Research of Tesco Malaysia

Sample of Good Assignment

FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

BBRC4103

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SAMPLE

NAME:

MATRIC NO:

NRIC NO:

TEL.NO:

EMAIL:

TUTOR:

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SEMESTER JANUARY 2012


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1

QUESTION 1 3 10

QUESTION 2 11 21

QUESTION 3 22 31

QUESTION 4 32 43

QUESTION 5 44 52

QUESTION 6 53 54

REFERENCES 55 56


A) INTRODUCTION

Tesco Stores (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. was incepted on 29 November 2001, as a strategic

alliance between Tesco Plc UK and local conglomerate, Sime Darby Berhad of which the

latter holds 30% of the total shares. Tesco Malaysia commenced operations in February 2002

with the opening of its first hypermarket in Puchong, Selangor.

Tesco Malaysia employs nearly 15,000 employees and operates 40 stores and in two formats

following the acquisition of the Makro Cash and Carry business in Malaysia in December

2006.Theseare:

Tesco Hypermarkets

The hypermarket format offers customers a complete one stop shopping for their needs from

fresh food to groceries, from household needs to apparel. It carries more than 60,000 lines of

products including nearly 3,000 own brand of products ranging from food to non-food

items.

Tesco Extra Hypermarkets

The Tesco Extra format serves the needs of small businesses, families and individuals all

under one roof by providing a comprehensive range of products and services focused for

small businesses including bigger pack sizes, special trolleys and checkouts as well as a

dedicated business development team to support small business owners with their orders.

Tesco Malaysia is the only Hypermarket to run its own loyalty card, which returns money to

customers 4 times a year. Tesco Clubcard and Biz Clubcard were introduced, as a way to say

thank you to customers by giving money back to them. Clubcard has received an

overwhelming response from customers with nearly 2 million household members signed up

to date. As of January 2009, Tesco have rewarded nearly RM10 million worth of Clubcard

Cash Vouchers to the customers.

As a responsible corporate citizen, Tesco Malaysia has responded and worked with

communities including NGOs such as the National Cancer Council (MAKNA) to raise more


than RM500, 000 for the Tesco-MAKNA Cancer Research Fund for Life. As part of its

global commitment, Tesco Malaysia is market leading on tackling climate change in

techniques of energy saving, launching Green Clubcard Points to incentivize customers

shopping with their own bags, introduce degradable carrier bags, promote positive behavior

among staff though Energy League competition intra stores and a recycling centre to

facilitate customers to do their part for the environment.

Tesco is proof of the good a little dressing up can do. The world's fourth-largest grocery

retailer, Tesco runs about 5,380 stores in the UK (where it's the #1 retailer), and more than a

dozen other countries in Europe, Asia, and the US (under the Fresh & Easy banner). Built on

the "pile it high, sell it cheap" creed of founder Sir Jack Cohen, Tesco abandoned its discount

format, with its down-market image, for a variety of dressier midmarket formats. Its

operations include supermarket, convenience, and gasoline retailing (Tesco Express), small

urban stores (Tesco Metro), superstores (Tesco Extra), and financial services (Tesco Personal

Finance). Tesco.com is Britain's leading Internet delivery service.

The purpose of this assignment it aims to provide an analysis of the situation of own brand

and particularly Tesco brands in the Malaysia. The management of Tesco Stores Malaysia

needs to know whether it would be feasible to introduce its own branded chilli sauce to the

Malaysian consumers.The concept of own brands has been investigated in many studies and

brands has been defined in different ways. For instance, were able to categorize brands into

twelve most important themes.

Own brands can be perceived as a legal instrument, a logo, a company, a shorthand, a risk

reducer, an identity system, an image in consumers minds, a value system, a personality, a

relationship, an added value and an evolving entity. All of those categories are derived from

different studies and reflect different points of view.

However, for the purpose of a research process study, perception of a own brand as complex

information about attributes of the product, such as producer, price, shape or performance

suits best. Nowadays, retailer own brands are thus to be found next to national brands in

virtually every food category and some of them, including Tesco, have been developed to a

form of standard brand in their own right . Own branded products are simply described as all

merchandise sold under a retail stores private label .


This vague definition is then adopted by many other authors who characterize it as the

products retailers sell under their own names. Terminology, in addition, is not stable and

various terms, such as own brand, own label, private label, private brand and retailers brand,

are currently used to refer to this phenomenon.

Generally speaking, private brands or own brands can involve a broad scope of quite different

products. Nonetheless, whatever they are called, these own brands have experienced

significant image revolution and are no longer a synonym for cheap and poor quality

imitations. The products sold under store name are now being constantly developed and

innovated, since they have become a crucial tool to build customer loyalty and to differentiate

the store from competitors.

RESEARCH SUMMARY OF TESCO MALAYSIA BRANDING CHILI SAUCE FOR

MALAYSIAN CONSUMERS

Statement of the Problems and Ideas Tesco Malaysia offers different brands of chili

sauce which is a very popular condiment in their country and because of the continues

demand of this condiment the Management of Tesco in Malaysia realize the needs to

introduce their own brand of chili sauce for Malaysian local consumer although they already

have their own brand of Tesco chili sauce. They also need to know if they are able to

compete with the other well know manufacturer of this product or will it be feasible to

introduce their own local brand? What would be the demand and how will it be accepted by

the public knowing that there are more popular brands in their stores in Malaysia? Will the

Tesco group allow their local branding process?

Literature Review Tesco also allowed local branding to gain local consumer an access

to localize products on their own which is usually effective in targeting their preferences this

also enhances the stores nationalistic approach although most of their products are imported

from other country. Tesco also value the managers initiative to think globally by selling their

products locally knowing that every little helps or we put our heart to serve you as their

slogan. (Tesco Main) Localization of international brands is very effective tools in most

stores of different industries so there will be no problem in supplies and management for

rebranding. Mc Donald, Pepsi, Walter Mart, Star bucks and other organization also does this

strategy to expand their brand.


But to clarify it would take more than the perception but an actual identification of

production process and market testing so as to project the sustainability and return of

investment about the research process. Therefore it should be well researched. The

production plant, manpower and promotional budget are needed for positioning the new entry

of the product. This means that it would really take an initial cost and investment in their

production, they need to start as soon as possible in their production to test their product in

the market. Locally made products engage in an international organization would be their

advantage but they should also understand the product is not made to compete with their

products but to ensure that the consumer has more option to buy over their preferred brand or

they will end up with competing with each other.

Collection of Pertinent Data Malaysia is relatively a small country but they have a

large arable land consisting of about 3930 hectares reserved only for chili production and

cultivation according to the Federal Agriculture Marketing Authority (FAMA 1995) therefore

they have the resources to produce their own brand that will provide them their advantage

over the competition considering its local branding. Chili is one of the key ingredients for

Malaysian cuisine because of its popularity and its taste. The local chili market in Malaysia

rose up to 21% starting in 2008 and still gaining demand up to the present times in fact in

2009 they have used more than 50,000 tons of chili in a year in distribution. (The Economic

Times Magazine 2009) Knowing that demand is good, the sources and materials are available

in Malaysia and Tesco support localization branding it is nearly feasible to start the

production process and their goals of re branding is easy to realize knowing that everything is

in its right place.

