Research Issues and Techniques Research Issues and Techniques

General Psychology 1General Psychology 1Modules 1 & 2Modules 1 & 2

Jan. 27-Feb. 1, 2005Jan. 27-Feb. 1, 2005Classes #2 and #3Classes #2 and #3

Ethical Issues in PsychologyEthical Issues in Psychology

DeceptionDeception Experimentation on AnimalsExperimentation on Animals

Use of DeceptionUse of Deception

Milgram (1974)Milgram (1974) • Original study included 40 male college Original study included 40 male college

students as the participantsstudents as the participants• Several other versions were conducted Several other versions were conducted

by Stanley Milgram who was a professor by Stanley Milgram who was a professor at Yale University (approx. 1000 at Yale University (approx. 1000 subjects overall)subjects overall)

Milgram (1974)Milgram (1974)

Participants told experiment tested Participants told experiment tested the effects of punishment on verbal the effects of punishment on verbal learning (memory)learning (memory)• Participant (teacher)Participant (teacher)• Confederate (learner)Confederate (learner)

Milgram (1974)Milgram (1974)

Confederate is placed in “electric Confederate is placed in “electric chair”chair”

Participant sits in front of shock Participant sits in front of shock machine which is clearly labeledmachine which is clearly labeled

Milgram (1974)Milgram (1974)

Did they realize it was a hoax?Did they realize it was a hoax?• No, film of the experiments clearly No, film of the experiments clearly

show that subjects were very show that subjects were very uncomfortable – sweating, uncomfortable – sweating, fidgeting, giggling nervously, etc.fidgeting, giggling nervously, etc.

Milgram (1974)Milgram (1974)

How many of the subjects went all How many of the subjects went all the way and hit that final switch (450 the way and hit that final switch (450 volts) even after the learner had volts) even after the learner had apparently passed out????apparently passed out????

Ethical Implications Involved…Ethical Implications Involved…

Implications of this????Implications of this????

Ethical Implications Involved…Ethical Implications Involved…

Would never be done today – Would never be done today – considered unethicalconsidered unethical

American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological Association

Human Subjects Committee Human Subjects Committee Research Review Board (APA) Research Review Board (APA) guidelines:guidelines:• Use deception sparinglyUse deception sparingly• Must be good reason and no other way Must be good reason and no other way

to get meaningful resultsto get meaningful results• Can not cause any harm – physically or Can not cause any harm – physically or

psychologicallypsychologically• Full debriefing – make sure subjects Full debriefing – make sure subjects

leave testing laboratory in the same leave testing laboratory in the same mental state they arrivedmental state they arrived

Experimentation on AnimalsExperimentation on Animals

Animal activists: “psychological Animal activists: “psychological research on animals is done for ‘idle research on animals is done for ‘idle curiosity’ and nothing else”curiosity’ and nothing else”

Pro experimentation: Its okay to kill a Pro experimentation: Its okay to kill a million animals if it saves one humanmillion animals if it saves one human

APA Guidelines on animal experimentationAPA Guidelines on animal experimentation

APA guidelines for the ethical care and use APA guidelines for the ethical care and use of animals – there must be a of animals – there must be a reasonable reasonable expectationexpectation that the research will: that the research will:(1) increase knowledge of processes that (1) increase knowledge of processes that have significance insofar as behavior is have significance insofar as behavior is concerned (for example: the biological concerned (for example: the biological significance of behavior).significance of behavior).(2) increase understanding of the species (2) increase understanding of the species under studyunder study(3) provide results that benefit the health (3) provide results that benefit the health or welfare of humans or other animalsor welfare of humans or other animals

Research TechniquesResearch Techniques

We have limits to our intuition We have limits to our intuition and common sense…and common sense…• Hindsight biasHindsight bias• Overconfidence Overconfidence

Scientific approach is more Scientific approach is more reliable reliable

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias Fischhoff (1982)Fischhoff (1982)

• After the outcome of an event is known, people After the outcome of an event is known, people not only tend to view what has happened as not only tend to view what has happened as having been inevitable, but also tend to view it having been inevitable, but also tend to view it as having been relatively inevitable before it as having been relatively inevitable before it happenedhappened

