Research philosophy

Session outlineWhy ‘philosophy’ ?Overview of research philosophiesSome more common philosophical

approachesHow to determine your own

research philosophyLet’s philosophise

Why philosophy ?All research is based on assumptions

about how the world is perceived about how we can best come to understand it.

Nobody really knows how we can best understand the world

Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of years,

For us, as researchers, need to consider how we know about the world around us. What is our philosophical approach to knowledge?

Epistemology vs MethodologyEpistemology is ‘how we come to know’Methodology is ‘how we come to know’

Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledgeMethodology is the practical ways, the

methods used to gain knowledge

Inextricably linked of course

One philosophical view - positivismthe goal of knowledge is simply to describe the

phenomena that we experiencestudy what we can observe and measureImpossible to know about anything elsedeductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can

testempiricism -- the idea that observation and

measurement is the core of the scientific endeavourMain method is the experiment, the attempt to discern

natural laws through direct manipulation and observation

What makes this view of the world attractive?Why have many researchers moved away from this

approach?

The enlightenment?Post-positivismRejection of positivist ideas has lead to an array

of alternative approachesOne end of post-positivismcritical realism - there is a reality independent

of our thinking about it that science can study. Recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable

The other post-positivist extremeSubjectivism - there is no external reality . It’s

all in our heads!

Post-positivism generallyMultiple measures and observations, each of which

may possess different types of error, triangulation across these multiple errorful sources

to try to understand better what's happening in reality.

all observations are theory-ladenAll researchers are inherently biased by their

cultural experiences, world views etcMost post-positivists are constructivists who

believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it

objectivity by triangulation across multiple fallible perspectives. Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon

Objectivity without positivism?“ The best way for us to improve the objectivity of

what we do is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have 'survival value' and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and understanding reality”

William Trochim, (2002) Research Methods Knowledgebase

PhenomenologyPhenomenology is sometimes considered a

philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.

Key Features of Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms

Phenomenological paradigm Positivist paradigm

Basic beliefs:

Science is driven by human interest Observer is independent

The world is socially constructed and subjective Science is value-free

Observer is part of what is observed The world is external and objective

Researchers should:

Try to understand what is happening Focus on facts

Develop ideas through induction from evidence Formulate and test hypotheses

Focus on meanings Look for causality and fundamental laws

Look at totality of each situation Reduce phenomena to simplest elements

Preferred methods:

Small samples investigated in depth or over time Take large samples

Use multiple methods to establish different views of phenomena Operationalise concept so they can be measured

Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe 1994 pp. 27

  Positivist paradigm Phenomenological paradigm

Basic beliefs:

The world is external and objectiveObserver is independentScience is value-free

The world is socially constructed and subjectiveObserver is part of what observedScience is driven by human interests

Researcher should:

focus on factslook for causality and fundamental lawsreduce phenomena to simplest eventsformulate hypotheses and then test them

focus on meaningstry to understand what is happeninglook at the totality of each situationdevelop ideas through induction form data

Preferred methods include:

operationalising concepts so that they can be measuredtaking large samples

using multiple methods to establish different views of phenomenasmall samples investigated in depth or over time

Validity Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure?

Has the researcher gained full access to the knowledge and meanings of informants?

Reliability Will the measure yield the same results on different occasions (assuming no real change in what is to be measured)?

Will similar observations be made by different researchers on different occasions?

Generalisability What is the probability that patterns observed in a sample will also be present in the wider population from which the sample is drawn?

How likely is it that ideas and theories generated in one setting will also apply in other settings?

Positivist viewpoint

Phenomenological viewpoint

Deductive vs Inductive reasoning

Circular model of research processInductive: begin at A

(observation/description), proceed to B (analysis), arrive at C (explanation)

Deductive: begin at C (hypothesis), proceed to A (gathering data to test hyp), proceed to B to test hyp against data

A: observation/ description

B: Analysis

C: Explanation/ Hypotheses/ Theory

How to determine your own research philosophyConsider your own research

background/experienceConsider your topic (theoretical basis, research

subjects, desired knowledge etc)Read widely on research philosophy – there are

many often contrasting and contradictory viewsMany more specific views eg relativism,

subjectivism, hermeneutics, deconstructivism, constructivism, feminism etc.

Engage in philosophical debate with peers, supervisors, yourself

Show this in your thesis, building a case for your own philosophical stance

Let this then lead your methodology

ConclusionsThere is no right or wrong research

philosophy, but a well argued case for the one you prefer showing understanding of alternatives

Your research philosophy will guide your methodology and your overall approach to your PhD

It’s hard but vital! An understanding of alternative philosophies will make you a much better researcher.

Further readingMany books and articles on thisLook for ones in your area of research as well

as general social science/business researchUse seminal texts as well as up to date

books/articles –the debate continues.Look at the approaches of other researchers

in your field of study

Review exercises

1. Read the short article ‘Toward a research philosophy’ and critique the author’s approach to research methodology

2. You are interested in examining management stress in particular kinds of organisations. You want to find out as much as you can about how it manifests itself in particular workplaces. In pairs debate whether this should be approached from a positivist or post-positivist/phenomenological perspective (one to play role of positivist other critical realist or phenomenologist)

3. Repeat the above for your own PhD topics. 4. Read ‘All research is interpretive’ and consider the

implications of this philosophical view (homework).