Population and Market Advantages over the competition it is easy to say that local

brand can be best promoted to gain popularity over their people to gain market advantage but

in reality this is not always the case because most competing products always look their ways

to find a loophole to position their product in the highest level through constant

advertisement, trials, free taste and other marketing strategy just to promote their products.

Tesco in Malaysia and their management should also think globally if they are going to

produce their own products this means that they should not simply limit their Product, Price,

Promotion and Place of distribution in a single location but they can also think of expanding

their market in different geographic location especially in their neighboring countries in Asia

who usually love chili sauce in order to realized its full production potential and demand.


Their local production supplies or raw materials are another one good advantage to gain

higher quality and more affordable pricing scheme. They can also provide employment to

their people.

Analysis and Conclusion of the Study Since every details has been summarized and

introduced (excluding financial report), the problem and solution has also been identified we

can safely say that the proposal of the Tesco Management in Malaysia in the branding and

production of local chili sauce is very feasible in their country. It is very affirmative that this

can bring a good response during their introduction so they should not delay their plan.

Research Process

Research process usually involves a multi-stage process. Although the actual number of

stages may vary, research must include formulating and identifying a topic, reviewing

literature, planning a strategy, collecting data, analysing data and writing a report.

The research process usually starts with interest in a certain event, situation, object or just

wanting to know something about new product. Research is the process of gathering the

information needed to answer certain questions and thereby helping in solving problems

faced by an individual, firm, organisation or society. For information to be useful, it must be

good. The process of getting the information must be good. A good process is must specific

or systematic research process.

The steps in the research process are;


I. Problem Identification

The first stage of research is to identify problems or issues and to justify the need for

research. There are many sources of research problems such as personal interest,

personal experiences, social problems, world trends, new development in technology

or society, etc.

II. Formulate Research Questions

Research questions are important to ensure that the research is moving in the right

direction. The questions serve as guideline for literature search, data collection,

analysis and conclusion. Research questions are usually more specific in quantitative

research than in qualitative research. We cannot answer all research questions that

rise. Rather, we need to select questions based on the time and cost available in a

research project.

III. Research Philosophy and Approach


In research, understanding of the appropriate research philosophy and approach is

important before beginning a research. You may choose to use an inductive approach

rather than a deductive approach. You may choose to follow the physical science

approach (i.e. positivism) or focus on the human aspect of studies (i.e. interpretive).

Deciding on your research approach is important to justify your own values and how

you see the world. This justification at the early stage of a research will determine the

way you design your research, collect and analysis data, and conclude your research.

IV. Research Design

In this stage, a range of research methods are available for conducting your research.

The choices are between quantitative and qualitative methods. Sometimes the use of

combined research methods is encouraged.

V. Data Collection

Before collecting data, you need to think about the sampling method. Qualitative

research will usually adopt a theoretical sampling method while quantitative research

will adopt probability or non-probability sampling. You have to decide what data

need to be collected such as primary or secondary data. You will also need to think

about how to access these data and what method you will use to capture these data.

There are many ways you can collect data such as observation, semi-structured or

structured interviews. Before collecting data, questionnaires need to be developed.

VI. Data Processing and Analysis

The main issue that needs to be considered here is how to prepare data for either

quantitative or qualitative analysis. Data need to be edited and coded for subsequent

analysis. For quantitative data, the use of computerized analysis software package

such as SPSS is encouraged. Analysis of qualitative data is very subjective and is

usually done manually. The use of various qualitative data analysis methods such as

pattern matching, textual analysis, grounded theory and narrative analysis depend on

the nature of the data itself.

VII. Conclusion and Report


The final report presents the whole research project from the research issues, literature

review, research methodology, findings, data analysis and conclusion. Not all reports

are of the same format; as a researcher you have to decide on the structure, content

and style of the final report.

B) PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION & FORMULATED RESEARCH QUESTIONS


The development of a research question

To conduct research we need to develop a focus. This focus takes the form of a research

question, this is the issue that we want to explain, understand or make sense of (Weick,

1996). Having raised the issue and emphasized the centrality of the research question, it is

important to discuss this in some detail. Developing, or articulating, a research question is the

most important element in the entire research process as, from this, many things follow.

In the assessment or evaluation of a research project, whether it is a postgraduate dissertation,

a PhD, or a piece of consultancy, being able to identify a coherent, well articulated research

question is absolutely critical. The research question encapsulates what the research is about.

However, a degree of realism needs to be applied to what can be achieved. In framing a

research question, the do-ability of the project should always be considered. Many research

questions are soon found to be over-ambitious or not practical. Many projects fail because the

researcher cannot get access to the subject of their research. Unfortunately, this is a particular

problem in management research as many organizations will not allow the researcher access

to gather data.

Why is the act of articulating a research question so important? Firstly, the research question

is the focus of the piece of work, encapsulating in a statement what it is trying to be achieved.

If there is uncertainty about the focus of the research, then a high quality piece of research

cannot be undertaken. Furthermore, the way a research question is articulated will largely

determine the methodology or approach to evidence collection and analysis that will be used.

If a research question is not articulated clearly, the wrong approach to answering the research

question may be chosen. Essentially, having defined what the research is trying to achieve

will often shape how the research will need to proceed.

Articulating a research question

Given the centrality of the research question to the research process it is essential that

researchers understand how to frame or articulate a research question. Common criticisms of

research proposals are that:

There is no clearly articulated research question at all


What is assumed to be the research question is articulated in a way that it does not render

that question testable

The research question is articulated badly or it is wrongly formulated, and

The research question was unrealistic and could not be achieved.

By focusing on trying to understand or explain something, we will inevitably be asking

questions beginning with phrases such as "How does.?"; Why does..?"; What is the

relationship between x and y?; and, "Given a particular theory, what will be the effect of

doing x on y?" Questions of this type are research questions.

Operational sing the research question

In the previous section we developed a concise research question and by articulating the

research question in this way, we could more easily see how we could implement the

evidence collection and analysis phases of the research process to test our hypotheses.

While the research question was now relatively clear, we still had some work to do if we

were to test the research question operationally. First, we had a number of concepts that we

were interested in measuring (loyalty, motivation, morale, commitment and sense of job

security) but before we could measure them, we needed to be clear about precisely what it

was that we were trying to measure - essentially we needed to develop operational definitions

of these terms.

Having defined concepts, the next phase of the research involves the development of

operational measures. The easiest way to achieve conceptual clarity and develop operational

definitions of concepts and constructs is to explore the literature to see how they have been

defined in earlier research. This is an important step, as clear and concise definitions of terms

need to be developed if they are to be reliably and validly measured.

By adopting earlier operational definitions it is possible to directly compare findings with

those of other researchers in the field. In addition, it will allow the researcher to compare

whether the findings are consistent with earlier research, or not, and also isolate quite clearly

what information is new (i.e. what the contribution to knowledge has been).

