insecticides

to control termite colonies in Australia with baiting techniques that use small quantities of slow-acting toxins, specifically targeted on the termite colony.

• To develop effective control procedures against Mastotermes darwiniensis in horticultural crops. Studies of the biology of the species will be carried out in conjunction with development and testing of control methods so that their effectiveness can be fully assessed.

• To communicate to growers and other interested persons aspects of developed termite management techniques that can be applied by relatively untrained personnel.

Background The termite Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt is a major pest of horticultural crops in northern Australia, particularly in the Northern Territory and north West Australia. Mastotermes is capable of killing trees of all ages and losses can be as high as 25-30% in the first year of plantation establishment. Overall losses are estimated at 8-9% per annum. Research The project covered two major aspects of termite research; laboratory and field testing of baits, bait toxins and application methods for control of Mastotermes, and field studies of the biology of Mastotermes and other wood-feeding termites. A series of large-scale, long-term field plots were established to monitor termite activity in undisturbed areas. After continuous observation for three years, some of those plots were used to assess the effect of treatment with varied bait formulations. There was also continuous assessment of baits and baiting methods both in undisturbed areas and in orchards Outcomes and Implications Mastotermes management. The main project objective was achieved in that it was demonstrated that lasting (8 months to date) elimination of Mastotermes from a given area could be obtained with a single application of baits containing an alternative toxin to the currently-used cyclodiene Mirex. Techniques for monitoring, aggregation and baiting were demonstrated to growers at a series of field days. Since neither of the two most effective alternative toxins is yet registered for use, growers were also shown how to maximise the effectiveness of the current Mirex formulation. Recommendations have been made to the relevant companies that procedures for registration be initiated. Biological studies: The results of the biological studies indicate that there is a complex, dynamic, relationship between a number of species of termites at any given site. For any species, foraging activity is directly related to seasonal environmental factors, but those factors vary between species, so that competing species may be partitioning resources temporally. For example, Mastotermes foraging activity is negatively correlated with rainfall, whereas that of Coptotermes is positively correlated with temperature. Publications: Miller, L.R. 1996. Patterns of attack on bait stakes by Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt and sympatric species in Tropical Australia. Poster prepared for XX International Congress of Entomology, Florence, Italy, 25-31 August 1996. Miller, L.R. 1997. Laboratory assessment of Fipronil




against Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt. Termite Group Report No 97/10 Miller, L.R., Hoschke, M. & Neal, M. 1996. Depth of foraging of subterranean termites in tropical Australia. Paper prepared for 27th AGM of The International Research Group on Wood Preservation, Guadeloupe, France, May 1996. Project Title The identification of free-living soil-dwelling nematode assemblages as indicators of sustainable soil use RIRDC Project No:. CSE-73A Researchers: Dr. M Hodda &

Dr. B.C. Longstaff Organisation: CSIRO Entomology GPO Box 1700

CANBERRA ACT 2601 Phone: (02) 6246 4371 Fax: (02) 6246 4000

E-mail [email protected] Objectives • To determine the major components of the free-

living nematode fauna from experimental wheat fields at Harden and Cowra, with their likely effects on soil properties

• To determine the differences in the community and trophic structure of the free-living soil nematode species present in traditionally-tilled and direct-drilled treatments, and in areas not under intensive agricultural use

• To relate differences in nematode community structure to differences in soil properties between treatments and to assess the potential of nematodes as bioindicators.

Background Management of soils is vital to Australian agriculture to ensure both profitability and sustainability. Reduction in tillage and increasing retention of residues or stubble are two practices being advocated for improving soils. Both these practices have effects on the soil biota which can impact on their success. This project reports investigations of the effect of tillage and residue management on nematodes, which are the most abundant of the soil biota, and can have major effects on soils or crop plants, both beneficial and deleterious. Research Soil nematodes were sampled from replicated plots under three different tillage treatments at Cowra and Harden in the south-east wheat belt of NSW during spring and autumn in each of two years. Diversity, abundance and trophic structure were analysed. Outcomes

A total of 104 taxa of nematodes were identified, and included species previously known as well as some previously unknown. Several species were known plant pathogens, but many species were probably beneficial. The number of species present was probably less than that in native vegetation, but was comparable to the numbers found in highly productive agricultural systems elsewhere in the world. Abundance was high. Cowra and Harden were different in nematode composition, particularly pathogenic species. There was a major trophic shift from fungal-feeding nematodes under conventional cultivation to bacterial feeding nematodes under direct drilling. This trophic shift has major implications for energy and nutrient pathways in the soil, and the mobilisation of nutrients for plant growth. Nematodes showed many characteristics useful as indicators of soil conditions, including high abundance, availability at all times (even during drought), and the short time from changes in management to observable responses. Three different indicators using nematodes were proposed: “substrate ingesters” (associated with soil structure and moisture); the “ingesting predator” (associated with abundance of other soil fauna); and the relative abundances of “microbivore” and “fungivore” nematodes (associated with decomposition pathways and nutrient mobilisation in the soil). Implications There are important differences between sites in the effects of tillage and residue management, together with pest abundance. However, in general reducing tillage and increasing input of crop residue probably has a positive effect on beneficial soil nematodes without increasing pathogens. Improvement to soil microstructure may be involved along with residue inputs. The types of residues, and the depth in the soil at which they decompose, may have a major influence on the subsequent mobilisation of nutrients. Project Title National workshop on research and development needs for managing soil biodiversity for agricultural sustainability Project Details CSL-4A Researcher: Dr. Clive Pankhurst Organisation: CSIRO Land and Water

PMB 2 GLEN OSMOND SA 5064

Contacts: Phone: (08) 8303 8484 Fax: (08)8303 8550

E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To identify and scope out research and development

needs that would lead to improved understanding and management of the functioning of soil biota in agroecosystems.





