Research Paradigms

DefinitionParadigms

“A paradigm is a comprehensive belief system, world view, or framework that guides research and practice in a field” (Willis (2007) p.8). From a philosophical perspective, a paradigm comprises:• a view of the nature of reality (i.e., ontology) – whether it is

external or internal to the knower; • a related view of the type of knowledge that can be

generated and standards for justifying it (i.e., epistemology); • and a disciplined approach to generating that knowledge (i.e.,

methodology).

For educational researchers, there are several major paradigms that govern their inquiries into the policies and practices of education.

Paradigms types

1. POSITIVISM2. CONSTRUCTIVISM3. PRAGMATISM

Positivism is sometimes referred to as 'scientific method' or 'science research', is "based on the rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Emmanuel Kant" (Mertens, 2005, p.8) and "reflects a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or outcomes“Example: Walking helps decrease sugar levels in diabetic patients.Cause: WalkingEffect: Decrease in sugar level in diabetic patients.

Positivism

• This ‘scientific’ research paradigm strives to investigate, confirm and predict law-like patterns of behaviour, and is commonly used in graduate research to test theories or hypotheses.

• This is particularly useful in natural science, physical science and, to some extent, in the social sciences, especially where very large sample sizes are involved.

• Generally its focus is on the objectivity of the research process (Creswell, 2008).

• The positivist paradigm mostly involves quantitative methodology, utilizing experimental methods involving experimental (or treatment) and control groups and administration of pre- and post-tests to measure gain scores. Here, the researcher is external to the research site and is the controller of the research process.

Some features:

Interpretivist/constructivist approaches to research have the intention of understanding "the world of human experience" (Cohen & Manion, 1994, p.36), suggesting that "reality is socially constructed" (Mertens, 2005, p.12). The interpretivist/constructivist researcher tends to rely upon the "participants' views of the situation being studied" (Creswell, 2003, p.8) and recognises the impact on the research of their own background and experiences. Example: Importance of Social Interaction in infants.

Constructivist or Interpretivists

• Constructivists do not generally begin with a theory (as with positivists) rather they "generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meanings" (Creswell, 2003, p.9) throughout the research process.

• The constructivist researcher is most likely to rely on qualitative data collection methods and analysis or a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods).

• Quantitative data may be utilised in a way, which supports or expands upon qualitative data and effectively deepens the description.

Some features:

Positivist Interpretivist/

Constructivist

Pragmatic

OntologyNature of reality

Single reality No single reality

Social real life issues

EpistemologyNature of knowledge

Observer is independent of that being researched

Observer is dependent of that being researched

Combination of both

AxiologyRole of the researcher

Unbiased Biased Goal- oriented

Methodology

Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods

Data Collection

• Experiments• Quasi-

experiments• Tests• Scales

• Interviews• Observations• Document

reviews• Visual data

analysis

• May include tools from both positivist and interpretivist paradigms. Eg Interviews, observations and testing and experiments.

• Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality. Pragmatist researchers focus on the 'what' and 'how' of the research problem (Creswell, 2003, p.11).

• Early pragmatists "rejected the scientific notion that social inquiry was able to access the 'truth' about the real world solely by virtue of a single scientific method" (Mertens, 2005, p.26).

• Example:Lowering infant mortality rates.

Pragmatism

Guess the paradigm:

Activity:

1)I believe there is only one reality that exists apart from any particular individual(s).I believe there are multiple realities that are constructed between and among people.

2) I believe a researcher is interdependent with what s/he is studying (i.e., research is a subjective process; what can be known depends on who’s doing the knowing). I believe a researcher can be independent of what s/he is studying (i.e., research is an objective process; what can be known is independent of any researcher per se).

3) I believe research is inherently value-laden and biased.I believe research can be value-neutral and unbiased. 4)I believe it is better to work out specific research procedures ahead of time, and that it is important to sticks to the plan carefully and conscientiously.

I believe it is better to work out general research procedures ahead of time, but that it is okay to alter the procedures to take advantage of opportunities that present themselves during the research process.

5. I believe it is important to draw more general conclusions that are applicable to people, situations, and time periods other than the one studied. I believe it is important to draw more specific conclusions that apply only to the particular people, situation, or time period actually studied.  6. I believe it is easier to read/write research reports that have an informal structure and include the personal (first-person) voice of the researcher.

I believe it is easier to read/write research reports that have a formal structure and are written in an impersonal (third-person) voice.

The Relationship Between Research Questions and

Methodologies

Quantitative methods• Does? Is (are)? Can? Should? What

effect does ..?

Qualitative methods• What factors?• Why?

Quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods• How?

Research Ethics

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• Being ‘ethical’ means that your project does not bring harm or disadvantage to anyone who takes part, including yourself.

-Lambert, Mike (2012-09-05). A Beginner's Guide to Doing Your Education Research Project (p. 21). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Meaning of ethics

• Disturbance: Your investigation could interfere with the proper running of a class, or your wish to do interviews may disrupt a teacher’s busy timetable.

• Intrusion: If you withdraw students for research work, they may miss an important lesson which will adversely affect their learning.

• Secrecy: If you keep secret from your participants what you are investigating, those participants may not realize the implications of what they do or say. If they understood better, they may have preferred not to take part.

• Embarrassment: You may ask questions or make comments which cause embarrassment to your participants or to the organization where you are doing your research.

Here are some examples of the harm or disadvantage which your research could cause:

• Lowering self-esteem: Your research may highlight deficiencies or personal difficulties in your participants and lessen their status in front of colleagues, friends or you, the researcher.

Here too is one way in which your research may harm yourself: Resentment: In doing your research, you may ask too many personal questions, causing resentment amongst colleagues and adversely affecting your professional relationships.

• There are various codes and guidelines which will help you to recognize ethical standards in your research.

• BERA (British Educational Research Association) BERA’s ethical guidelines (www.bera.ac.uk) are the most important for UK researchers. They stress participants’ right to privacy, to be informed about the research to which they are being asked to contribute and to withdraw from the investigation if they so wish. From researchers, they call for openness and attention to cultural and other differences.

Codes

Remember these while doing your research:

Show respect for everyone who is helping you, as well as for those who decide that they do not wish to be involved.

Be ready to explain and discuss your research, and respond constructively to criticism about it.

• Take responsibility for what you do and for its consequences.

• Respect confidentiality of data and the anonymity of those taking part

• Take steps also to avoid situations which may cause harm to yourself.

Pursue truth in your investigation, but be aware of the implications of this for others and be ‘tentative and modest’ (Pring, 2004: 149) about what you claim to have discovered.

Below are some key ethical principles, informed by Pring (2004).• Show respect for everyone who is helping you, as well

as for those who decide that they do not wish to be involved.

• Be ready to explain and discuss your research, and respond constructively to criticism about it.

• Respect confidentiality of data and the anonymity of those taking part.

• Take responsibility for what you do and for its consequences.

• Take steps also to avoid situations which may cause harm to yourself.

• Pursue truth in your investigation, but be aware of the implications of this for others and be ‘tentative and modest’ (Pring, 2004: 149) about what you claim to have discovered.

Class room ActivityTime: 30 Minutes

Read and Discuss

• What type of research is it? How do you know?• What paradigms must have guided these

researches?• What methods the researcher must have

adopted? How do you know?• What methodology is best suited for this kind of

research?• Can you imagine some of the difficulties that the

researcher must have faced? What kind of difficulties?

• Do you think it benefitted us in anyway? Discuss.

Read the passages and discuss these with your partner: