The Milgram Obedience Studies (1963 & 1965) And “Milgram Revisited” (Jerry Burger, 2009)
Research Methods Chapter 2. The Milgram Studies How would you have felt if you had been a teacher in...
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Research Methods
Chapter 2
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The Milgram Studies
How would you have felt if you had been a “teacher” in the Milgram study?
What would you have done? Would you have delivered a shock, or would you have refused? Are you
sure?
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Scientific Method
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The Testing Method
•Reliability: a measure of consistency; must yield similar results on different testing occasions
•Validity: the degree to which a test measures what it is suppose to measure
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Scientific Method
• Formulating a research question-Hypothesis:
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Hypothesis Examples
•School children who watch more violent TV shows tend to behave more aggressively.
• Verbal expression of feelings of anger will decrease feelings of depression
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Samples and Populations
• Example: Alf Landon defeated Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936 poll (Roosevelt won by landslide)- surveyed voters by phone-during Great Depression
Wealthy->phones>Republican
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Samples• Must accurately represent:
• Only representative samples allow us to ______________ from research samples to populations.
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Sample/Population
• Sample:
• Population:
• Infer:
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Problems in Generalizing
• Research sample (consider gender, age, ethnicity)
• Volunteer Bias
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Volunteer Bias
A source of ______ or _______ in research that reflects the prospect
that people who offer to participate in research
studies ________ systematically from people who don’t.
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Volunteer Bias
• More willing to ___________ intimate information
• Volunteers have more spare _______ than nonvolunteers
• How do they differ from the population at large?
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Problems with Generalization
• Demographic variables:_____
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Random Sampling
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QuestionIf scientists conducted research with a “random sample” of students from Valencia, would their sample represent the
general U.S. population? Why or why not?
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Survey/Naturalistic Observation
Day 2
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Research Methods• Descriptive ___________
• Correlation ____________
• Experimental explains (__________)
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Case Studies• In depth observation of a small number of cases
• Obtained through interviews, questionaires, and psychological tests
• Freud-studied his patients in great depth
• Genie
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Key Virtues• Can exhibit __________________ and suggest hypotheses
•Can study phenomena you cannot manipulate
•Can generate hypotheses to be tested
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Limitations•Can’t generalize nor replicate
•Observer bias could be present
•Cannot show causality•Psychologists can guide patients into saying what they want hear
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Example Case Study
Phineus Gage• Change in personality-began to use profanity-rude and irritable-drank excessively-could not keep a job
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Phineas Gage• Loss of sequencing ability:-would decide to do something-could not plan the steps-shift to something else
•Frontal lobe syndrome: •“Gage was not longer Gage”
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Survey• Reveals _____________ and _________________ of large sample of people
• Learn about behavior and mental processes that _______________ be observed in the natural setting or studied experimentally
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Limitations
• Limited generalization• Replication sensitive to sample selected
• Give socially desirable answers• Exaggerated answers to foul up results
• Different interviewers for different samples (gender, SES, ethnicity)
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Limitations (cont.)
•Easy to bias by _______________
-“Given the number of shootings in schools, should we regulate handguns? True or False
-Cannot establish causal relationships
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The Testing Method
•______________: a measure of consistency; must yield similar results on different testing occasions
•______________: the degree to which a test measures what it is suppose to measure
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Naturalistic Observation
•In depth observation of a phenomena as it occurs in the world
•Examples:-Goodall’s chimp studies-Piaget’s study of children
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Key Virtues
•Unobtrusive measures•Demonstrates phenomena in __________________________
•Permits study of complex phenomena
•Can generate testable hypotheses
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Limitations•Generalization and replication cannot be assumed
•No control over ____________ ____________
•Cannot establish causality
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Correlational MethodDay 3
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Correlational Method
Examines the extent to which two or more variables are related and can ___________
one another.
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Correlational Method
• Virtues:-reveals relations of variables outside the lab-replication possible
• Limitations:________________________________ relationships because you do not manipulate the variables
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Correlation Coefficient
•A number that varies between ____________________________
•Expresses the strength and direction (+/-) of the relationship between two variables
•Review page 58 (table 2.3)
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Positve Correlation
•A relationship between variables in which __________________________
_____________________________
• Example: Hours of study and GPA
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Positive Correlation
•A positive relationship means:
As (A) increases, so does (B)
Hours of study (A) is positively correlated with GPA (B)
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Negative Correlation
A relationship between two variables in which
__________________________________________________•Example: Hours of TV and GPA
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Negative Correlation
• A negative relationship means:As (A) __________, (B) ____________
Number of hours of TV (A) has a negative relationship with GPA (B)
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Correlation Research
• Correlational research may suggest but ____________________ cause and effect
• Often seems clear cut:Increase in Hours of study-> increase in GPA • But could go other way:Students doing well in school are motivated to study more
GPA-> Hours of study
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Correlation Research
• Or some third factor: Achievement Motivation could cause both
-> Hours of study-> GPATest: length of marriage is correlated with male baldness.
