RESEARCH ON THE RESEARCH ON THE TEACHING OF HISTORYTEACHING OF HISTORY

Dr. Bill CranshawDr. Bill CranshawSocial Studies Program SpecialistSocial Studies Program Specialist

Curriculum and InstructionCurriculum and InstructionGeorgia Department of EducationGeorgia Department of Education

Things to ponderThings to ponder

How do we organize the material we teach?How do we organize the material we teach? What opportunities do we afford our What opportunities do we afford our

students to reflect on their work?students to reflect on their work? What opportunities do we provide for What opportunities do we provide for

students to do higher order thinking?students to do higher order thinking? What type of tests to we give our students?What type of tests to we give our students? How do we evaluate student progress?How do we evaluate student progress?

A DEFINITIONA DEFINITION

History is not a telling of events (facts as History is not a telling of events (facts as truth), but an explanation (account) of what truth), but an explanation (account) of what occurred (change over time) and what occurred (change over time) and what appears (evidence) to have produced appears (evidence) to have produced (cause) those changes.(cause) those changes.

How might such a definition affect how you How might such a definition affect how you approach teaching history?approach teaching history?

Would such a definition include geography, Would such a definition include geography, economics, and political science?economics, and political science?

Principle of Learning #1Principle of Learning #1

New understandings are constructed on a New understandings are constructed on a foundation of existing understandings and foundation of existing understandings and experiences (type of schema)experiences (type of schema)– Kids bring knowledge of Social Studies with Kids bring knowledge of Social Studies with

them to the classroomthem to the classroom– Preconceptions about the world works must be Preconceptions about the world works must be

addressed and engagedaddressed and engaged– Preconceptions can be either powerful support Preconceptions can be either powerful support

or barrier to further learningor barrier to further learning

Principle of Learning #2Principle of Learning #2

Essential role of factual knowledge and Essential role of factual knowledge and conceptual frameworks in understandingconceptual frameworks in understanding– Factual knowledge must be placed in a Factual knowledge must be placed in a

conceptual framework to be understoodconceptual framework to be understood– Concepts are given meaning by multiple Concepts are given meaning by multiple

representations that are rich in factual detailrepresentations that are rich in factual detail– Storing facts by using concepts to organize Storing facts by using concepts to organize

information allows for better retrieval and information allows for better retrieval and applicationapplication

Principle of Learning #3Principle of Learning #3

The importance of self-monitoringThe importance of self-monitoring– Students must take control of their own learningStudents must take control of their own learning– Self-monitoring helps students become Self-monitoring helps students become

independent learnersindependent learners– Must learn how to ask how new knowledge Must learn how to ask how new knowledge

relates to or challenges previous knowledgerelates to or challenges previous knowledge– Support for self-assessment is an important Support for self-assessment is an important

component of effective teaching. component of effective teaching.

For considerationFor consideration

How do these principles square with my thinking?How do these principles square with my thinking? What are the implications of these principles for What are the implications of these principles for

teaching Social Studies?teaching Social Studies? How do these principles affect what students How do these principles affect what students

should know?should know? How do these principles imply knowledge should How do these principles imply knowledge should

be organized?be organized? What by these principles is mastery? How do we What by these principles is mastery? How do we

know when a students achieves mastery?know when a students achieves mastery?

For TodayFor Today

Focus onFocus on– Principle 1: importance of prior knowledge in Principle 1: importance of prior knowledge in

shaping what is learnedshaping what is learned– Principle 2: importance of conceptual Principle 2: importance of conceptual

understandingunderstanding

Schema or scaffolding as essential to Schema or scaffolding as essential to learninglearning

Principle 3: metacognition, not todayPrinciple 3: metacognition, not today

SECOND ORDER SECOND ORDER CONCEPTSCONCEPTS

Second order conceptsSecond order concepts

Definition: concepts that give definition to Definition: concepts that give definition to history history

Include: time, change, empathy, cause, Include: time, change, empathy, cause, evidence, and accountsevidence, and accounts

Problem: students often do not understand Problem: students often do not understand these concepts as they relate to historythese concepts as they relate to history

TIMETIME

Central to historyCentral to history ProblemProblem

– How students perceive timeHow students perceive time– How concepts such as “Age” are definedHow concepts such as “Age” are defined– Link between decades, centuries and periodsLink between decades, centuries and periods

TIMETIME

ExamplesExamples– Century as adjective is not necessarily 100 yrsCentury as adjective is not necessarily 100 yrs

1818thth century vs. eighteenth century music century vs. eighteenth century music

– Centuries get linked to periodsCenturies get linked to periods Renaissance (1350-1500), Reformation (1500-1600), Renaissance (1350-1500), Reformation (1500-1600),

Age of Discovery (1500-1700?), Age of Revolution Age of Discovery (1500-1700?), Age of Revolution (1688? 1776-1850? 1917?)(1688? 1776-1850? 1917?)