Background The workshop was held to provide an opportunity for researcher to interact with a range of stakeholders to discuss current issues concerning the status of soil biota in Australian farming systems. In particular it was used as a vehicle to discuss the importance/relevance of soil biodiversity to the functioning of agroecosystems. Research The workshop participants included 29 stakeholders (farmers, agricultural consultants, Landcare facilitators, RDC representatives and university researchers) and 17 scientists from CSIRO. A theme presentation on “Soil Biodiversity and the Functioning of Agroecosystems” was given by Professor Diana Wall, Colorado State University, USA. This was followed by a series of stakeholder presentations which focussed on the perceptions land users have about the soil biota and its importance and what they believed were some of the research needs. This was followed by group discussions which developed research questions and possible research projects aimed at improved understanding of the role of the soil biota/biodiversity in agroecosystems. Outcomes and Implications The strong message that came from the workshop discussions was that whilst Australian agriculture had benefited from research on economically important biota eg. Rhizobium (N-fixation), mycorrhizal fungi, root diseases and earthworms, it was still unclear what soil processes (mediated by the soil biota) were critical to the productivity of agroecosystems.. There was also, at present, insufficient evidence to show that soil biodiversity was important for the functioning of agroecosystems and that a synthesis of available information on this issue (which included economic considerations) was needed before industry would fund research in this area. The workshop recommended that a scoping study be carried out to: • Assess the benefits and constraints for agricultural

production that arise from the organisms present in Australian soils;

• The opportunities for improved efficiency of crop production and sustainability through enhanced management of soil biodiversity; and

• Develop a framework for an integrated strategic approach to soil biodiversity research in Australia.

A number of potential research projects were identified through the group discussions. These included: • Manipulating soil biota to improve the

mineralisation of nitrogen in cropping systems; • The role of soil biota/biodiversity in yield declines in

various crops; • Defining the impacts of heavy metals and

agrochemicals on soil biota functioning; and • Integrating yield mapping research and soil biology

to understand spatial variability in soil properties.

Project Title Determination of the mode of action of phosphonates and related compounds in plant pathogens RIRDC Project No: UM-19A Researcher: Bruce Grant Organisation: Department of Biochemistry University of Melbourne PARKVILLE VIC 3052 Contacts: Phone: (03) 9344 5911

Fax: (03) 9347 7730 Objectives • To study the effect of phosphonate on the growth of

various Phytophthora spp. Under a range of phosphate and phosphonate concentrations.

• To gain information on the changes in phosphorus-containing metabolites.

• To develop a technique for the preparation of cell free extracts from Phytophthora which contained active enzymes.

• To compare the phosphonate sensitivity of a range of enzymes prepared from P. palmivora.

• To synthesise phosphono-dipeptides and test these against Phytophthora and against years, Saccharomyces cerevisae.

Background Phosphonate has proved a useful agent in integrated disease control directed against diseases caused by members of the genus Phytophthora. However, lack of information about the way in which phosphonate acts, coupled with its failure to control some members of the genus under field conditions justify further studies into the way in which the compound affects the metabolism of these microorganisms. Moreover, if the target site was established and the enzyme isolated, the possibility of synthesis of new, more effective agents based on phosphonates should be possible. Research In the research carried out over the past three years, it was discovered that phosphonate interfered with a variety of enzymes which transferred phosphate groups. The single enzyme most sensitive was 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde reductase. However, the data suggest that more sensitive and more specific sites might be found in the pathway which leads to the synthesis of the soluble polyphosphates which appear to be a unique feature of this group of organisms. Outcomes and Implications The project resulted in a considerable improvement in the understanding of the basic biochemistry of these organisms. It also suggests areas where further basic work is required before a target specific agent could be developed.



There are no implications in the sense of immediate economic benefits. Publications Carswell, M.C., Grant, B.R., Theodorou, M., Harris, J. Niere, J.O. and Plaxton, W.C. (1996). Plant physiology, 110: 105-110. Carswell, M.C., Grant, B.R. and Plaxton, W.D. (1997). Planta 203: 67-74. Martin, H., Grant, B.R. and Stehmann, C. (1998). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. In press. Project Title The development of industry standards (benchmarks) for the long term sustainability and viability of grazing businesses. RIRDC Project No: RCS-1A Researcher: Mr. Terry McCosker Organisation: Resource Consulting Services

PO Box 633 YEPPOON QLD 4703 Contacts: Phone (07) 4939 5255

Fax (07) 4939 5144 E-mail [email protected] Objectives • To develop a set of benchmarks (industry standards)

to measure the financial and ecological health of rural businesses on a regional basis.

• To develop a process to address property management issues in a ‘whole of property’ framework, thus avoiding the problem of focusing attention on only one part of the business to the detriment of the whole.

Background With increasing costs, reduced returns and greater competition, Australian agriculture is having to work its resources harder. This has resulted in natural resources becoming degraded as management struggles to maintain profitability. Therefore, there is a need to develop strategies which will provide a sound economic future, retain the natural resource base, and encourage graziers to become educated in best practice farm management techniques. This project has given the participating producers a set of financial, social and ecological benchmarks against which they are able to measure the performance of their entire operations. Research Data for the project was drawn from 172 properties across 10 geographic regions. Information obtained from the individual properties included financial, physical and social data from 1993/94 through to 1996/97. Seven of the ten regions were dominated by mixed operations, with sheep and wool being the major enterprises. The other three regions comprised exclusively cattle

enterprises. Industry standards, or benchmarks, were developed for (a) the top 20% and (b) the average for each geographic region. Twenty benchmarks were developed, covering productivity, people, finance, economics, and property physical and ecological indicators. Outcomes The critical Key Performance Indicator (KPI) is Return on Assets Managed (ROAM), with the most significant correlations to ROAM being: cost of production, gross product per labour year, gross margin/ha/100mm rainfall, and DSE or LSU managed. Both case study groups showed significant improvements in ROAM and the correlated KPI through the implementation of improved management practices such as, inter alia, grazing management (cell grazing in particular), accurate supplementation, improved labour use efficiency, improved product presentation, reduced fertiliser input, and improved livestock productivity. Improvements in management also resulted in the ecological health of business improving, which sets those businesses up for higher sustainable profitability in the future. Implications A rural business is able to measure strategic business improvement and progression towards best practice through the use of Key Performance Indicators. Each KPI gives an accurate picture of what areas of business need working on in order to achieve industry best practice. Project Title The Rural Adjustment Scheme and wool, grain and mixed farming in Victoria RIRDC Project No: UM-20A Researchers: Bill Malcolm, and Ed

