Research Methodology
-
Upload
jasmine-whitaker -
Category
Documents
-
view
29 -
download
0
description
Transcript of Research Methodology
![Page 1: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Research Methodology
![Page 2: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Research Traditions
What is research?
Research is “the systematic approach to finding answers to questions.”
“Questions” comes first – questions drive inquiry; questions will inform the kind of research we do.
Quantitative and Qualitative research traditions
Both are “empirical,” involving the collection of original data (from human subjects).
Both are drive by identifiable conceptual and methodological assumptions.
![Page 3: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative research emphasizes:
•the systematic measurement and quantification of variables
•the statistical analysis of data
•the use of mathematic models and causal inferencing
Qualitative research emphasizes:
•thick description of the interactions of individuals and interpretations of these interactions
•heuristic (discovery oriented analysis of data)
•leading to “grounded theory.”
![Page 4: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Research Traditions
Assumptions about:
1.discovery
2.variables
3.data collection
4.data analysis
5.use of data
![Page 5: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
There is a “T”ruth that can be discovered.
Qualitative
Individuals socially construct meaning / “t”ruth, so truth is as relative as the number of individuals involved. Qualitative research is sometimes referred to as “interpretive,” for this reason.
Discovery
![Page 6: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
Few, parsimonious – goal is to isolate a single variable so that causation can be established.
Qualitative
Variables
![Page 7: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
Parsimonious
L. parsimonia "sparingness, frugality," from pars-, stem of parsi, perf. tense of parcere "to spare, save" + -monia, suffix signifying action or condition
Qualitative
“Thick description.” Goal is to consider all variables that might be pertinent.
Margaret Mead
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Hunter Thompson
Variables
![Page 8: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
Deductive: Researchers bring a theory to the study setting which is then tested in that setting.
Qualitative
Inductive: Theory arises from data – hence “grounded theory” – grounded in data. Theories inform researchers’ preparation for study, but doesn’t lock them into particular ways of understanding.
Data Collection
![Page 9: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Research Traditions
Competence data:
•error recognition / correction
•grammatical judgments
•cord sorting
Affective data:
•questionnaires
•matched-guise techniques
•diary studies
•focused introspection
Data CollectionPerformance data:•reading aloud•completion tasks•elicited imitation•reconstruction•role plays•oral interviews•composition
![Page 10: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
Statistical. Searching for statistically significant differences among samples around specific variables, in order to understand effects of interventions.
Qualitative
Heuristic. Searching data variously (taxonomic analysis, semantic relationships [x is a kind of y, etc.]) in order to understand a specific culture.
Data Analysis
![Page 11: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
By random sampling, generalize results from a small sample to a large population.
Qualitative
Not interested in generalizability. Results inform further study and help build theory (our interpretive understanding of a cultural setting).
Use of Data
![Page 12: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Statistics
1.Descriptive Statistics
The use of numbers to describe results.
•mean = average scores (etc.) from all participants
•SD = standard deviation ≈ average distance from the mean of all points in a data set
![Page 13: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Statistics
1 SD = 68 % of population (red)
2 SD = 95 % of population (red and green)
3 SD = 99 % of population (red, green, and blue)
![Page 14: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
1 SD = 68 % of population (green)
2 SD = 95 % of population (green and blue)
3 SD = 99 % of population (green, blue, and red)
Statistics
![Page 15: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
mean = 63.5 in. SD = 2.5 in. 61 in. 66 in.
58.5 in. 68.5 in.
Statistics: Height of US Women 18–74 (n =
6,588)
![Page 16: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Statistics: Example
![Page 17: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
2.42
1.28 3.56
Statistics: English Students
![Page 18: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
2.30
1.43 3.17
Statistics: ESL Students
![Page 19: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Statistics: Example
![Page 20: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics
Analysis of descriptive statistics. How do we know if the difference between two data sets (means, frequencies, correlations, and so on) is significant – i.e., attributable to something other than chance?
A variety of tests used to determine significance:
•Anova (analysis of variance)
•chi-square
•F-test
•t-test
•Pearson product moment correlation
![Page 21: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Statistics
Significance – means “attributable to something other than chance.”
Example: old teaching method v. new teaching method
Experimental method semester-end test scores are significantly higher than control method tests
If we have set up the study correctly, we may be able to conclude that the new method is the cause of higher student achievement.
![Page 22: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Statistics
Probability. Significance is usually expressed in terms of probability, “p” – for example:
p < .01
p < .05
refer to the probability that differences occurred through chance alone (as opposed to the influence of the experimental method).
![Page 23: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Statistics
p < .01 means there is less than 1 percent probability that chance alone explained our result; there is more than 99 percent probability that something other than chance explained our result.
p < .05 means there is less than 5 percent probability that chance alone explained our result; there is more than 95 percent probability that something other than chance explained our result.
p = 0.026 means that our inferential analysis has determined there to have been a 2.6 percent probability that chance alone explained our result; and a 97.4 percent probability that something other than chance explained our result.