Must know some of history from which periods are Must know some of history from which periods are constructedconstructed

Need to know themes that periods are based onNeed to know themes that periods are based on

CHANGECHANGE

A move from one state of affairs to anotherA move from one state of affairs to another Problem:Problem:

– Students often see change as an event or occurrence of Students often see change as an event or occurrence of eventsevents Nothing happening then something happeningNothing happening then something happening

– Direction of change is always positiveDirection of change is always positive Past is deficit, present is betterPast is deficit, present is better

– The way the past is taught by parents and grandparentsThe way the past is taught by parents and grandparents See move to today as progressSee move to today as progress See their past as deficient compared to their life today.See their past as deficient compared to their life today.

EMPATHYEMPATHY

Defined: the understanding of past and present Defined: the understanding of past and present institutions, social practices, or actions as making institutions, social practices, or actions as making sense in light of the way people saw or see thingssense in light of the way people saw or see things

NOT facility to get in other people’s mindsNOT facility to get in other people’s minds Problem:Problem:

– Tend to write people off as not as smart as we areTend to write people off as not as smart as we are– Assume people in past did not understand basic thingsAssume people in past did not understand basic things– Tend to view things from own historical and cultural Tend to view things from own historical and cultural

perspectiveperspective

CAUSECAUSE

Define: attempts to explain why something Define: attempts to explain why something happened that no one intended, or why happened that no one intended, or why large-scale events occurredlarge-scale events occurred

Problem:Problem:– Treat causes as special eventsTreat causes as special events– Causes act like humans, if no cause acts, then Causes act like humans, if no cause acts, then

nothing happensnothing happens– Are discrete entities that act independent of Are discrete entities that act independent of

each othereach other

EVIDENCEEVIDENCE

Concept is central to understanding historyConcept is central to understanding history– Makes history possibleMakes history possible

Students often see history as a known commodity Students often see history as a known commodity that needs to be memorizedthat needs to be memorized– See historians using only truthful past sourcesSee historians using only truthful past sources– History becomes dependent on true reportsHistory becomes dependent on true reports– Reliability becomes fixed propertyReliability becomes fixed property– Do not realize bias, etc in reportingDo not realize bias, etc in reporting

Key for students is to understand importance of Key for students is to understand importance of inference in using historical sources to construct inference in using historical sources to construct picture of pastpicture of past

ACCOUNTSACCOUNTS

Deals with how students view historical narrative Deals with how students view historical narrative of the pastof the past– Related to evidence, which establishes the factsRelated to evidence, which establishes the facts– Accounts are the story told by the factsAccounts are the story told by the facts

Problems for studentsProblems for students– Not all accounts are acceptable even when the facts are Not all accounts are acceptable even when the facts are

correctcorrect– See true account as copy of past rather than a picture or See true account as copy of past rather than a picture or

theory of the pasttheory of the past Need to help students see accounts are ways of Need to help students see accounts are ways of

looking at past, they do not reproduce the pastlooking at past, they do not reproduce the past

For ConsiderationFor Consideration

How do these secondary concepts affect my How do these secondary concepts affect my current teaching style?current teaching style?

How do these secondary concepts affect my How do these secondary concepts affect my students learning?students learning?

What are the implications of these What are the implications of these secondary concepts for student secondary concepts for student understanding?understanding?