It is in the development of operational measures of constructs that the terms validity and

reliability become important. If we are to measure constructs, we need to develop items to

be included in a questionnaire that are both valid (they measure what we think they measure)


and reliable (they measure things consistently in different settings and at different times). For

a discussion on the importance of validity and reliability see Mitchell (1996).

Using market research to launch a new brand

Brands play an important role in the confectionery industry. A brand is a name, mark, or

feature, which distinguishes one product from another. A good brand effectively guarantees

that it will deliver all of the qualities that the consumer associates with it.

Tesco want carries out a systematic process to identify new product ideas, which can be

developed and brought to the market. This process always starts with a market research

exercise.

The purpose of market research

Market research is the collection and analysis of data in order to identify and satisfy

consumer needs. The main purpose is to reduce risk and facilitate decision making. It is

particularly useful when launching a new product and ensures that the right goods are

produced. Market research provides information on consumer needs and wants, competitors,

the marketing mix and potential sales.

Consumer needs and wants - individuals have different requirements and consumers

with similar characteristics must be identified. A company can then choose a target

market or section of the market for its products. This provides a focus for marketing

activities.

Competitors - no firm exists in isolation. Competitors must be identified and their

actions monitored. Research must be undertaken on competing products in order to

identify a competitive advantage for the new product.

Marketing mix - marketing involves having the right product at the right price in the

right place using the right promotion. These are the 4Ps of the marketing mix. It is

necessary for the right combination of these to be used in order for a product to be

successful. For instance there is no point advertising nationally if research shows the

product is only sold in the local area.

Potential sales - by knowing the likely level of sales a firm will be able to estimate the

correct amount to produce/supply. This reduces the financial risk involved and

ensures the maximum return from the firms investment.

Methods and types of market research


There are two main methods of market research desk research and field research.

Desk research, also known as secondary research, is making use of information that is already

available. Internally the firm can draw on its own records. Different departments can provide

information on sales trends, customers and costings, which are useful in the development of

new products. Extensive published material can also be sourced externally. In addition the

development of new technology such as the internet provides information at the touch of a

button.

Field research or primary research is carried out by contacting potential consumers directly. It

may include surveys, questionnaires and general observation.

Surveys involve questioning people directly about their attitude to a particular product or

service. Surveys are usually carried out using a face to face interview or by telephone.

Because it is impossible to survey all target customers, sampling is used. A representative

group or sample, whose views will accurately reflect the target population, is chosen.

Questionnaires are lists of prepared questions which potential customers are asked to fill out.

They are often used in conjunction with surveys. Careful attention must be given to the

design of questionnaires so that the answers received are of value for decision making.

Information can be gathered by observing people making purchases. A particular store, for

example, could be chosen and a study made of how many people buy a particular product.

There are two types of market research - quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research

provides numerical data. At the completion of a quantitative project it is possible to say (for

example) what proportion or percentage of the population fall into different groups those

that want something, those that would be likely to buy something, those that are in favor of a

particular policy or plan, etc. The essence of quantitative research is that every respondent is

asked the same series of questions.

Quantitative research can be carried out in various ways including facet to face interviewing,

by telephone, by post and self-completion questionnaires. Qualitative research provides an

understanding of how or why things are as they are. It can be used on its own or to help in the

development of a questionnaire for a quantitative study. There are no fixed set of questions

and therefore no assumptions about what is, or is not, important. Instead there is a list of


topics, problems, or possibilities to be explored. The informants own concerns or

assumptions heavily influence the form and nature of the discussion.

Qualitative research can be used for everything from testing reaction to a potential new

advertising campaign, to exploring staff attitudes to a new management structure or

procedure. There are various sorts of qualitative research, including unstructured interviews

and focus groups (group discussions).

PROJECT TESCO CHILLI SAUCE

The development of a new product is a process that starts with an initial idea and finishing

with its launch on the market. It involves a number of stages. Each stage must be completed

before the next stage begins development process


Product development process

idea generation ideas for a new product are thought up

qualitative

research

product screening focus

the ideas are assessed and the groups

most promising one selected

concept development the idea is turned into a finished product

prototype development a model of the product is made

feasibility study the product is assessed to

determine if it is viable

quantitative

research

test marketing focus

market research is carried out to groups

determine consumer reaction

launch the product is introduced to the market

Generating the idea

The search for new products is ongoing at Tesco. This work starts with the Tesco Research

and Development team who are continually on the lookout for new ideas that can be

developed into a profitable product. Ideas may come from the companys personnel or the

consumer.


Brainstorming sessions are used where a group of people come together to generate ideas.

They are given complete freedom to come up with any ideas they think might be suitable for

a product. All ideas no matter how far-fetched are submitted for discussion. The other

members then develop or improve on them.

The best ideas are chosen

In 1999 many different product proposals were evaluated. The idea for a new own branded

Tesco chilli sauce appeared the most promising. It offered the greatest likelihood of success

in the market. After examining existing brands, management identified a possible gap in the

market alongside the existing Tesco chilli sauce.

The standard product is one of Tescos strong sellers and is readily identifiable by consumers.

To build on the goodwill of the Tesco chilli sauce it was decided to introduce a related

product. Other product ideas were eliminated at this stage.

Turning the idea into a finished product

The idea now had to be turned into a marketable product. Tescos engineers were given the

task of coming up with a product that would:

be similar enough to the existing Flake so that consumers would identify with it

have innovative features to attract new consumers and not impinge on sales of the

existing product.

Researchers tried out the general idea on consumers using descriptions or mock-ups of the

product. Opinions on the concept were sought and taken into account by the design team.

From this the design team began designing the product.

Testing the feasibility of the product

This aims to find out whether a new product idea is viable. It involves finding out if it can be

produced profitably. A detailed cost analysis indicated that the cost of production would be

similar to the existing other chilli sauce. Various price assumptions were assessed until the

optimum price was decided upon and the potential profits were calculated. The study found

that the product was likely to be profitable.


Tesco Chilli sauce prototype

A prototype is the first working model or sample of the product. A decision had to be made

on the composition of the new chilli sauce. Many different recipes were tried out for the new

chilli sauce using different sauce effects, types of chilli, and various ingredients. Three

recipes of chilli sauce were developed. A standard chilli sauce, a very hot chilli sauce and a

medium hot chilli sauce.

The new product also required a packaging. Three possible packaging were selected.

Research was carried out among consumers to identify the most popular one. The results

were as follows:

Favorites Packaging

Packaging %Choosing as First Choice

Bottle 58

Packed 11

Plastic container 10

Clearly packaging by bottle was the most popular and this was the one used. Following on

from this the bottle was designed. The packaging of Tesco products is a powerful marketing

tool. While each product has its own distinctive design it must still be obvious that it belongs

to the Tesco range. The eye-catching bottle of Tesco chilli sauce carries the distinctive Tesco

logo. It also includes information on ingredients and weights as required by law.

Test Marketing the Tesco chilli sauce

Test marketing is the process of finding out consumer reaction to a product before full

production commences. The final decision to invest in a production system is only made after

this is carried out. It reduces the risk of making a costly mistake.

If a firm does not wish to carry out the research themselves they can employ the services of a

Market Research Agency. Agencies are expensive to use but the accuracy of their work can


be of great benefit. They are experts in research and have experience of doing similar work

for other firms. Good trust must exist between the firm and agency because of the

confidential nature of the work.

A research agency was employed in the Tesco chilli sauce project. Tesco required it to:

judge consumer reaction to the product

estimate potential sales

determine the effect the new product would have on existing sales

analyses which chilli sauce option would be the optimum.

A sample survey using interviews was carried out. A total of 480 people were asked to

sample three products in different locations. All respondents taste the chilli sauce at least

once a fortnight. Three products were included in the test:

a standard chilli sauce.

a very hot chilli sauce.

a medium hot chilli sauce.

The products were tested against a background of other confectionery products. Testing was

conducted in January and February 2012.

Results of testing

Both variations were seen to stand out well from other confectionery products on display and

the idea was generally well liked. The panel chilli sauce that they would be interesting and

unique. Tesco chilli sauce rated well on:

taste

quality

combination of sauce

balance of sauce


aftertaste

overall texture

ease of eating

difference from other chilli sauce.

The medium hot chilli sauce was favoured over the very hot chilli sauce with more people

agreeing this sauce tasted better. The product was seen as unique and different to other chilli

sauce. Medium hot chilli sauce was seen as less of an everyday product and more special. A

considerable investment was made in new equipment and production of Tesco chilli sauce

began.

Launching the Tesco chilli sauce

A launch introduces a new product to the market. The timing is crucial and all the elements of

the marketing mix must be in place. These are:

Product - the product must be one that can satisfy consumer need, is top quality and

has a real point of difference. Test marketing indicated that Tesco chilli sauce met

these criteria.

Price - pricing is vital to the success of a product. It must be competitive, cover costs

and offer consumers value for money. Research indicated that the product should be

priced at the 45p mark.

Promotion - an extensive advertising plan was put in place. Tesco chilli sauce was

advertised in trade magazines, consumer magazines and other printed media.

Television and outdoor advertising was also used.

Place - this is the distribution channel used to get goods to customers. It must be in

place before a product is launched. Tescos already had an extensive network of

wholesaler and retailers. These provided a distribution system for Tesco chilli sauce.

With all elements in place Tesco chilli sauce can launched in September 2012. New product

development is both a lengthy and expensive process. It always contains an element of risk.

However if carried out correctly product development leads to increased sales and profits. For

Tesco the process has resulted in a unique new product being successfully developed and


integrated into the product portfolio. Tesco chilli sauce has made a successful launch in the

marketplace and will undoubtedly contribute to Tescos future success.

C) LITERATURE REVIEW

Most are aware that it is a process of gathering information from other sources and

documenting it, but few have any idea of how to evaluate the information, or how to present

it.


A literature review can be a precursor in the introduction of a research paper, or it can be an

entire paper in itself, often the first stage of large research projects, allowing the supervisor to

ascertain that the student is on the correct path.

A literature review is a critical and in depth evaluation of previous research. It is a summary

and synopsis of a particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the paper to establish

why you are pursuing this particular research program. A good literature review expands

upon the reasons behind selecting a particular research question.

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW ?

It is not a chronological catalog of all of the sources, but an evaluation, integrating the

previous research together, and also explaining how it integrates into the proposed research

program. All sides of an argument must be clearly explained, to avoid bias, and areas of

agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

It is not a collection of quotes and paraphrasing from other sources. A good literature review

should also have some evaluation of the quality and findings of the research.

A good literature review should avoid the temptation of impressing the importance of a

particular research program. The fact that a researcher is undertaking the research program

speaks for its importance, and an educated reader may well be insulted that they are not

allowed to judge the importance for themselves. They want to be re-assured that it is a serious

paper, not a pseudo-scientific sales advertisement.

Whilst some literature reviews can be presented in a chronological order, it is best avoided.

For example, a review of Victorian Age Physics, could present J.J. Thomsons famous

experiments in a chronological order. Otherwise, this is usually perceived as being a little

lazy, and it is better to organize the review around ideas and individual points.

As a general rule, certainly for a longer review, each paragraph should address one point, and

present and evaluate all of the evidence, from all of the differing points of view.


CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

Evaluating the credibility of sources is one of the most difficult aspects, especially with the

ease of finding information on the internet.

The only real way to evaluate is through experience, but there are a few tricks for evaluating

information quickly, yet accurately.

There is such a thing as too much information, and Google does not distinguish or judge the

quality of results, only how search engine friendly a paper is. This is why it is still good

practice to begin research in an academic library. Any journals found there can be regarded as

safe and credible.

The next stage is to use the internet, and this is where the difficulties start. It is very difficult

to judge the credibility of an online paper. The main thing is to structure the internet research

as if it were on paper. Bookmark papers, which may be relevant, in one folder and make

another subfolder for a shortlist.

The easiest way is to scan the work, using the abstract and introduction as guides.

This helps to eliminate the non-relevant work and also some of the lower quality

research.

If it sets off alarm bells, there may be something wrong, and the paper is probably of a

low quality. Be very careful not to fall into the trap of rejecting research just because

it conflicts with your hypothesis. Failure to do this will completely invalidate the

literature review and potentially undermine the research project. Any research that

may be relevant should be moved to the shortlist folder.

The next stage is to critically evaluate the paper and decide if the research is sufficient

quality. Think about it this way: The temptation is to try to include as many sources as

possible, because it is easy to fall into the trap of thinking that a

long bibliography equates to a good paper. A smaller number of quality sources is far

preferable than a long list of irrelevance.

Check into the credentials of any source upon which you rely heavily for the literature

review. The reputation of the University or organization is a factor, as is the


experience of the researcher. If their name keeps cropping up, and they have written

many papers, the source is usually OK.

Look for agreements. Good research should have been replicated by other

independent researchers, with similar results, showing that the information is usually

fairly safe to use.

If the process is proving to be difficult, and in some fields, like medicine and

environmental research, there is a lot of poor science, do not be afraid to ask a

supervisor for a few tips. They should know some good and reputable sources to look

at. It may be a little extra work for them, but there will be even more work if they

have to tear apart a review because it is built upon shaky evidence.

Conducting a good literature review is a matter of experience, and even the best scientists

have fallen into the trap of using poor evidence. This is not a problem, and is part of the

scientific process; if a research program is well constructed, it will not affect the results.

Literature Review 1

Indicate of journals : Daryl Coleman, Connie Gao & Heejae Kim

Title articles : McDonalds: Breaching the Luxury Coffee Market

A new market that McDonalds is trying to enter in the United States is the luxury coffee

market, a market revolutionized by Starbucks Corporation. McDonalds has already begun its

infiltration by introducing its own espresso drinks line: latte (hot/iced), mocha (hot/iced), and


cappuccino. More than 7,000 stores nationwide currently sell the new beverages, and

McDonalds plans to add espresso machines to the majority of its 14,000 stores nationwide

by mid-2009. This aggressive addition is aided by the growing awareness of the economic

recession and the new demand for low cost food items. We know our customers are looking

for those affordable luxuries," McDonalds spokeswoman Danya Proud said. "We know our

customers are visiting us, now more than ever, for many of our well known breakfast items,

and we know our coffees continue to be a growing category."3 The new espresso line is

integrated directly into the front counter menu, and simplifying the process by using English

size names (small, medium, large) rather than Italian ones. McDonalds projects $1 billion

annual revenue from its new espresso line.

McDonalds current strategies are distinctly different: specialty coffee and McCafe. One aims

to start an in-store line of espresso drinks fully integrated with the current menu, while the

other calls for the creation of a completely different restaurant. Note: although McCafe is the

name of the McDonalds coffee and espresso line, here we will only refer to McCafe as the

store.

The idea behind McCafe is to essentially enter the luxury coffeehouse business most well

exemplified by Starbucks. By adopting a new brand, McDonalds is able to serve coffee and

espresso drinks in a place the McDonalds image has not tainted. Much like previous

McDonalds run restaurants such as Chipotle and Boston Market, McCafe will have different

menus and dcor.

Unlike McDonalds other brands, however, McCafe can be paired up with existing stores,

either as a separate section or as a separate sales counter. Not only can the sales of the

original restaurants be increased, but the restaurant may also benefit from a better reputation

and increased popularity. This will definitely be true in the early stages of implementation of

these stores, because people will get naturally curious. This is also when establishing McCafe

as a worthy and cost-friendly substitute to current coffeehouses and dispelling a negative

reputation as a low quality coffee brand will be important.

Conclusions


McDonalds should enter the high end coffee market because it is the fast food market leader

and will gain much ground from being the first mover. Even though McDonalds appears to

be competing directly with Starbucks, its target market is actually very different and entry

will be less risky due to the differentiation. For example, the new espresso line will provide

the perfect complement to current McDonalds menu items and be able to satisfy the parents

that bring their kids to McDonalds. The main customers of this new drink line will mostly be

current McDonalds customers. The added drink line will also draw in the portion of

Starbucks customers who are on the fence in terms of loyalty. Using automated espresso

machines will not increase average serving time or require baristas, and therefore ensures

efficiency and consistency, which fits in with McDonalds principles.

Literature Review 2

Indicate of journals : Anchor, J.R and Kouilov, Terezie, University of Huddersfield

Repository

Title articles : Consumer Perceptions of Tesco Own Brands: the Czech Republic and

the United Kingdom

Purpose

Relatively little is known about the consumer perceptions of own brands in the newly

emerging markets of central and eastern Europe. This paper attempts to fill a gap in


knowledge by investigating various aspects of consumer perceptions of Tesco own brands in

the Czech Republic.

Methodology/Approach

The key data for this research was collected by structured questionnaires from Tesco

supermarket customers in the Czech Republic and the UK. Non probability quota sampling

was used and the sample was stratified according to gender, age and income.

Findings

The results of the research indicate that the general view of Tesco own brands is slightly less

positive among Czech than British customers. However, significant differences emerge when

these are examined in terms of income. Increases in income lead to a decrease in the

favorability with which own brands are viewed in the Czech Republic the opposite to the

position in the UK. The age of consumers was also found to be significant, although there is

not a linear trend. No strong correlation was found to exist between gender and any of the

characteristics under investigation.

Research limitations/implications

The sample was limited in size (n=100 in each country). In depth interviewing would be

necessary to assess consumer attitudes further.

Practical Implications

The results of this research may help Tesco in relation to its general expansion in central and

eastern Europe and its brand building in particular.

Originality/value of paper

The originality of the paper relates to its study of consumer behavior in one of the emerging

markets of central and eastern Europe.

Literature Review 3

Indicate of journals : Jayalakshmi Gopalkrishnan, D.Ramalingam & Dr. V.K.Gupta


Title articles : How to win Chinese consumers: Competetive strategy of Wal-Mart in

China

The authors intention of writing this case study is to explore into the complexities of Wal-

Marts Chinese venture. China poses a huge challenge for Walmart as there exist cross

cultural diversities among the Chinese population.Walmarts needs to understand the Chinese

market first and then think of a business model that can fit the country.

Thus the case aims to explore into the (1) competitive strategy of Walmart in China and (2)

understand the adaptability of its business model to international environments. We are

collecting data from secondary sources and resorting to some focus groups and about 7-8 in-

depth interviews with Industry experts to understand the situation in a better way. The

objective of taking up this research work is to comprehend the strategic challenges that the

world number one Retailer Walmart faces whenever it attempts to enter international markets

so that it can leverage on the untapped potential. Thus China is a very lucrative destination

for any retailer in the world due to its huge growing population. Thus our study revolves

around Wal-Marts competitive strategy in China and how it is adopting its business model in

China.

Walmart needs to adjust to the Chinese market, while leveraging its source of competitive

advantage. This requires a delicate balance. At the US, the brand Walmart is associated with

low price rather than quality. In China, where everyone is going for low prices and providing

low quality to do so, Walmarts own brand could be an assurance for low prices but with

quality by making the Walmart name about more than just retailing.

Although Walmart is a Joint-Venture, the sources do not mention any attempt to leverage the

local partner to meet the local market, which seems the opposite to some other joint ventures

discussed like Danone and Wahaha. Working together with the local partner to understand

where and how the local regulations can be used or adjusted for Walmarts success and

gaining a stronger hold of the potential customers heart might help Walmarts growth and

dominance in the Chinese market (The Economist).

Chinese lifestyle trends, Chinese consumer habits needed to be kept in mind as the Chinese

consumers go shopping to get out of the house, not necessarily to shop. Theyre more


impulse driven and like on-site promotions. Theyre brand conscious but not loyal. Theyre

frequent shopper of small amounts and especially appreciate freshness (alive) due to limited

space at home (The McKinsey Quarterly).

Last, the strong centralization that has helped the American Walmart seems to hold back

Walmart in China. China is less homogeneous than America and that calls for

decentralization, giving more power to local managers and their supplier-network or perhaps

even moving to franchising in some of the more remote locations (Bringing best practice to

China, The McKinsey Quarterly).

Literature Review 4

Indicate of journals : YOUNG-SANG CHO

Title articles : RETAILER BRAND DEVELOPMENT AND HANDLING PROCESSES

This research began with the question: why is the retailer brand market share of Tesco Korea

higher than that of local Korean retailers? Of the foreign grocery retailers who have expanded

into Korea, Tesco has achieved the most outstanding performance, with the highest retailer

brand share in the market. After the withdrawal of Wal-Mart and Carrefour from Korea in

2006, Tesco Korea has been positioned as the successful foreign retailer. Accordingly, how

the retail operation of Tesco Korea differs from that of the local Korean retailers attracted the


authors interest, specifically in terms of the development and handling processes of the

retailer brand.

Rather than examining the customer perceptions of both Tesco Korea and the domestic

Korean retailers, the researcher concentrated on identifying the differences between both

parties from the point of view of their retailer brand program operations. Based on in-depth

interviews with retailers and suppliers, store observations, the authors own experience in

retailer brand development, and company documentation, this research explored the

differences between Tesco Korea and domestic Korean retailers in how they develop and

handle their own brands. Tesco Korea has taken advantage of retailing know-how, that is,

retailer brand development skills created by Tesco UK. With the help of Tesco UK, the

retailer brand development process of Tesco Korea is differentiated in a number of areas from

that of the local Korean retailers. The flows of retailing know-how from Tesco UK to Tesco

Korea has also influenced the whole retailer brand market in Korea, as well as stimulated the

local Korean retailers to improve their retailer brand development skills.

The entry of retailers with advanced retailer brand development knowledge into markets

where retailer brands are less well developed is a catalyst in promoting retailer brand

markets, and in intensifying retail competition. Also, the retailer brand development know-

how of domestic retailers is enhanced by imitating or benchmarking foreign retailers.

This research suggests that retailer brand share is related to the degree to which retailers are

proactively involved in the development and handling processes for retailer brand product

ranges, as well as to how sophisticated or advanced their knowledge of the retailer brand

development process is. Advanced development and handling skills make a considerable

contribution to increasing retailer brand share in markets with a lower share or no presence of

retailer brands.


D) RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY AND APPROACH & RESEARCH DESIGN

Understanding philosophy

There are numerous reasons why an understanding of philosophical issues is important.

Hughes (1994) asks: what is it about philosophy that gives it this seemingly vital role in

human intellectual affairs? Is this simply a contingent fact of our intellectual history, or is

there something distinctive about philosophy itself which gives it this authoritative place? In

answer to this question it could be argued that it is the nature of philosophical questions that

best demonstrates the value of understanding philosophy. It is the uncomplicated style and

innocent way of questioning, which produces confusion and instability in our assumptions

and ideas about the world, that makes the study of philosophy of special benefit (Smith

1998). The indirectness and circular nature of philosophical questioning in itself is helpful, as

it often encourages in-depth thinking, and generates further questions in relation to the topic

under consideration.


Clarifying assumptions related to personal values is also seen as useful when planning a

research study. According to Proctor (1998), individuals rarely take time to do this in

everyday life, but exploring basic personal beliefs could assist in understanding wider

philosophical issues, notably the interrelationship between ontological (what is the nature

of reality?), epistemological (what can be known?), and methodological (how can a

researcher discover what she or he believes can be known?) levels of enquiry (Proctor 1998).

Easterby-Smith et al (1997) identify three reasons why the exploration of philosophy may be

significant with particular reference to research methodology:

Firstly, it can help the researcher to refine and specify the research methods to be used in a

study, that is, to clarify the overall research strategy to be used. This would include the type

of evidence gathered and its origin, the way in which such evidence is interpreted, and how it

helps to answer the research questions posed.

Secondly, knowledge of research philosophy will enable and assist the researcher to evaluate

different methodologies and methods and avoid inappropriate use and unnecessary work by

identifying the limitations of particular approaches at an early stage.

Thirdly, it may help the researcher to be creative and innovative in either selection or

adaptation of methods that were previously outside his or her experience.

The ongoing quantitative/qualitative debate is fogged by lack of coherent definitions and by

a focus on methods rather than an exploration of underlying philosophy. According to Clarke

(1998), research methods can be described, considered and classified at different levels, the

most basic of which is the philosophical level. The methodological distinctions most

commonly used focus on the differences between quantitative research, which is generally

associated with the philosophical traditions of positivism, and qualitative research, most

commonly allied with post-positivist philosophy (Polit et al 2001).

The philosophical level of a research method relates to its assumptions based on the most

general features of the world, encompassing such aspects as the mind, matter, reality, reason,

truth, nature of knowledge, and proofs for knowledge (Hughes 1994). If we, for example,

examine how research based on a positivist philosophy differs from that based on a post-

positivist philosophy, the appropriateness to the research needs is simplified and the nature of


the most appropriate approach clarified. From this we can see that the choice of approach

may be dependent on the context of the study and the nature of the questions being asked.

The researchers experience, understanding of philosophy, and personal beliefs may also

have some bearing on the method adopted (Denzin and Lincoln 1994). Shih (1998) expands

this idea and lists four areas for consideration when deciding on a research method: the

philosophical paradigm and goal of the research, the nature of the phenomenon of interest,

the level and nature of the research questions, and practical considerations related to the

research environment and the efficient use of resources.

Proctor (1998) considers that consistency between the aim of a research study, the research

questions, the chosen methods, and the personal philosophy of the researcher is the essential

underpinning and rationale for any research project. She indicates that before any decision on

research method can be made an understanding of the two extremes of research philosophy

i.e. positivism and post-positivism, need to be explored and understood. It is important to

note that while quantitative research methods (or positivist philosophies) and qualitative

methods (or post-positivist philosophies) are often seen as opposing and polarised views they

are frequently used in conjunction. The distinction between the philosophies is overstated

(Webb 1989) and triangulation of methods in current day research is common (Polit et al

2001). It is very important, therefore, that an in-depth understanding of the strengths and

weaknesses of both approaches and their underlying philosophy is obtained. Clarke (1998)

emphasises this point:

Though some distinction between methods is well placed it is being acknowledged that

philosophically the qualitative and quantitative paradigms are not as diverse or mutually

incompatible as often conveyed. Staunch identification of methods with particular paradigms

may not be as accurate, or even as useful, an endeavour as past trends would indicate.

The nature of positivism

What could be described as the traditional scientific approach to research has its

underpinnings in positivist philosophy. From the literature it is clear that positivism can be


defined in various ways. Smith (1998) provides a useful insight into positivist thinking within

social sciences with this description:

Positivist approaches to the social sciences . . . assume things can be studied as hard facts

and the relationship between these facts can be established as scientific laws. For positivists,

such laws have the status of truth and social objects can be studied in much the same way as

natural objects.

The ideas associated with positivism have been developed and challenged, stated, re-

examined and re-stated over time. Outhwaite (1987) suggests that there are three distinct

generations of positivist philosophy. These generations follow on from the period generally

know as the Enlightenment, which allowed the contemplation of social life to break away

from religious interpretations and establish human beings as the main protagonists in the

development and accumulation of scientific knowledge. The first generation produced

philosophers such as Locke, Hume and Comte who were associated with the early traditions

of positivism established in the 18th and 19th centuries (Comte 1853, Hume 1784). The next

generation was logical positivism, associated with philosophers of the early 20th century

collectively known as the Vienna Circle (Ayer 1936, Carnap 1932). The next generation,

commonly associated with Karl Hemple (1965), developed in the post-war period. The basic

reasoning of positivism assumes that an objective reality exists which is independent of

human behaviour and is therefore not a creation of the human mind. Auguste Comte (1853)

suggests that all real knowledge should be derived from human observation of objective

reality. The senses are used to accumulate data that are objective, discernible and measurable;

anything other should be rejected as transcendental. The positivists antipathy to metaphysics

within scientific enquiry is well illustrated by David Hume: If we take in our hand any

volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, does it contain any

abstract reasoning concerning quality or number? No. Does it contain any experimental

reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: for it

can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion(Hume 1748/ 1984).

The importance of induction and verification, and the establishment of laws, are stressed by

logical positivists and in this respect differ from the earlier tradition of positivism. The stated

aim of the logical positivists is to cleanse scientific knowledge of speculative and subjective

viewpoints. It endeavours to do this by the use of mathematics and formal logic (as a branch

of mathematics) to provide analytical statements about the observed world using the process


of induction as a means of establishing generalisations and laws. Post Second World War

standard positivists such as Hemple (1965) focused on the need for reasoning that moves

from theoretical ideas, or a set of given premises, to a logical conclusion through deductive

thinking. That is, through the mental process of developing specific predictions from general

principles, and through research establishing whether or not the predictions are valid.

The general elements of positivist philosophy have a number of implications for social

research based on this approach. These implications, adapted from Bond (1989), Easterby-

Smith et al (1997), and Hughes (1994) are:

Methodological: all research should be quantitative, and that only research which is

quantitative can be the basis for valid generalisations and laws

Value-freedom: the choice of what to study, and how to study it, should be determined

by objective criteria rather than by human beliefs and interests

Causality: the aim should be to identify causal explanations and fundamental laws

that explain human behavior

Operationalisation: concepts need to be operationalised in a way that enables facts to

be measured quantitatively

Independence: the role of the researcher is independent of the subject under

examination

Reductionism: problems are better understood if they are reduced to the simplest

possible elements.

A major criticism of the positivist approach is that it does not provide the means to examine

human beings and their behaviours in an in-depth way. Ayer (1969) questions the use of

positivist and empirical approaches to the study of human behaviour, and suggests that it may

be something about the nature of men that makes the establishment of laws and ability to

generalize impossible. Parahoo (1997) provides the following example: In physics, it is

possible to formulate laws relating to the expansion of metal when heated. From such

laws, the amount of expansion that will occur in particular circumstances can be predicted.

However, when a man loses his job and becomes depressed, it does not mean that he will be

depressed each time he loses his job, nor can we say that everyone who loses his job becomes


depressed (Parahoo 1997). Humans are not objects, and are subject to many influences on

behaviour, feelings, perceptions, and attitudes that positivists would reject as irrelevant and

belonging to the realms of metaphysics. Critics of the positivist approach argue that it yields

useful but limited data that only provide a superficial view of the phenomenon it investigates

(Bond 1993, Moccia 1988, Payle 1995). In summary, the positivist philosophy embraces a

conception of truth in which verifiable statements concur with the ascertainable facts of

reality. Truth is therefore not dependent on belief alone but on belief that can be verified

through examination and observation of external reality. Speculation and assumptions related

to knowledge based on the metaphysical are discarded. The exploration and examination of

human behaviours such as feelings are beyond the scope of positivism. The elements and

focus of positivism have a profound effect on those involved in social research, and on the

continuing quantitative-qualitative debate.

Post-positivism

Following the recognition by scholars such as Jacob Bronowski (1956) and Karl Popper

(1959) that within the world of modern science the elementary justifications of positivism

were no longer entirely defensible, a new philosophy emerged, that of post-positivism. Post-

positivism provides an alternative to the traditions and foundations of positivism for

conducting disciplined inquiry. For the post-positivist researcher reality is not a rigid thing,

instead it is a creation of those individuals involved in the research. Reality does not exist

within a vacuum, its composition is influenced by its context, and many constructions of

reality are therefore possible (Hughes 1994). Proctor (1998) suggests that among the various

factors that influence reality construction, culture, gender, and cultural beliefs are the most

significant.

They recognize the intricate relationship between individual behaviour, attitudes, external

structures, and socio-cultural issues. It follows then that objective reality as proposed by

positivist philosophy can be seen as only one aspect or dimension of reality. In describing the

nature of post-positivist philosophy, Forbes et al (1999) suggest that post-positivism is

concerned with establishing and searching for a warranted assertibility, that is, evidence that

is valid and sound proof for the existence of phenomena (Philips 1990). This is in contrast to


the positivist approach of making claims to absolute truth through the establishment of

generalisation and laws. Popper (1959) questioned the positivist claims to truth and scientific

knowledge through the process of induction. As Doyal (1993), a student and colleague of

Popper, explains: Popper argued that certainty or even high probability in knowledge was an

illusion because given the universal claims of scientific theories we can never prove them on

the basis of our particular experiences.

There may always be some potential observation or experiment that might demonstrate that

what we had previously thought to be true was, in fact false (Doyal 1993). For Popper,

falsification, that is, disproving of theories and laws, was much more useful than verification,

as it provided more purposeful research questions and practices (Easterby-Smith et al 1997).

The ideas of truth and evidence are allied mainly to positivist philosophy. The debate,

which centres on verification and falsification, fits well within the positivist view. However,

there are lessons for the researcher adopting a post-positivist approach. Popper (1969) asks

the researcher to be intentionally critical, to test ideas against the evidence to the limit and to

avoid being dictatorial in research. Smith (1998) suggests that falsification is as much an

attitude to research as a set of methodological procedures. While post-positivism continued to

consider the metaphysical as being beyond the scope of science, it was increasingly accepted

by post-positivists that although a real world driven by natural causes exists, it is impossible

for humans to truly perceive it with their imperfect sensory and mental capacity. From a

realist standpoint it is advocated that unobservable phenomena have existence and that they

can be used to explain the functioning of observable phenomenon (Guba 1990, Schumacher

and Gortner 1992). According to Letourneau and Allen (1999) post-positivist approaches

give way to both qualitative and quantitative methods. This is described as critical

multiplism (Guba and Lincoln 1998). Critical implies that, as in positivism, the need for

rigour, precision, logical reasoning and attention to evidence is required, but unlike

positivism, this is not confined to what can be physically observed. Multiplism refers to the

fact that research can generally be approached from several perspectives. Multiple

perspectives can be used to define research goals, to choose research questions, methods, and

analyses, and to interpret results (Cook 1985).

The limitations of post-positivist approaches generally relate to the interactive and

participatory nature of qualitative methods. Parahoo (1997) suggests that this is the main

weakness and is due to the proximity of the researcher to the investigation. Mays and Pope


(1995) summarise the main criticisms as: Firstly, that qualitative research is merely an

assembly of anecdote and personal impressions, strongly subject to researcher bias; secondly,

it is argued that qualitative research lacks reproducibility the research is so personal to the

researcher that there is no guarantee that a different researcher would not come to radically

different conclusions; and, finally, qualitative research is criticised for lacking

generalisability.

In summary, post-positivist approaches assume that reality is multiple, subjective, and

mentally constructed by individuals. The use of flexible and multiple methods is desirable as

a way of studying a small sample in depth over time that can establish warranted assertibility

as opposed to absolute truth. The researcher interacts with those being researched, and

findings are the outcome of this interactive process with a focus on meaning and

understanding the situation or phenomenon under examination.

Definitions of Research Design

A Research design is concerned with turning a research question into a testing project. The

best design depends on the research questions. Every design has its positive and negative

sides. The research design has been considered a "blueprint" for research, dealing with at

least four problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect, and

how to analyze the results.

Research design can be divided into fixed and flexible research designs (Robson, 1993).