Vandenberg Organisation: Department of Food Science

and Agribusiness Institute of Land and Food Resources The University of Melbourne PARKVILLE VIC 3052

Contacts: Phone (03) 9344 5015 Fax (03) 9344 4665

E-mail [email protected] Objectives • The key question investigated in this study was

‘what is the role of the Rural Adjustment Scheme (RAS) in dealing with farm businesses experiencing difficult financial circumstances?’ Related questions concern the nature of managing farms in sustainable ways in the risky environment which characterises agriculture in Australia, and what does the empirical evidence about agriculture in Victoria tell about the state of the financial affairs of graingrowers in the Wimmera, woolgrowers in the Western District and





mixed cropping-grazing operations in North-East Victoria.

Background Attempting to answer these questions requires an understanding of questions such ‘what do concepts such as low net incomes, business viability, appropriate gearing, and household net cash flows mean in terms of practical farm business management, in the context of the traditionally relatively small-sized farming operations in much of Victoria?’ Contemplating the main question about the role of the Rural Adjustment Scheme (hereafter RAS) involved drawing on the history of low incomes in agriculture, the ‘farm problem’, adjustment, and the RAS in Australian agriculture; the theoretical arguments surrounding the RAS; and the practical application of components of the RAS. Outcomes and Implications The main conclusion derived from this investigation is that the RAS role in facilitating adjustment is limited. The RAS assists very few farmers. In theory and practice the RAS is likely to hinder the opportunities of at least as many, and maybe more than are helped, and there is little theoretical justification for the existence or continuation of the RAS. Further, apparent low farm net incomes may or may not be of economic and social significance, depending on (i) the significance of off farm income, (ii) the rate of adjustment which is appropriate and which is occurring, and (iii) the opportunity costs of the resources involved. A characteristic of the relatively small scale farming in a relatively small area state such as Victoria, has been the relatively significant off farm income earned by farm households, which reflects the phenomenon of (i) opportunities (ii) resource mobility and (iii) movement over time in an economy towards equilibrium in labour and other factor markets. This phenomenon, along with the imprecision of measurements of farm and non-farm incomes for comparative purposes, plus the net wealth of most farm owners relative to the general population and other small business people, combine to add weight to the conclusion that apparent low income problems in the ‘tail’ of the distribution of farm net incomes is unlikely to be a significant social problem of long term poverty (social inequity), nor a problem of inefficiency of resource use. In the relatively small scale farming in a closely settled and relatively densely populated State of Victoria, farm family household cash flow, not net farm income, is a critical determinant of returns to farm family labour and business ‘viability’. And, as in the past, most adjustment in agriculture continues to be in response to commercial forces, and almost all farm families who move out of farming do so

with a net worth and lifestyle prospects at least commensurate with most others in society.



RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

Project Title Dynamic interactions between indices of farm profitability and sustainability RIRDC Project No: UNE-52A Start Date: 15 October, 1995 Finish Date: 30 June, 1998 Researcher: Mr. Geoff Kaine Organisation: University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2351 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6773 5146

Fax: (02) 6773 3245 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To promote the profitable and sustainable

management of agricultural systems by developing practical indices of long-term profitability and sustainability.

Current Progress A simplified model describing the fundamental dynamic interactions in a beef cattle enterprise has been constructed. The model consists of generic equations and rules describing pasture and weed growth, animal growth, grazing pressure, stocking rates, and grazing management strategies. Over the last six months we have been undertaking sensitivity analysis on key parameters in the model. Concurrently, we have developed some preliminary indices to summarise the sustainability of a pasture based grazing systems. At the moment these indices provide a measure of the sustainability of the pasture resource with respect to a given stocking rate, pasture/weed growth functions and interactions, and the grazing preferences of the type of stock grazing the pasture. We hope, with some further refinement, to use these indices to describe the overall stability, resilience and variability of the farm system. We are currently working to incorporate revenue and cost streams into these indices. Once this is complete, the major work remaining in the project is to conduct simulations with the model to establish the impact on sustainability (as measured by stability, resilience and variability) of different grazing management strategies and regimes. Project Title Population changes and biocontrol of Meloidogyne on roots of woody perennial plants RIRDC Project No: US-26A Start Date: 1 July, 1994 Finish Date: 30 December, 1998 Researcher: Professor Brian Deverall

Organisation: Watt Building, A04 University of Sydney

SYDNEY NSW 2006 Contacts: Phone: (02) 9351 2531

Fax: (02) 9351 4812 Objectives • To train a research scientist to PhD level in plant

nematology. • To investigate relationships between nematode and

root activity in woody perennial plants with a view to developing disease management procedures based on biological methods.

Current Progress Training of Ms. Kirsty Owen to PhD level is being achieved through her thesis research on infection by the root-knot nematode in grapevine cuttings. It was aided by RIRDC support for her participation in an intensive postgraduate short-course on plant pathogenic nematodes at Clemson University, USA. The most important discovery in her research is that an activator of systemic resistance in plants applied once as a spray to leaves of newly-made woody cuttings changes the susceptibility of the establishing roots. As a consequence, the progression of infections by inoculated young nematodes to egg-producing adults is greatly decreased, thereby diminishing disease and the potential build-up of the nematode in soil. The activator has been shown to have no direct effect on the nematodes and appears to act through the physiology of the roots. The final part of her research for the PhD is attempting to reveal something of the critical changes in enzymes in the roots that affect nematode development. The discovery may have wide application for managing nematode infections of plants and is being patented internationally by Novartis Crop Protection in Basle, Switzerland, and has resulted in a special payment by them to RIRDC. Project Title Development of routine DNA based diagnostic tests for Phytophthora RIRDC Project No: UQ-68A Start Date: 1 July, 1997 Finish Date: 30 June, 2000 Researcher: Dr. Andre Drenth Organisation: CRC for Tropical Plant

Pathology Level 5, John Hines Bldg

The University of Qld QLD 4072


E-mail: [email protected]





Objectives • To develop a reliable, sensititive, and routine

applicable DNA based diagnostic test for detection and identification in plant, water, and soil samples of Phytophthora species troublesome to plant industries in Australia.

Current Progress A PCR-based diagnostic test for the important plant pathogens of the genus Phytophthora has been developed in this project. The developed test shows high levels of specificity and sensitivity and allows rapid detection of Phytophthora in plant and soil samples. A patent has been obtained for this diagnostic test and recently the test has been successfully used for rapid detection and identification of Phytophthora samples from diagnostic laboratories. Recently, sampling, sample handling, and DNA isolations have been streamlined and optimised to allow these tests to be used on a routine basis in diagnostics laboratories. Current research is focused on rapid identification of the various Phytophthora species involved in causing serious plant diseases. Rapid identification of each species is possible and is based on the genetic information present in the amplified PCR fragment from the developed diagnostic test. Project Title Determination of effective fumigant concentrations in different soil types for methyl bromide and other soil fumigants RIRDC Project No: CSE-75A Start Date: 1 July, 1996 Finish Date: 30 June, 1998 Researcher: Dr. Jim Desmarchelier Organisation: CSIRO Entomology

PO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6246 4206

Fax: (02) 6246 4202 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To reduce the quantity of methyl bromide (and other

fumigants) used for control of soil borne pathogens by determining the effective application rates in different soil types.

Current Progress Methods were developed to measure residues in soil (and air concentrations) of methyl bromide, chloropicrin, cyanogen, carbon disulphide, metham (methyl isothiocyanate) and other isothiocyanates. Contrary to expectation, loss of methyl bromide and carbon disulphide on soil in sealed containers was not greatly affected by soil type or moisture content.

A comparison between field and laboratory data showed that most of the loss of methyl bromide from soil in the field was due to volatility loss, and not to breakdown. Both chloropicrin and cyanogen, an experimental soil fumigant, were more toxic to soil pathogens than was methyl bromide, and several isothiocyanates were equally toxic. Isothiocyanates are the components of Brassica species, such as canola, which are studied under the name ‘biofumigation’. In contrast to the non-polar methyl bromide and carbon disulphide, the sorption of cyanogen and methyl isothiocyanate on soils increased markedly with organic matter and moisture content. Phenylethyl isothiocyanate, the main component of Brassica roots, has little vapour activity, and does not act in the vapour phase. It is postulated that the penetration of cyanogen and methyl isothiocyanate, and possibly of chloropicrin, through soil would vary with moisture, and thus could be optimised. Equipment is being built to enable this study to continue. The study will also examine the penetration of chloropicrin and phenylethyl isothiocyanate, and further study their rate of breakdown under different soil conditions. Soil ‘fumigants’ is a term used for a wide range of chemicals, with vastly different vapour pressures and solubility in water. These properties can be manipulated, to an extent, to obtain improved pest control, but different ‘fumigants’ need to be optimised in different ways. Project Title Strategic R&D in waste management and bioremediation: Pyrethroid bioremediation RIRDC Project No: CSE-80A Start Date: 1 July, 1997 Finish Date: 30 June, 2000 Researcher: Dr. John Oakeshott Organisation: CSIRO Entomology

Black Mountain Laboratories GPO Box 1700

CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6246 4157

Fax: (02) 6246 4173 Objectives • The project aims to isolate, charactierise and transfer

to a commercial partner one or more gene/enzyme systems that can detoxify pyrethroid insecticides. This will be one of a set of enzyme-based pesticide bioremediation capabilities under development at CSIRO.

• The set will also include enzymes for detoxifying organophosphate and carbamate insecticides and thiocarbamate herbicides. Some of the other exzymes have already been developed to the point of laboratory-scale proof-of-concept.




Current Progress The project is on target in reaching its experimental goals but these results are kept in confidence for commercial and patent reasons. Project Title Opportunities for reducing pesticide use in Australian Agriculture RIRDC Project No: BRR-2A Start Date: 1 July, 1995 Finish Date: 30 September, 1996 Researcher: Dr. Graeme Evans Organisation: Bureau of Resource Sciences

PO Box E11 KINGSTON ACT 2604


E-mail: [email protected] Objectives To provide a reasoned assessment of the opportunites for reducing pesticide use in Australian agriuclture as a basis for considering industry priorities for R&D by: • examining current initiatives to reduce pesticide

use/risk • providing an assessment of what can be achieved

through adoption of current best practice • providing an analysis of how to bridge the gap

between current and what is possible Current Progress Establishment of the World Trade Organization heralds opportunities for Australia’s rural industries through increasing access to markets previously denied them on questionable quarantine grounds. This has caused Australia to reassess the competitive advantage conferred by our relative freedom from many pests (herein used to include arthropods, weeds and pathogens). One means of doing this is by improving the way in which we plan for incursions, including through exclusion, early detection and eradication of those that breach our quarantine borders. The Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS) has developed an annotated bibliography of the global literature on biological incursions for future reference. Retrospective analyses of the way past incursions were managed has provided insight into the strengths and weaknesses of those campaigns. Staff have been developing a network of contacts with an interest in biosecurity issues and consulted with them on the current project. BRS is planning for a workshop in early 1999 that will focus on the information needs of decision makers who have responsibility for protecting Australia’s cropping and pasture industries from exotic pests. Workshop outputs will target the funders and providers of R&D to make them aware of the needs and opportunities for research to improve the management of new biological incursions.

Project Title Impact of climate change on important plant diseases in Australia RIRDC Project No: CST-4A Start Date: 1 July, 1997 Finish Date: 31 January, 2001 Researcher: Dr. Sukumar Chakraborty Organisation: c/- CRC for Tropical Plant

Pathology (CTPP) John Hines Building THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND QLD 4072


E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To identify opportunities to reduce crop loss by

quantifying impacts of climate change on plant diseases of economic significance to Australia.

Current Progress This project is the result of a RIRDC supported workshop, which considered the potential impact of climate change on plant diseases of economic significance to Australia. Proceedings of this workshop have been published as an invited review in Australasian Plant Pathology. Project activities have commenced in February 1998 with the appointment of Dr. Peter Wilson as a part-time research officer. The delayed start has been due to changes in human resources following the amalgamation of two CSIRO Divisions to create Tropical Agriculture. A follow up meeting of collaborating scientists was held in Brisbane during 16 and 17 March to plan project operation and to outline requirements for basic data on stripe rust. Dr. Bob Seem from Cornell University, USA and Dr. Gavin Ash of Charles Sturt University were present at this meeting to discuss possible collaboration. A first pass process-based model for Stylosanthes anthracnose has been developed using the generic modelling tool, DYMEX. A publication on the impact of elevated carbon dioxide on life stages and severity of the anthracnose pathogen has been prepared. This paper will be presented at the forthcoming International symposium on climate change and plant diseases to be held in Edinburgh. Project Title Using agricultural management to reduce greenhouse gas emissions RIRDC Project No: ABA-3A Start Date: 1 August, 1996 Finish Date: 30 January, 1998 Researcher: Mr. Ali Abdalla





Organisation: ABARE Agriculture Branch, GPO Box 1563

CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6272 2000

Fax: (02) 6272 2001 Objectives • To demonstrate the cost effectiveness of managing

the release and storage of greenhouse gases by changing farm management techniques, by regions, in Australia.

Current Progress An existing ABARE model of greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural land use has been further developed to enable the estimation of the regional effects on farm profitability of adopting emissions-reducing farm management practices. The practices examined include: reduced burning of crop residues, use of minimum cultivation, land rehabilitation and the use of anti-methagenous vaccines in livestock. The Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS) provided the scientific component of the research. This includes the emission reduction parameters for the practices, together with their likely rates of uptake to 2020. The model has been run with parameters provided by BRS and estimates of private costs and benefits of implementation. First, the baseline uptake rates for each practice were applied to various broadacre commodities wheat, summer crops, winter crops, beef, mutton, lamb and wool to generate emissions and net incomes. A second set of estimates was generated using the assumption the practices would be widely adopted. Resultant incomes, given equivalent levels of emissions under the two scenarios, were compared to highlight the impact of practices on farm profitability. A draft of the report has been refereed. The final report is currently being reviewed by ABARE's executive management for final clearance to RIRDC. Project Title Land use in northern Australia: impact of markets, policy and climate change RIRDC Project No: CSW-29A Start Date: 1 July, 1995 Finish Date: 30 June, 1998 Researcher: Dr. Mark Stafford Smith Organisation: CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology

PO Box 2111 ALICE SPRINGS NT 0871 Contacts: Phone: (08) 8950 0162

Fax: (08) 8952 9587 E-mail: [email protected]

Objectives • To identify the likely impacts of various market,

policy and climate change scenarios (prices, policy and productivity) on northern Australian grazing industries and

• Provide guidelines for adaptation by managers and policy-markers by analysing the sustainable profitability of enterprises under different management strategies in different regions.

Current Progress Consultations with producers on the ground were completed in 1997 in north-east Queensland and the Victoria River District/Sturt Plateau; studies and reports were produced for each region and sent to participants. Added to data previously collected under the 'Drought Plan', this provided the basis for analysing the profitability of different management strategies in several regions across northern Australia. This analysis has been completed for one region, is nearing completion in another, and is under way in the remainder. A major assessment of the potential impacts of changes in productivity (tree cover, pasture condition, climate change and CO2 effects), prices (domestic and export markets) and policy-related costs of production is being made for each region. Climate change and CO2 effects were reported at an international conference in March 1998. This report showed that the likely direct effects of CO2 are far smaller than the effect of modest changes in trees or perennial grass cover, which may be as important as changes in prices. Transport cost changes (eg. Changes in fuel excise) also have a modest impact compared to these factors. These results and many more will be synthesised across northern Australia during mid-1998; 5 reports are under preparation. Project Title Nematodes as biocontrol agents of helicid snails RIRDC Project No: UA-31A Start Date: 1 July, 1994 Finish Date: 30 October, 1998 Researcher: Dr. Kerrie Davies Organisation: The University of Adelaide

Waite Campus Private Mail Bag No. 1

GLEN OSMOND SA 5064 Contacts: Phone: (08) 8303 7255

Fax: (08) 8379 4095 E-mail: [email protected]





Objectives • To reduce reliance on the use of environmentally

threatening chemical molluscicides and cultural techniques (including burning) for the control of pest helicid snails and slugs, by developing a commercially available biomolluscicide based on a nematode.

Current Progress Three introduced helicid snails, Cernuella virgata, Theba pisana and Cochlicella acuta are serious pests in South Australia’s grains and legume industry. A local rhabditid isolate, XM13, was found to be pathogenic to and capable of killing the pest snail species in the laboratory, but did not significantly reduce survival of mature snails in field trials in 1997. Any field application of XM13 would coincide with snail breeding and oviposition. Therefore, possible effects of XM13 on the breeding behaviour and fecundity of C. virgata were investigated. Breeding boxes, with moist soil and mature C. virgata, were set up and half were inoculated with SM13 juveniles while the remainder served as controls. Fecundity of snails ovipositing in nematode-containing soil was reduced compared to snails in nematode-free soil. Inoculation with higher numbers of nematodes increased mortality of snails. The number of egg clusters and eggs per cluster producer per snail was significantly reduced even with low numbers of XM13. Nematodes appear to attack newly hatched snails during their migration to the soil surface, but not eggs. Field trials investigating the effect of XM13 on snail fecundity and baby snail survival are in progress. Project Title Impact of climate change on productivity, quality and water use of warm season and sub-tropical pastures RIRDC Project No: UWS-9A Start Date: 1 July, 1994 Finish Date: 30 June, 1997 Researcher: Dr. Jann Conroy Organisation: University of Western Sydney

- Hawkesbury Centre for Horticulture and Plant Sciences Bourke Street

RICHMOND NSW 2753 Contacts: Phone: (02) 4570 1311

Fax: (02) 4570 1314 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To assess the likely impact of climate change on the

water use, productivity and quality of pasture grasses with different CO2 acquisition strategies.