Substantive ConceptsSubstantive Concepts

Relate to specific content in Social Studies, Relate to specific content in Social Studies, or other disciplinesor other disciplines

Are clusters of kinds of thingsAre clusters of kinds of things– KingKing– NationNation– TradeTrade– ConstitutionConstitution– governmentgovernment

Substantive ConceptsSubstantive Concepts

ProblemProblem– Meanings shift as historical time changesMeanings shift as historical time changes– Meanings can also shift in spaceMeanings can also shift in space– King in 12King in 12thth century not same as King today century not same as King today– Revolution, American, Russian, IndustrialRevolution, American, Russian, Industrial

Cannot expect student to learn a definition Cannot expect student to learn a definition and example then apply across the boardand example then apply across the board– Must learn context in which terms applyMust learn context in which terms apply

ENGAGING STUDENTS ENGAGING STUDENTS

An ObservationAn Observation

““The high educational value of history is too The high educational value of history is too great to be left to teachers who merely hear great to be left to teachers who merely hear recitations, keeping the finger on the place recitations, keeping the finger on the place in the text-book, and only asking the in the text-book, and only asking the questions conveniently printed for them in questions conveniently printed for them in the margin or the back of the book.”the margin or the back of the book.”

QuestionsQuestions

Discuss in your group how you feel about Discuss in your group how you feel about this statementthis statement– What are the implications for teaching?What are the implications for teaching?– What is the author’s point?What is the author’s point?– What are problems with the author’s position?What are problems with the author’s position?– Should we even be concerned with such a Should we even be concerned with such a

criticism?criticism?– Who said this and when was this said?Who said this and when was this said?

Possible AnswersPossible Answers

Need to make history more than Need to make history more than memorization of factsmemorization of facts

History is not a list of events, dates, people History is not a list of events, dates, people and factsand facts

To go beyond recitation and pre-made To go beyond recitation and pre-made questions requires in-depth knowledge on questions requires in-depth knowledge on part of students and teacherspart of students and teachers

Yes, if our democracy is to surviveYes, if our democracy is to survive G. Stanley Hall, 1883G. Stanley Hall, 1883

Where to Begin?Where to Begin?

Historians work with big questions, so to Historians work with big questions, so to engage students teachers should do the engage students teachers should do the same thingsame thing

ProblemsProblems– Teachers are to teach history others have Teachers are to teach history others have

writtenwritten– Students are tested for accountabilityStudents are tested for accountability– Teachers are provided with a list of information Teachers are provided with a list of information

the student is to knowthe student is to know

Where to Begin?Where to Begin?

Curriculum does not provide nor is it Curriculum does not provide nor is it organized by big picture ideas (connections)organized by big picture ideas (connections)

Necessary for students to build connectionsNecessary for students to build connections– Schema theorySchema theory– Brain based learningBrain based learning– Learning Focused SchoolsLearning Focused Schools– Understanding by DesignUnderstanding by Design– All use idea of essential questions, conceptual All use idea of essential questions, conceptual

learninglearning

Where to Begin?Where to Begin?

Invent big questions that are answered by Invent big questions that are answered by the curriculum objectivesthe curriculum objectives

Work backwards (unpack the standards)Work backwards (unpack the standards)– Develop historiographic problems that cross Develop historiographic problems that cross

standards (enduring understandings)standards (enduring understandings)– Provide students with concepts upon which to Provide students with concepts upon which to

hang the knowledge and skills required by hang the knowledge and skills required by curricular objectivescurricular objectives

Ideas on How ToIdeas on How To

Teacher needs to identifyTeacher needs to identify– What is historically significantWhat is historically significant

Not prioritizing the curriculumNot prioritizing the curriculum Relates to big picture questions (enduring Relates to big picture questions (enduring

understandings)understandings)

– What is instructive for and interesting to What is instructive for and interesting to students?students? What engages a students curiosity?What engages a students curiosity? Help students learn to question historical accountsHelp students learn to question historical accounts Was the Trojan War a real historical event?Was the Trojan War a real historical event?

Ideas on How ToIdeas on How To

Use and teaching of factsUse and teaching of facts– What do the facts tell us?What do the facts tell us?– Can they be looked at differently?Can they be looked at differently?– If possible present historical accounts that use If possible present historical accounts that use

facts but differfacts but differ Example, populating the Americas (pre-historical)Example, populating the Americas (pre-historical)

– How do the facts help us understand the big How do the facts help us understand the big picture, enduring understanding?picture, enduring understanding?

Ideas on How ToIdeas on How To

Developing historical senseDeveloping historical sense– Students write narrative of event all experiencedStudents write narrative of event all experienced– Share the narrativesShare the narratives– Compare facts, interpretations, similarities and Compare facts, interpretations, similarities and

differencesdifferences– Discuss reasons for, and then expand to larger Discuss reasons for, and then expand to larger

issues, such as American Revolution, Civil War issues, such as American Revolution, Civil War NOTE: students are novices in study of NOTE: students are novices in study of

history history

Critical FeaturesCritical Features

Probe student thinking on historical issuesProbe student thinking on historical issues– What do they know?What do they know?– What are their perceptions?What are their perceptions?