Does marriage cause baldness?
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Experimental Method
A scientific method that seeks to confirm _______ and
___________relationships by introducing independent
variables and observing their effects on dependent
variables.
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Experimental Method
•Treatment: in experiments, a condition ________________________ so that its effects may be observed.
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Independent Variable
A condition in a scientific study that is _____________ so that its effects may
be observed.
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Dependent Variable
•A measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable.
• The measured results, or ________________ in an experiment
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Experimental Research
Manipulate the Independent Variable (IV)
Holding all other variables constant
Observe the impact on the Dependent Variable (DV)
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Experimental Research
Example: Aggression & Alcohol
(IV): Alcohol-administered at different levels, doses
(DV):Aggressive behavior
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Experimental Research
• ___________________ Participants:Partake of the treatment (example: members would ingest alcohol)
• _____________________: do not take the treatment
(example: do not ingest alcohol)*** all other conditions are held constant
(helps determine cause and effect)
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Blinds and Double Blinds
Expectations:-Aggression may not have resulted from alcohol because individuals may have expectations of the effects of alcohol.
-People act in stereotypical ways when they believe they have been drinking alcohol.
(people may become less anxious in social situations, more aggressive, or more sexually aroused)
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Placebo
“___________________” often results in the behavior that people expect.
•Physicians now and then give sugar pills to demanding, but healthy people. They often report they feel better.
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Placebo
Example: Tonic water & alcohol• Giving participants placebo (tonic water) but they think they are drinking alcohol
• We can conclude that changes in behavior stem from their beliefs about alcohol, not the alcohol itself.
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BlindWell-designed experiments control for the effects
of expectations by creating conditions under which participants are
___________________________
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Double-Blind Studies
A study in which neither the participants nor the persons measuring results know who has
received the treatment.
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The Brain
Day 4
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The Brain
The ___________, or consciousness, dwells essentially
within the ____________.
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Accidents• Brain damage can impair consciousness and awareness
• Brain damage can result in loss of vision, hearing, confusion, and memory
• Sensitively located smaller portions can result in language problems, memory loss, or death
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Electrical Stimulation
• Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)-______________ of the brain are associated with specific types of ____________ or _________________-Ex: center of the brain (hypothalamus) linked to sexual and aggressive behavior
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Lesions•An injury that results in __________________ or __________________________
• Specific knowledge: damage to different parts of limbic system can effect behavior (gentleness, rage, new memories)
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Electroencephalograph
EEG:• An instrument that measures _____________________ of the brain
• Detects minute amounts of electrical activity (brain waves) that pass between the electrodes.
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Electroencephalograph
EEG:•Brain waves associated with feelings of relaxation and various _____________________
• Use EEG to diagnose abnormal behavior
•EEG helps locate ___________
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The CAT scanComputerized axial tomography
• ________________ passed through the head
• Amount of radiation measured• Three-dimensional view of the brain (detect brain damage, abnormalities)
• Option that replaces surgery
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The PET scanPositron Emission Tomography
• Formation of a computer-generated image of the neural activity of parts of the brain by tracing the amount of ___________________used by the various parts.
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The PET scan• Harmless radioactive compound (tracer) is mixed with glucose and injected into bloodstream
• Glucose reaches the brain• Patterns of brain activity are revealed (how active when listening to music, using languages, playing chess)
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MRIMagnetic Resonance Imaging
•Formation of a computer-generated image of the anatomy of the brain by measuring the signals emitted when the head is placed in a strong magnetic field.
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MRIMagnetic Resonance Imaging
• Relies on shifts in blood flow• Fast MRI has sharper images than PET scan
• Pinpoint parts of the brain that are active when subjects engage in activities (viewing shapes, reporting first verb that comes to mind when researchers say a noun)
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The Brain
• ___________________________________
• Within the brain lies the potential for self-awareness and purposeful activity
• For every mental event such as a thought or feeling there are underlying biological events
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Ethical Issues
Were the Milgram studies ethical? Why or why
not?
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Research with People
Ethics review committees:A group found in an
institutional setting that helps researchers consider the potential harm of their methods and reviews proposed studies according to ethical
guidelines.
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Research with People
__________________:The term used by psychologists
to indicate that a person has agreed to participate in
research after receiving information about the
purpose of the study and the nature of the treatments.
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Research with People
___________________:Secret, not to be disclosed• Conflict-client threatens third party then psychologists obligated to warn the third party
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Use of Deception
May use when:• _____________ outweigh the ________________
• Individuals would have participated if they understood the benefits of the research
• Participants receive explanation afterward
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The Use of Deception
Arguments against deception:
•Can harm the research participant
•Ruin the reputation of a psychologist (less trustworthy)
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Debriefed
•To elicit information about a just-completed procedure
•Helps to eliminate misconceptions and anxieties about the research
•Leave participants with their dignity intact
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Research with Animals
• Still faced with ethical dilemma of harming animals
• Animals should be harmed only when there is no alternative and they believe that the benefits will justify the harm