Current Progress Tropical grasses are important for Australia because part of our export income is derived from the grazing industry. Natural and managed grasslands cover 50% of the continent, which is one of the driest in the world. In dry areas, grassland productivity is reduced by low soil water availability and high relative humidity. We aimed to determine whether rising levels of atmospheric CO2 will influence stress tolerance of tropical C4 grasses by improving their ability to maintain adequate photosynthetic and growth rates during periods of stress. Using Panicum coloratum as a model, we found that continuous mild soil water deficits and high humidity halved productivity at current CO2 concentrations and the effects were additive. Elevated CO2 (double current levels) eliminated stress effects and maximum productivity was sustained. When P. coloratum was subjected to a long drying cycle, plants exposed to high CO2 grew larger, used soil water more sparingly, and kept growing for longer during the drying cycle. High-CO2-grown plants also kept their photosynthetic system functional for longer. Current investigations with a range of species show that this phenomena is widespread among C4 grasses indicating that survival and productivity of Australia’s tropical grasses are likely to be enhanced as atmospheric CO2 levels rise. Project Title Incursion management for exotic pests of plant industries RIRDC Project No: BRR-3A Start Date: 1 July, 1997 Finish Date: 30 June, 2000 Researcher: Dr. Graeme Evans Organisation: Bureau of Resource Sciences

PO Box E11 KINGSTON ACT 2604


E-mail: [email protected] Objectives • To develop a scientifically sound and operationally

feasible, management plan for adressing incursions of selected grouping of agricultural pests.

Current Progress Establishment of the World Trade Organisation heralds opportunities for Australia’s rural industries through increasing access to markets previously denied them on questionable quarantine grounds. This has caused Australia to reassess the competitive advantage conferred by our relative freedom from many pests, (herein used to include arthropods, weeds and pathogens). One means of doing this is by improving the way in which we plan for incursions, including through





exclusion, early detection and eradication of those that breach our quarantine borders. The Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS) has developed an annotated bibliography of the global literature on biological incursions for future reference. Retrospective analyses of the way past incursions were managed has provided insight into the strengths and weaknesses of those campaigns. Staff have been developing a network of contacts with an interest in biosecurity issues and consulted with them on the current project. BRS is planning for a workshop in early 1999 that will focus on the information needs and opportunities for research to improve the management of new biological incursions. Project Title Agriculture/aquaculture systems integration to enhance farm productivity and water use efficiency RIRDC Project No: DCM-1A Start Date: 1 July, 1995 Finish Date: 30 June, 1998 Researcher: Mr. Geoff Gooley Organisation: Department of Conservation

& Natural Resources Private Bag 20

ALEXANDRA VIC 3714 Contacts: Phone: (03) 5774 2208

Fax: (03) 5774 2659 Objectives • Demonstrate the integration of practical aquaculture

into existing irrigated farming systems to enhance productivity, water-use efficiency and overall sustainability.

• Adapt and develop appropriate husbandry, production and post-harvest handling and marketing methodologies to enable viable, cost-effective, commercial fish production in such integrated systems.

• Promote and facilitate adoption of integrated farming practices, which include aquaculture as a viable component, on the basis of enhancing overall farming system performance.

Current Progress Semi intensive cage culture trials using juvenile silver perch, Bidyanus bidyanus, (initial size 50-100g), have been conducted in a range of irrigated farming systems in the Goulburn-Murray Irrigation District, near Tatura in north-central Victoria. Experimental systems include “channel cages” (floating 1.0m3 and 20m3 cages in on-farm, fresh and saline water storage ponds), and “groundwater tanks” (35m3 PVC lined prefabricated tanks, with and without floating cages and pens). A further system, based on conventional aquaculture ponds at a nearby commercial fish farm provided a quasi

“control” for comparison purposes. All systems were stocked with fish early in the irrigation season (Nov – Dec), fed daily on commercial pelleted rations and harvested 9-25 weeks later. Water quality and fish growth and survival were monitored. Results have varied significantly between years, with system design, and between sites and other experimental variables, (eg stocking density, fish, size, feed type and rate etc). “Storage cages” in both fresh and saline water, with supplementary aeration providing the best growth and survival, with minimal water quality impacts at tested levels of production. However, the economic viability of such systems is yet to be validated. Project Title Bacterial toxin genes for engineering insecticidal viruses RIRDC Project No: CSE-70A Start Date: 1 July, 1995 Finish Date: 30 September, 1998 Researcher: Dr. Peter East Organisation: CSIRO Entomology

GPO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6246 4001

Fax: (02) 6246 4000 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives To support the sustainable production of crops in Australia through the provision of bacterial toxin genes effective as inserts for recombinant viruses that will be used to replace environmentally damaging synthetic insecticides. Current Progress A gene encoding protein that is toxic to several insect species has been isolated and sequenced from the bacterium Photohabdus luminescens. This gene has been cloned into a variety of bacterial plasmid expression vectors and protein extracts prepared from cells carrying the toxin are lethal to caterpillars, flies and aphids. A patent application has been prepared to protect the gene and protein sequence and its potential uses as an insecticide. Genes similar to the P. luminescens toxin gene have been detected by Southern blot hybridisation in DNA isolated from several different strains of Xenorhabdus and Photohabdus bacteria. We are currently investigating whether toxins from different strains of bacteria differ in potency or range of activity on different insect species. The toxin gene has been cloned into other bacterial expression vectors that allow purification of the recombinant toxin protein in an active form. Once expression has been optimised, purified toxin protein will be used to obtain quantitative estimates of toxicity and the time taken to kill different insect species. These data




will allow us to evaluate the potential usefulness of this toxin for the production of genetically engineered viral insecticides. Project Title Sustainable agricultural systems: indicators for rural industry and community use RIRDC Project No: CSO-8A Start Date: 1 July, 1996 Finish Date: 31 December, 1998 Researcher: Dr Doug Reuter Organisation: CSIRO

PMB 2 GLEN OSMOND SA 5064 Contacts: Phone: (08) 8303 8409

Fax: (08) 8303 8550 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives Establish a means for rural communities in dryland agricultural areas to use indicators for assessing the impact of farm practices on the environment. This wil be achieved by: • hosting the National Workshop on Indicators of

Catchment Health (Adelaide: December 1996) at which industry and community representatives would evaluate a new CSIRO Indicator manual;

• publishing and disseminating the Proceedings of the National Workshop on Indicators of Catchment Health;

• developing a computer menu-driven decision support system (PADDOCKCARE) wherein contemporary information on indicators of resource condition at property and paddock scales are made available for farmer use (with PIRSA); and

• testing PADDOCKCARE with farmer groups in South Australia.

Current Progress National Workshop on Indicators of Catchment Health By February 1997, project objectives (a) and (b) were completed successfully. Revision of original project objectives RIRDC agreed to revise the original, remaining project objectives to those described in (c) and (d). These are being undertaken jointly by PIRSA and CSIRO Land and Water. PADDOCKCARE The development of this menu-driven, decision support system aims to consolidate contemporary knowledge on a diverse range of indicators used by land managers in rural areas of southern Australia. At July 1998 over 40 indicator factsheets have been prepared for monitoring the health of farms (eg. financial indicators) and individual farm paddocks (eg. soil salinity). These factsheets are being progressively

refereed by specialists and then by two experienced rural journalists. A computer programmer is developing the software to drive the program. It is anticipated much of the above work will be completed by October 1998. The program will then be evaluated by local farmer groups in South Australia. PADDOCKCARE is a prototype indicator package and will be made available on the Internet. It will be possible to add new indicator factsheets in the future. Project Title Development of monitoring services for nematode pests RIRDC Project No: BCP-1A Start Date: 1 January, 1997 Finish Date: 31 December, 1999 Researcher: Dr Graham Stirling Organisation: Biological Crop Protection Pty

Ltd 3601 Moggill Road MOGGILL QLD 4070


Objectives • To establish a monitoring service for the Bundaberg

vegetable industry which provides growers with the information they need to make informed decisions about nematode management.

• To evaluate the success of this service by assessing the degree to which it leads to a reduction in nematicide use and/or an increase in the use of integrated management practices for nematodes.

• To evaluate the feasibility of providing a commercial monitoring service for nematodes in other industries and regions of Australia.

Current Progress When monitoring is used as a tool for managing nematode pests, estimates of the nematode population are obtained prior to planting and predictions are made about the likelihood that nematodes will cause economic losses in the next crop. However, for such a process to be successful, reliable information is needed on the relationship between nematode density and yield. During 1997, seven field experiments were established in Bundaberg to provide local data on the levels of root-knot nematode that cause economic damage on various vegetable crops. Nematode populations in typical vegetable fields were measured prior to planting, selected plots were then treated with a nematicide and yields of untreated plots were compared with nematicide-treated plots. Results showed that under the crop production practices currently used in Bundaberg, pre-plant nematode densities are relatively low, probably because of the




widespread use of methyl. Poorly structured clay loam soils are not conducive to root-knot nematode. In such soils, there may be only limited nematode multiplication on susceptible crops. To obtain a more accurate assessment of the economic thresholds for root-knot nematode on vegetable crops, further studies are needed at sites in which root-knot population densities range from 10 to 100 nematodes/200 mL soil. Since such sites are difficult to find in Bundaberg at present, field plots that have been inoculated with nematodes are being used in the 1998 experimental program. Project Title Molecular diagnostic system for soil borne plant pathogens RIRDC Project No: CRP-1A Start Date: 1 July, 1006 Finish Date: 30 June, 1999 Researcher: Dr John Curran Organisation: CSIRO Entomology PO Box 475 CANBERRA ACT 2601 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6246 4294

Fax: (02) 6246 4133 Objectives • To develop taxon specific probes for pathogenic

fungi of plants for incorporation in low cost molecular diagnostic system for identifying and quantifying mixed populations of pathogens in a single assay of a soil or root sample for use in government and private advisory laboratories by 1999.

Current Progress Genetic sequence data have been acquired for a number pathogenic fungi. Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Gaeumannomyces, Sclerotinia, Fusarium, Spongospora, Bipolaris, Erysiphe, Pythium and also for Alternaria infectoria Alternaria alternata and A infectoria have been used as a model, and species specific probes have been developed and synthesised from the ITS 1 region of the rDNA. Both hybridisation and PCR assays have detected Alternaria from known infections of mature seed heads. Field samples of wheat have also been processed and screened for Alternaria. Using two rounds of PCR, positives can be detected in leaves. The rapid preparation of material, and simple amplification technique will make this a useful method for screening large numbers of samples for the presence or absence of a fungus. Blind trials are being conducted using field soil samples obtained by Victorian Institute for Dryland Agriculture (Horsham) and pathogens (initially root-lesion nematode- only) are been assessed by conventional and molecular

methods. To date the results of both methods are directly comparable. Discussions are proceeding with commercial partner, Rhone-Poulenc to incorporate the fungal diagnostics into the core technology currently being developed for nematodes. Project Title Improved technology for mapping and monitoring of serrated tussock and scotch thistle infestations RIRDC Project No: DAN-144A Start Date: 1 August, 1996 Finish Date: 28 February, 1999 Researcher: Mr Ian McGowen Organisation: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 21 ORANGE NSW 2800 Contacts: Phone: (02) 6391 3195

Fax: (02) 6391 3208 Objectives • To develop methods to distinguish weeds from other

vegetation using hand-held radiometers and satellite and airborne imagery.