Why do they hold their perceptions?Why do they hold their perceptions?– Ask students how they know something about an Ask students how they know something about an

historical event, cause, etchistorical event, cause, etc Not just, “I learned it last year.”Not just, “I learned it last year.”

– Explain from where their understanding is derivedExplain from where their understanding is derived Document their understandingDocument their understanding

The What, Why, How ChartThe What, Why, How Chart

The CHARTThe CHART– WHAT: what a student knows about an event, WHAT: what a student knows about an event,

occurrence, concept, etc.occurrence, concept, etc.– WHY: why the student thinks thatWHY: why the student thinks that– HOW: how does the student know this information, what HOW: how does the student know this information, what

evidence do they haveevidence do they have Purpose of chart is to help students identify their Purpose of chart is to help students identify their

understandings and the base of those understandings and the base of those understandingsunderstandings

Hints at Principle #3 metacognitionHints at Principle #3 metacognition

A CautionA Caution

Ritualistic understandingRitualistic understanding– Need to challenge student understanding and Need to challenge student understanding and

presuppositionspresuppositions– Going through the actions does not lead to Going through the actions does not lead to

understandingunderstanding

Students will need supportStudents will need support– Teacher, visual prompts, strategiesTeacher, visual prompts, strategies– Don’t just give a primary source and expect Don’t just give a primary source and expect

understanding. understanding. – Guidance, not worksheetsGuidance, not worksheets

GoalGoal

Teach students the facts, stories, while at the Teach students the facts, stories, while at the same time providing a background against which same time providing a background against which to place the facts.to place the facts.

Develop in students the ability to read, criticize, Develop in students the ability to read, criticize, and evaluate the stories of history and the use of and evaluate the stories of history and the use of factsfacts

Develop historical literacyDevelop historical literacy– Ability to evaluate historical arguments, and make Ability to evaluate historical arguments, and make

decisions given evidence regarding those arguments decisions given evidence regarding those arguments which is the most plausiblewhich is the most plausible

HOW TO BEGINHOW TO BEGIN

An IdeaAn Idea

Performance StandardsPerformance Standards

Tell what a students is to know and be able Tell what a students is to know and be able to doto do

Need to be attached to enduring Need to be attached to enduring understandingsunderstandings

Standards are not enduring understandingsStandards are not enduring understandings There is not one enduring understanding for There is not one enduring understanding for

a particular period, standard, etca particular period, standard, etc

Current PracticeCurrent Practice

Topic selectedTopic selected– American RevolutionAmerican Revolution– Age of EnlightenmentAge of Enlightenment– Role of CongressRole of Congress

Develop unit on this topicDevelop unit on this topic– Includes causesIncludes causes– Facts related to topicFacts related to topic– May be some larger concepts imbeddedMay be some larger concepts imbedded

Current PracticeCurrent Practice

Courses in Social Studies can be a Courses in Social Studies can be a sequence of topicssequence of topics– Students do not always make connectionsStudents do not always make connections

Students do not come to Social Studies Students do not come to Social Studies classes with a clear picture of the subjectclasses with a clear picture of the subject

Narrative sequence of topics may not be the Narrative sequence of topics may not be the most effective way to help students acquire most effective way to help students acquire new knowledgenew knowledge

Questions to PonderQuestions to Ponder

What is the relationship of this unit to the What is the relationship of this unit to the rest of the course?rest of the course?

Do students understand where this topic fits Do students understand where this topic fits in with the rest of the course?in with the rest of the course?

Of what important enduring understandings Of what important enduring understandings is this topic a part?is this topic a part?

Do my students understand how this topic Do my students understand how this topic relates to the rest of the course?relates to the rest of the course?

An IdeaAn Idea

SchemaSchema– New knowledge is incorporated as it relates to New knowledge is incorporated as it relates to

previous knowledgeprevious knowledge– Students place new knowledge within the Students place new knowledge within the

context of what they bring to the classcontext of what they bring to the class What ever they learned in elementary, middle, and at What ever they learned in elementary, middle, and at

home is the background against which new home is the background against which new knowledge is assimilatedknowledge is assimilated

– Important we help students develop the Important we help students develop the framework to attach new knowledgeframework to attach new knowledge