![Page 24: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Statistics: Example
![Page 25: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Statistics: Example
So, while the results may be interesting …
![Page 26: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Statistics: Example
… they are not significant – i.e., we can’t contribute them to anything other than chance.
![Page 27: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Research Traditions
Quantitative
Correlation studies
Survey research
Experimental research
Qualitative
Case studies
Ethnographic research
Research Methods
![Page 28: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Research Methods
Correlation Studies (Quantitative tradition)
Purpose: to understand relationships among characteristics.
Issue: Correlation is NOT causation. Examples?
Cancer
clusters
![Page 29: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Research Methods
Correlation Studies (Quantitative tradition)
Analysis: Statistical, based on calculation of correlation coefficients.
![Page 30: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Research Methods
Correlation Studies (Quantitative tradition)
Analysis: Statistical, based on calculation of correlation coefficients.
![Page 31: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Research Methods
Correlation Studies (Quantitative tradition)
Example: Goldstein, L.M. (1987). Standard English: The only target for nonnative speakers of English? TESOL Quarterly, 21, 417-436.
The author examined the use of African American English (BVE) among Hispanic students. She found that those who had extensive contact with African American students used features of BVE more than students with less contact.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkcTpfcno-E
![Page 32: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Research Methods
Survey Research (Quantitative tradition)
Purpose: to learn about the characteristics of an entire group (population) by asking questions of a small component of that group (sample).
Issue: Random sampling.
Analysis: statistical, both descriptive (percentages, etc.) and inferential (i.e., looking at the relationships or correlations in the results.
![Page 33: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Research Methods
Survey Research (Quantitative tradition)
Example: Duran, R.P. (1987). Factors affecting development of second language literacy. In S.R. Goldman and H.T. Trueba (Eds.), Becoming literate in English as a second language (pp. 33-55). Norwood NJ: Ablex.
The author surveyed Hispanic freshmen concerning their basic language characteristics, their own rating of their academic skills, and their SAT scores. As a result of correlation analyses, the author found a positive relationship between high self-ratings and high SAT scores.
![Page 34: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Research Methods
Experimental Research (Quantitative tradition)
Purpose: to establish a cause / effect relationship between an independent variable (IV; the cause agent) and a dependent variable (DV; the agent acted upon).
Requires experiment and control groups and careful control of all but the IV so that causation (if any) can be established.
![Page 35: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Research Methods
Experimental Research (Quantitative tradition)
Issue: “true-ness” of experimentControl and
Experimental Groups?Random Sampling
Pre-Experiment No. Only 1 group, pre- and post-test structure
No. Use of extant group
Quasi-Experiment Yes. No. Use of extant groups
True Experiment Yes. Yes.
![Page 36: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Research Methods
Experimental Research (Quantitative tradition)
Analysis: Inferential statistics to determine if difference between groups are significant – that is, caused by the IV, not by chance alone.
Example: Carrell, P.L. (1985). Facilitating ESL reading by teaching text structure. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 461-481.
The author found that teaching rhetorical structures to ESL freshmen resulted in improved ability to recall information in related texts.
![Page 37: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Research Methods
Case Study Research (Qualitative tradition)
Purpose: to focus attention on a single entity (or a very small number) in a naturalistic setting.
Data is gathered through interviews, observations, diary accounts, text analysis, video / audio recording, etc.
Analysis: heuristic, piecing together patterns in the data.
![Page 38: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Research Methods
Case Study Research (Qualitative tradition)
Example: Kravin, H. (1992). Erosion of a language in bilingual development. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 13, 307-325.
The author analyzed the bilingual development of a six-year-old Finnish-American child. The study is primarily concerned with the processes by which one of the child’s languages begins to dominate the other. The author speculated in conclusion that the subordination of Finnish in the child is the result of limited linguistic input in that language.
![Page 39: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Research Methods
Ethnographic Research (Qualitative tradition)
Purpose: to examine culture, society, schooling, etc. for the purpose of understanding the processes of acculturation, socialization, learning, etc. from the perspective of individuals in the setting.
Data is gathered through interviews, observations, diary accounts, text analysis, video / audio recording, and participant observation.
Analysis: heuristic, discovery oriented
![Page 40: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Research Methods
Ethnographic Research (Qualitative tradition)
Example: Hornberger, N.H. (1987). Bilingual education success, but policy failure. Language in Society, 16, 205-226.
The author investigated bilingual education in a particular community in Peru through a two-year ethnographic study. Findings focus on the perceptions of the value of Spanish and Quechua among students and their families.
![Page 41: Research Methodology](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56812bd6550346895d903fbc/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
• Are there male/female differences in how invitations are extended between native speakers? How does non-native speaker behavior compare?
• Is there a sequence in which second language pronouns are acquired? If so, what is it?
• Does practice with sentence-combining result in learners producing longer T-units in their classroom compositions?
• What word-attack skills do learners naturally use when they encounter a word they don’t know?
• Is there a relationship between the age at which second language instruction begins and the level of SL proficiency achieved?