RESEARCH METHODS

RESEARCH METHODSRESEARCH METHODSMD AZIZUR MD AZIZUR RAHMAN RAHMAN

[email protected]@gmail.com

BASIC RESEARCH BASIC RESEARCH METHODSMETHODS

Quantitative researchQuantitative research Qualitative researchQualitative research Participatory researchParticipatory research

– Quantitative research - refers to the systematic Quantitative research - refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. phenomena and their relationships.

– Follows a deductive research process and involves the Follows a deductive research process and involves the collection and analysis of quantitative data to identify collection and analysis of quantitative data to identify statistical relations of variables.statistical relations of variables.

BASIC RESEARCH BASIC RESEARCH METHODSMETHODS

Qualitative researchQualitative research Participatory researchParticipatory research

– Qualitative research - follows an inductive research process Qualitative research - follows an inductive research process and involves the collection and analysis of qualitative data and involves the collection and analysis of qualitative data to search for patterns, themes, and holistic features.to search for patterns, themes, and holistic features.

– It is concerned with understanding the processes, which It is concerned with understanding the processes, which underlie various behavioural patterns. "Qualitative" is underlie various behavioural patterns. "Qualitative" is primarily concerned with "Why"primarily concerned with "Why"

– Participatory research - the subjects, usually oppressed or Participatory research - the subjects, usually oppressed or exploited groups, are fully involved in the research, from the exploited groups, are fully involved in the research, from the designing of topics to the analysis of data. ...designing of topics to the analysis of data. ...

– It makes a It makes a participatory approachparticipatory approach to learning as a central to learning as a central part of a research process.part of a research process.

Research MethodsResearch MethodsAnother classification is: Another classification is: Qualitative researchQualitative research

– Observation MethodObservation Method» Observational researchObservational research involves watching or observing involves watching or observing

various behaviours and patterns.various behaviours and patterns. Quantitative researchQuantitative research

– Quantitative research involves information or data in Quantitative research involves information or data in the form of numbers. the form of numbers.

– This allows us to measureThis allows us to measure or to quantifyor to quantify a whole a whole range of things. range of things.

– A common way of conducting quantitative research is A common way of conducting quantitative research is using a using a surveysurvey..

Types of Quantitative research Types of Quantitative research methodsmethods

Survey methodSurvey method Interview methodInterview method Focus groupsFocus groups Experimental methodExperimental method Case studiesCase studies

– Each of these methodologies helps to find out Each of these methodologies helps to find out different things in different ways. different things in different ways.

– These can be used on their own, or in a variety of These can be used on their own, or in a variety of combinations.combinations.

SURVEYSSURVEYS Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or written Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or written

questioningquestioning Surveys can be conducted in a number of ways.Surveys can be conducted in a number of ways.

Gathering Information via SurveysGathering Information via Surveys QuickQuick InexpensiveInexpensive EfficientEfficient AccurateAccurate FlexibleFlexible

ProblemsProblems Poor DesignPoor Design Improper ExecutionImproper Execution

BASIC SURVEY DESIGNSBASIC SURVEY DESIGNS

1.1. Cross-Sectional Surveys:Cross-Sectional Surveys: A study in which various segments of a population are sampled A study in which various segments of a population are sampled Data are collected at one point in time from a sample selected to Data are collected at one point in time from a sample selected to

represent a larger population.represent a larger population.

2. Longitudinal Surveys2. Longitudinal Surveys A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing analysis of A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing analysis of

changes over time.changes over time. Tracking study - compare trends and identify changes Tracking study - compare trends and identify changes

consumer satisfactionconsumer satisfaction

Longitudinal Surveys = Trend, Cohort, and PanelLongitudinal Surveys = Trend, Cohort, and Panel Trend: Surveys of sample population at different points in timeTrend: Surveys of sample population at different points in time Cohort: Study of same population each time data are collected, although Cohort: Study of same population each time data are collected, although

samples studied may be different. samples studied may be different. Panel: Collection of data at various time points with the same sample of Panel: Collection of data at various time points with the same sample of

respondents.respondents.

Advantages of SurveysAdvantages of Surveys Good for comparative analysis.Good for comparative analysis. Can get lots of data in a relatively short space of Can get lots of data in a relatively short space of

time.time. Can be cost-effective (if you use the Internet).Can be cost-effective (if you use the Internet). Can take less time for respondents to complete Can take less time for respondents to complete

(compared to an interview or focus group).(compared to an interview or focus group).

Disadvantages of SurveysDisadvantages of Surveys Responses may not be specific.Responses may not be specific. Questions may be misinterpreted.Questions may be misinterpreted. May not get as many responses as you expected.May not get as many responses as you expected. Don’t get full story.Don’t get full story.

MODES OF SURVEY MODES OF SURVEY ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION

Personal (Face-to-Face)Personal (Face-to-Face) TelephoneTelephone Mail (P+E)Mail (P+E) WebWeb Combination of MethodsCombination of Methods

Criteria to Decide the Mode of Data CollectionCriteria to Decide the Mode of Data Collection– Population + Characteristics of the Sample + Types of Questions + Population + Characteristics of the Sample + Types of Questions +

Question Topic + Response Rate + Cost + TimeQuestion Topic + Response Rate + Cost + Time

Personal InterviewsPersonal Interviews

Door-to-Door Personal Interview Door-to-Door Personal Interview

Speed of data collection - Moderate to fastSpeed of data collection - Moderate to fast

Geographical flexibility - Limited to moderateGeographical flexibility - Limited to moderate

Respondent cooperationRespondent cooperation - Excellent- Excellent

Versatility of questioningVersatility of questioning - Quite versatile - Quite versatile

Door-to-Door Personal Door-to-Door Personal InterviewInterview

Questionnaire lengthQuestionnaire length– LongLong

Item nonresponseItem nonresponse– LowLow

Possibility of respondent misunderstandingPossibility of respondent misunderstanding– LowestLowest


Degree of interviewer influence of answerDegree of interviewer influence of answer– HighHigh

Supervision of interviewersSupervision of interviewers– ModerateModerate

Anonymity of respondentAnonymity of respondent– LowLow


Ease of call back or follow-upEase of call back or follow-up– DifficultDifficult

CostCost– HighestHighest

Special featuresSpecial features– Visual materials may be shown or demonstrated; Visual materials may be shown or demonstrated;

extended probing possibleextended probing possible

Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys Speed of Data CollectionSpeed of Data Collection

– Very fastVery fast Geographical FlexibilityGeographical Flexibility

– HighHigh Respondent CooperationRespondent Cooperation

– GoodGood Versatility of QuestioningVersatility of Questioning

– ModerateModerate

Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys Questionnaire LengthQuestionnaire Length

– ModerateModerate Item NonresponseItem Nonresponse

– MediumMedium Possibility of RespondentPossibility of Respondent MisunderstandingMisunderstanding

– AverageAverage Degree of Interviewer Influence of AnswerDegree of Interviewer Influence of Answer

– ModerateModerate

Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys Supervision of interviewersSupervision of interviewers

– High, especially with central location WATS High, especially with central location WATS interviewinginterviewing

Anonymity of respondentAnonymity of respondent– ModerateModerate

Ease of call back or follow-upEase of call back or follow-up– EasyEasy

Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys CostCost

– Low to moderateLow to moderate Special featuresSpecial features

– Fieldwork and supervision of data collection are Fieldwork and supervision of data collection are simplified; quite adaptable to computer technologysimplified; quite adaptable to computer technology

Central location interviewingCentral location interviewing Computer-assisted telephone interviewingComputer-assisted telephone interviewing Computerized voice-activated interviewsComputerized voice-activated interviews

M A IL IN -P E R S O ND R O P -O F F

IN S E R TS F A X

P A P E RQ U E S TIO N N A IR E S

E -M A IL IN TE R N E TW E B S ITE

K IO S K

E L E C TR O N ICQ U E S TIO N N A IR E S

S E L F -A D M IN IS TE R E DQ U E S TIO N N A IR E S

Self-Administered Self-Administered QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

Mail SurveysMail Surveys

Speed of data collectionSpeed of data collection– Researcher has no control over return of Researcher has no control over return of

questionnaire; slowquestionnaire; slow Geographical flexibilityGeographical flexibility

– HighHigh Respondent cooperationRespondent cooperation

– Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will have Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will have low response rate low response rate

Mail SurveysMail Surveys Versatility of questioningVersatility of questioning

– Highly standardized formatHighly standardized format Questionnaire lengthQuestionnaire length

– Varies depending on incentiveVaries depending on incentive Item nonresponseItem nonresponse

– HighHigh

WEB SURVEYSWEB SURVEYSADVANTAGESADVANTAGES Lower cost (no paper, postage, mailing, data entry costs)Lower cost (no paper, postage, mailing, data entry costs) Can reach international populationsCan reach international populations Time required for implementation reducedTime required for implementation reduced Complex patterns can be programmedComplex patterns can be programmed Sample size can be greater Sample size can be greater

DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES Small % of homes own a computer and e-mail in IndiaSmall % of homes own a computer and e-mail in India Representative samples difficult - cannot generate random samples of Representative samples difficult - cannot generate random samples of

general population general population Differences in capabilities of people's computers and software for Differences in capabilities of people's computers and software for

accessing Web surveysaccessing Web surveys Different ISPs/line speeds limits extent of graphics that can be usedDifferent ISPs/line speeds limits extent of graphics that can be used

What are the issues to be What are the issues to be considered?considered?