Others have referred to this distinction with quantitative research designs and qualitative

research designs. However, fixed designs need not be quantitative, and flexible design need

not be qualitative. In fixed designs the design of the study is fixed before the main stage of

data collection takes place. Fixed designs are normally theory-driven; otherwise its

impossible to know in advance which variables need to be controlled and measured. Often

these variables are quantitative. Flexible designs allow for more freedom during the data

collection. One reason for using a flexible research design can be that the variable of interest

is not quantitatively measurable, such as culture. In other cases, theory might not be available

before one starts the research.

Differences between qualitative and quantitative


Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic

disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further

contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior

and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and

how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are

more often needed than large samples.

In the conventional view, qualitative methods produce information only on the particular

cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only propositions (informed assertions).

Quantitative methods can then be used to seek empirical support for such research

hypotheses. This view has been disputed by Oxford University professor Bent Flyvbjerg, who

argues that qualitative methods and case study research may be used both for hypotheses-

testing and for generalizing beyond the particular cases studied.[2]

Qualitative researchers may use different approaches in collecting data, such as the grounded

theory practice, narratology, storytelling, classical ethnography, or shadowing. Qualitative

methods are also loosely present in other methodological approaches, such as action research

or actor-network theory. Forms of the data collected can include interviews and group

discussions, observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials.

Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the primary basis for organizing

and reporting results. Qualitative researchers typically rely on the following methods for

gathering information: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes,

Reflexive Journals, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview, Unstructured Interview,

and Analysis of documents and materials.

The ways of participating and observing can vary widely from setting to setting. Participant

observation is a strategy of reflexive learning, not a single method of observing. In participant

observation researchers typically become members of a culture, group, or setting, and adopt

roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the aim is for the researcher to gain a closer

insight into the culture's practices, motivations and emotions. It is argued that the researchers'

ability to understand the experiences of the culture may be inhibited if they observe without

participating.


Some distinctive qualitative methods are the use of focus groups and key informant

interviews. The focus group technique involves a moderator facilitating a small group

discussion between selected individuals on a particular topic. This is a particularly popular

method in market research and testing new initiatives with users/workers.

One traditional and specialized form of qualitative research is called cognitive testing or pilot

testing which is used in the development of quantitative survey items. Survey items are

piloted on study participants to test the reliability and validity of the items.

In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitative research approaches

include the following:

1. Ethnographic Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing

data that is intended to help in the development of a theory. This method is also called

ethnomethodology or "methodology of the people". An example of applied

ethnographic research is the study of a particular culture and their understanding of

the role of a particular disease in their cultural framework.

2. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people communicate

and develop symbolic meanings.

3. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of

ethics as related to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.

4. Foundational Research, examines the foundations for a science, analyzes the beliefs,

and develops ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in light of new

information.

5. Historical Research allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the

present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current

issues and problems. Historical research helps us in answering questions such as:

Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going?

6. Grounded Theory is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the

observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources,

including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys.

7. Phenomenology describes the subjective reality of an event, as perceived by the

study population; it is the study of a phenomenon.

8. Philosophical Research is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a

specific field of study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study


to use an intellectual analysis, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or make a

value judgment concerning an issue in their field of study.

Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena

via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative

research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses

pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research

because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and

mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative data is any data that is in

numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc.. In layman's terms, this means that the

quantitative researcher asks a specific, narrow question and collects numerical data from

participants to answer the question. The researcher analyzes the data with the help of

statistics. The researcher is hoping the numbers will yield an unbiased result that can be

generalized to some larger population. Qualitative research, on the other hand, asks broad

questions and collects word data from participants. The researcher looks for themes and

describes the information in themes and patterns exclusive to that set of participants.

Quantitative research is used widely in social sciences such as psychology, economics,

sociology, and political science, and less frequently in anthropology and history. Research in

mathematical sciences such as physics is also 'quantitative' by definition, though this use of

the term differs in context. In the social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods,

originating in both philosophical positivism and the history of statistics, which contrast

qualitative research methods.

Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more

general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to verify which of

such hypotheses are true.

A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles published in the top two American sociology

journals between 1935 and 2005 found that roughly two thirds of these articles used

quantitative methods.

Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:

The generation of models, theories and hypotheses


The development of instruments and methods for measurement

Experimental control and manipulation of variables

Collection of empirical data

Modeling and analysis of data

In the social sciences particularly, quantitative research is often contrasted with qualitative

research which is the examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose

of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships, including classifications of

types of phenomena and entities, in a manner that does not involve mathematical models.

Approaches to quantitative psychology were first modeled on quantitative approaches in the

physical sciences by Gustav Fechner in his work on psychophysics, which built on the work

of Ernst Heinrich Weber. Although a distinction is commonly drawn between qualitative and

quantitative aspects of scientific investigation, it has been argued that the two go hand in

hand. For example, based on analysis of the history of science, Kuhn (1961, p. 162)

concludes that large amounts of qualitative work have usually been prerequisite to fruitful

quantification in the physical sciences. Qualitative research is often used to gain a general

sense of phenomena and to form theories that can be tested using further quantitative

research. For instance, in the social sciences qualitative research methods are often used to

gain better understanding of such things as intentionality (from the speech response of the

researchee) and meaning (why did this person/group say something and what did it mean to

them?) (Kieron Yeoman).

Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since people first began to record

events or objects that had been counted, the modern idea of quantitative processes have their

roots in Auguste Comte's positivist framework. Positivism emphasized the use of the

scientific method through observation to empirically test hypotheses explaining and

predicting what, where, why, how, and when phenomena occurred. Positivist scholars like

Comte believed only scientific methods rather than previous spiritual explanations for human

behavior could advance science.


E) DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data, for

example, as part of a process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection

is to obtain information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, to pass

information on to others. Primarily, data are collected to provide information regarding a

specific topic.

Data collection usually takes place early on in an improvement project, and is often

formalised through a data collection plan which often contains the following activity.

1. Pre collection activity agree on goals, target data, definitions, methods

2. Collection data collection

3. Present Findings usually involves some form of sorting analysis and/or

presentation.

Prior to any data collection, pre-collection activity is one of the most crucial steps in the

process. It is often discovered too late that the value of their interview information is

discounted as a consequence of poor sampling of both questions and informants and poor

elicitation techniques. After pre-collection activity is fully completed, data collection in the

field, whether by interviewing or other methods, can be carried out in a structured, systematic

and scientific way.


A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that data gathered are both defined

and accurate and that subsequent decisions based on arguments embodied in the findings are

valid. The process provides both a baseline from which to measure from and in certain cases

a target on what to improve.

Other main types of collection include census, sample survey, and administrative by-product

and each with their respective advantages and disadvantages. A census refers to data

collection about everyone or everything in a group or population and has advantages, such as

accuracy and detail and disadvantages, such as cost and time. A sample survey is a data

collection method that includes only part of the total population and has advantages, such as

cost and time and disadvantages, such as accuracy and detail. Administrative by-product data

are collected as a byproduct of an organization's day-to-day operations and has advantages,

such as accuracy, time simplicity and disadvantages, such as no flexibility and lack of

control.

Quantitative data collection methods

The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data

collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.

They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being

able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question,

participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the

researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to

statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is

to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ

probability sampling to select participants.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

Experiments/clinical trials.

Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the numbe

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