• To develop methods to reliably map light to heavy infestations of weeds using satellite and high resolution airborne imagery.

Current Progress There is sufficient information in the literature to conclude that weed mapping using remote sensing systems is possible in many situations. This project seeks to develop improved technology for mapping and monitoring of serrated tussock and scotch thistle infestations. There is sufficient information to infer that serrated tussock produces gross enough spectral differences to allow this species to be readily discriminated from other plants at key stages. The spectral differences between other common pasture and some thistle species are limited. More research is necessary to determine if more distinct differences exist at other phases in the growing season, which may allow better discrimination. The use of high spatial resolution multispectral and/or hyperspectral sensors should improve the capability to distinguish between individual plant species. However, where there are only subtle reflectance differences between plant species, discrimination may still be difficult. Problems of dealing with large many-band data sets, mosaicing of small data swaths, and classification problems will all need to be addressed. The reflectance of the two native species, wallaby grass (Danthonia sp.) and poa tussock (Poa labillardieri) was very similar, perhaps due to the fact that both species have a grey-green foliage.



Project Title Use of a simulation model to predict future distributions of exotic woody weeds under climate change RIRDC Project No: UQ-42A Start Date: 1 September, 1995 Finish Date: 30 September, 1998 Researcher: Dr Steve Adkins Organisation: University of Queensland ST LUCIA QLD 4072 Contacts: Phone: (07) 3365 2072

Fax: (07) 3365 1177 Objectives • To predict the spread of exotic woody weeds in

northern Australia under a changed climate by constructing and validating a process-based simulation model.

Current Progress Development of capacity to predict potential spread and biomass distribution of prickly acacia using the DYMEX model is nearing completion. When completed, this model will be validated and then used to assess the sensitivity of population dynamics of the plant at the paddock scale to the range of predicted changes in climate. DYMEX is currently being ported to the UNIX computer platform. When complete, the population model will then be coupled to a model of spread using a GIS. A workshop to model rubber vine was held at Charters Towers. An agreement was reached for participants to further develop a model of rubber vine spread. The sensitivity of rubber vine distribution and relative abundance to predicted ranges of climate changes will be assessed using CLIMEX. In line with the changing emphasis in climate change impact assessment practice, further efforts are being directed towards the analysis of interactions between biophysical impacts of climate change, management policy and adaptations. Project Title Further development and application of Australian Rainman to improve management of climate variability RIRDC Project No: DAQ-223A Start Date: 1 January, 1997 Finish Date: 31 December, 1999 Researcher: Dr Jeff Clewett Organisation: Dept of Primary Industries

(Qld) Senior Scientist GPO Box 46

BRISBANE QLD 4001 Contacts: Phone: (07) 4688 1244

Fax: (07) 4688 1199 Objectives • To further developing the AUSTRALIAN

RAINMAN package to version 3 as a windows, multi-media CD, Internet compatible product in standard, professional and educational formats.

Current Progress The project is developing the AUSTRALIAN RAINMAN package to version 3 so as to enhance management of climate variability throughout Australia. It is intended that greater use of RAINMAN will building knowledge and skills in rural communities about climatic risks and opportunities, seasonal forecasts, and ways to improve management decisions. The project is developing RAINMAN as a windows, multi-media CD, internet compatible product in standard, professional and educational formats. It is establishing a promotion/marketing strategy that seeks to improve management, has active cross links with extension, education and agri-business, with a view to sales target of 5,000 packages with 50,000 users in three years by December 1999. Discussion during the year has sought to implement a business plan so that benefits from this project are on-going, and self funding. The proceeds should support future activities such as development of AUSTRALIAN RAINMAN version 4 with improved seasonal forecast tools and streamflow/runnoff data by December 1998 Project Title Biological control of green peach aphid with a fungal pathogen RIRDC Project No: DAV-121A Start Date: 1 July, 1997 Finish Date: 30 September, 1998 Researcher: Dr Peter Ridland and Dr John

Curtis Organisation: Agriculture Victoria

Institute for Horticulture and Development Private Bag 15 SOUTH EASTERN MAIL CENTRE VIC 3176

Contacts: Phone: (03) 9210 9222 Fax: (03) 98003521

Objectives • To develop formulations of the entomopathgenic

fungus Verticillium lecani that can be used to control the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae under conditions of low humidity in both field and glasshouse crops.



Current Progress Controlling aphids in greenhouse crops, such as chrysanthemums and cucumbers with V lecanii has only been possible with greenhouse temperatures above 15°C and relative humidity close to saturation (>95% RH) during the night. This project has shown that germination and growth of V lecanii was greatly improved when the fungus was formulated in an experimental formulation "Moisture Retaining Surface" (MRS) rather than in distilled water alone. Five trials have evaluated the benefits of the MRS formulation for the efficacy of V lecanii in both experimental and commercial greenhouses. In these trials, capsicum plants were infested with M persicae and then sprayed with V lecanii treatments at weekly intervals. Each week, germination and growth of V lecanii on the leaf surface together with the numbers of aphids were assessed. Spore sprays introduce the disease into the aphid population and the subsequent transmission to healthy aphids depends largely on contagion from sporulating, aphid cadavers. In the experimental greenhouse, the overnight humidity and temperature levels were suitable for profuse growth and sporulation of V lecanii in MRS, although the same conditions were unsuitable for aphid infection and sporulation.

RESILIENT AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS - Agrifutures Australia · Sub-program 4.2 - Resilient Agricultural...

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Transcript of RESILIENT AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS - Agrifutures Australia · Sub-program 4.2 - Resilient Agricultural...