What is your research question?What is your research question?

What is your target population?What is your target population?

What do you know about this population? What do you know about this population?

Do you have a sample frame? What shape is it in?Do you have a sample frame? What shape is it in?

Do you have an existing questionnaire?Do you have an existing questionnaire?

By when do you need your data?By when do you need your data?

How much money do you have?How much money do you have?

What factors goes into the What factors goes into the cost?cost?

professional time required to write, program questionnaireprofessional time required to write, program questionnaire professional time to design and implement sample planprofessional time to design and implement sample plan questionnaire length questionnaire length condition of the sample framecondition of the sample frame availability of the sample for interview availability of the sample for interview the saliency of the topic to the population the saliency of the topic to the population interviewer hiring and trainings interviewer hiring and trainings callback procedures callback procedures eligibility criteria (screening is VERY expensive)eligibility criteria (screening is VERY expensive) geographic dispersion of the sample (geographic dispersion of the sample (phone, personalphone, personal)) postage, mailing costs postage, mailing costs (mail)(mail) travel for interviewers to sample travel for interviewers to sample coding, data entrycoding, data entry

Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research Qualitative research helps us to give reasons why Qualitative research helps us to give reasons why

the numbers tell us what they do. the numbers tell us what they do. Often used together to get the ‘reasons for’ of what Often used together to get the ‘reasons for’ of what

we are trying to find out. we are trying to find out.

Face-to-face interviews and focus groupsFace-to-face interviews and focus groups The most common forms of qualitative research The most common forms of qualitative research

methods. methods. Face-to-face interviews are just meeting someone Face-to-face interviews are just meeting someone

in person and discussing various issues.in person and discussing various issues.

Face-to-face InterviewsFace-to-face Interviews Always prepare a set of questions to ask the Always prepare a set of questions to ask the

informant; informant; It is a good idea to record your interviews, so that It is a good idea to record your interviews, so that

you can check your facts later.you can check your facts later. Interviews shouldn’t really take more than an hour. Interviews shouldn’t really take more than an hour.

Usually 10 questions are enough for this amount Usually 10 questions are enough for this amount of time; of time;

Sometimes people transcribe the interview Sometimes people transcribe the interview recordings. recordings.

Advantages of face-to-face interviewsAdvantages of face-to-face interviews

Can allow for in-depth knowledge sharing;Can allow for in-depth knowledge sharing; Helps to develop the bigger picture;Helps to develop the bigger picture; Helps with analysis of results;Helps with analysis of results; Good for networking (e.g. you may be referred to other Good for networking (e.g. you may be referred to other

people to interview).people to interview).

Disadvantages of face-to-face interviewsDisadvantages of face-to-face interviews Can be time consuming;Can be time consuming; May be difficult to arrange an interview time;May be difficult to arrange an interview time; Can be difficult to compare and analyse information.Can be difficult to compare and analyse information.

Focus GroupsFocus GroupsFocus groups (e.g. TV show, small group of 3-10)Focus groups (e.g. TV show, small group of 3-10) Focus groups involve discussions with two or more Focus groups involve discussions with two or more

participants. participants. While questions for focus groups need to be prepared to While questions for focus groups need to be prepared to

guide and focus the discussions, guide and focus the discussions, the responses are often free-rangingthe responses are often free-ranging focus groups and interviews will help in giving focus groups and interviews will help in giving

explanations for quantitative data,explanations for quantitative data,

Focus groups can sometimes take time to arrange, so Focus groups can sometimes take time to arrange, so prepare in advance.prepare in advance.

Think about who you want to participate in the focus Think about who you want to participate in the focus group by referring to your group by referring to your research questionresearch question. .

The focus group facilitator holds an immense amount of The focus group facilitator holds an immense amount of power in the discussions. power in the discussions.

Advantages of Focus GroupsAdvantages of Focus Groups Good for community participation (grassroots input);Good for community participation (grassroots input); Helpful in developing ideas and sharing latent, or hidden, Helpful in developing ideas and sharing latent, or hidden,

knowledge spontaneously;knowledge spontaneously; Enables you to get information from a number of Enables you to get information from a number of

individuals simultaneously.individuals simultaneously.

Disadvantages of focus groupsDisadvantages of focus groups Can be difficult to set up;Can be difficult to set up; Participants may need to be paid;Participants may need to be paid; Need to be sensitive to who the facilitator is;Need to be sensitive to who the facilitator is; May need a translator;May need a translator; Sometimes difficult to organize and analyse information. Sometimes difficult to organize and analyse information.

ReadingsReadings1.1. Kothari, Kothari,

ANY ANY QUESTIONS QUESTIONS PLEASE???PLEASE???

Totalerror

Systematicerror (bias)

Random samplingerror

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Tree Diagram of Total Survey ErrorError

Random Sampling ErrorRandom Sampling Error A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation in A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation in

the elements selected for the sample.the elements selected for the sample. Sampling error is the deviation of the Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sampleselected sample from the from the

true characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of the true characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of the entire population.entire population.

The most frequent cause of the said error is a biased sampling The most frequent cause of the said error is a biased sampling procedure. procedure.

The researcher is able to minimize or eliminate The researcher is able to minimize or eliminate sampling error.. A larger sample size will have less sampling process error A larger sample size will have less sampling process error

compared to the study with smaller sample size. compared to the study with smaller sample size.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_error

Systematic ErrorSystematic Error Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of

the research design or from a mistake in the execution the research design or from a mistake in the execution of the research.of the research.

Systematic errors in experimental observations usually Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from the measuring instruments.come from the measuring instruments.

They may occur because: They may occur because: – there is something wrong with the instrument or its data there is something wrong with the instrument or its data

handling system, or handling system, or – because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter. because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.


Administrativeerror

Respondenterror


Sample BiasSample Bias Sample bias - when the results of a sample show Sample bias - when the results of a sample show

a persistent tendency to deviate in one direction a persistent tendency to deviate in one direction from the true value of the population parameterfrom the true value of the population parameter

Respondenterror

Nonresponseerror

Responsebias


Respondent ErrorRespondent Error

A classification of sample bias resulting A classification of sample bias resulting from some respondent action or inactionfrom some respondent action or inaction

»Nonresponse biasNonresponse bias»Response biasResponse bias

Nonresponse ErrorNonresponse Error

Nonrespondents - people who refuse to Nonrespondents - people who refuse to cooperatecooperate

Not-at-homesNot-at-homes Self-selection biasSelf-selection bias

» Over-represents extreme positionsOver-represents extreme positions» Under-represents indifferenceUnder-represents indifference

Responsebias

Unconsciousmisrepresentation

Deliberatefalsification


Response BiasResponse Bias

A bias that occurs when respondents A bias that occurs when respondents tend to answer questions with a certain tend to answer questions with a certain slant that consciously or unconsciously slant that consciously or unconsciously misrepresents the truthmisrepresents the truth

Acquiescence bias

Extremity bias

Interviewer bias

Auspices bias

Social desirability bias

Tree Diagram of Total Survey ErrorTree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Acquiescence BiasAcquiescence Bias

A category of response bias that results A category of response bias that results because some individuals tend to agree with because some individuals tend to agree with all questions or to concur with a particular all questions or to concur with a particular position.position.

Extremity BiasExtremity Bias

A category of response bias that results because A category of response bias that results because response styles vary from person to person; response styles vary from person to person; some individuals tend to use extremes when some individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions.responding to questions.

Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias

A response bias that occurs because the A response bias that occurs because the presence of the interviewer influences answers.presence of the interviewer influences answers.

Auspices BiasAuspices Bias

Bias in the responses of subjects caused by Bias in the responses of subjects caused by the respondents being influenced by the the respondents being influenced by the organization conducting the study.organization conducting the study.

Social Desirability BiasSocial Desirability Bias

Bias in responses caused by respondents’ Bias in responses caused by respondents’ desire, either conscious or unconscious, to desire, either conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or appear in a different social gain prestige or appear in a different social role.role.


Administrativeerror

Respondenterror


Administrative ErrorAdministrative Error

Improper administration of the research taskImproper administration of the research task BlundersBlunders

» ConfusionConfusion» NeglectNeglect» OmissionOmission

Data processing error

Sample selection error

Interviewer error

Interviewer cheating


Administrative ErrorAdministrative Error Interviewer cheatingInterviewer cheating -- filling in fake answers or filling in fake answers or

falsifying interviewers falsifying interviewers Data processing errorData processing error - incorrect data entry, - incorrect data entry,

computer programming, or other procedural computer programming, or other procedural errors during the analysis stage.errors during the analysis stage.

Sample selection error -Sample selection error -improper sample design improper sample design or sampling procedure execution.or sampling procedure execution.

Interviewer error - Interviewer error - field mistakesfield mistakes

RESEARCH METHODS

Education

Transcript of RESEARCH METHODS