• As a result, they believe that they, and others, As a result, they believe that they, and others, should have been able to anticipate the event should have been able to anticipate the event and they even and they even misremembermisremember their own their own predictions so as to exaggerate in hindsight predictions so as to exaggerate in hindsight what they knew in foresight what they knew in foresight

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias Although a nice hindsight bias may give us Although a nice hindsight bias may give us

the comforting feeling that we understand the comforting feeling that we understand what the past was all about, it may also what the past was all about, it may also prevent us from learning anything from prevent us from learning anything from that past that past

Psychologists also call this 20/20 hindsight Psychologists also call this 20/20 hindsight vision the vision the “I-knew-it-all-along “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon”phenomenon”

OverconfidenceOverconfidence

Judgmental overconfidenceJudgmental overconfidence• The tendency to be more confident then The tendency to be more confident then

correct – to overestimate the accuracy of one’s correct – to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgmentsbeliefs and judgments

• Vallone (1990)Vallone (1990) In this experiment, students predicted, at the In this experiment, students predicted, at the

beginning of the school year, whether or not they beginning of the school year, whether or not they would drop a course, vote in an upcoming election, would drop a course, vote in an upcoming election, call their parents more than twice a month, and so call their parents more than twice a month, and so forthforth

Although the students felt 84% confident in their Although the students felt 84% confident in their answers, they were only correct 71% of the timeanswers, they were only correct 71% of the time

OverconfidenceOverconfidence

When we try to predict events that are When we try to predict events that are chance events we tend to be unrealistically chance events we tend to be unrealistically confident in the accuracy of our predictionsconfident in the accuracy of our predictions• Especially about our own accomplishmentsEspecially about our own accomplishments

Examples:Examples:•At the beginning of the semester: “I’ll At the beginning of the semester: “I’ll

ace that Psych class”ace that Psych class”•At the beginning of a sports season: At the beginning of a sports season:

“I’m sure we’ll have a winning “I’m sure we’ll have a winning season”season”

So, instead of relying only on common sense…So, instead of relying only on common sense…

We can use it in the scientific methodWe can use it in the scientific method• See next slideSee next slide

Experimentation: Experimentation: The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

ObservationsObservations • ““You can observe a lot by watching”You can observe a lot by watching”

TheoriesTheories• Explains, organizes, and predicts observable Explains, organizes, and predicts observable

behaviorbehavior• This is where our common sense can helpThis is where our common sense can help

HypothesesHypotheses • Best guesses Best guesses • Testable predictionsTestable predictions

It’s a Continuous CycleIt’s a Continuous Cycle

theories

observations

hypotheses

Variables:Variables:Dependent and IndependentDependent and Independent

DVDV • Variable (behavior) you are measuring Variable (behavior) you are measuring

In my study: gambling tendenciesIn my study: gambling tendencies IV IV

• Variable or variables being manipulated Variable or variables being manipulated In my study: athletic statusIn my study: athletic status

Operational DefinitionsOperational Definitions

Clearly defining our variables…Clearly defining our variables…• What is gambling behavior?What is gambling behavior?• What is handicapped?What is handicapped?• What is fast?What is fast?

Allows others to be able to Allows others to be able to successfully replicate our experimentsuccessfully replicate our experiment

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

Experimental ConditionExperimental Condition• The condition of an experiment that exposes The condition of an experiment that exposes

participants to the treatment, that is, to one participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variableversion of the independent variable

Control ConditionControl Condition• The condition of an experiment that contrasts The condition of an experiment that contrasts

with the experimental treatment with the experimental treatment • Serves as a comparison for evaluating the Serves as a comparison for evaluating the

effect of the treatmenteffect of the treatment

ExperimentsExperiments

FeaturesFeatures• Manipulation of an Manipulation of an independent variableindependent variable and and

measurement of its effects on a measurement of its effects on a dependent dependent variablevariable

StrengthsStrengths• Can establish a cause-effect relationship Can establish a cause-effect relationship

between independent and dependent variablesbetween independent and dependent variables

WeaknessesWeaknesses• Confounding variables may prevent valid Confounding variables may prevent valid

conclusionsconclusions

When looking at your results…When looking at your results…

Research generates more questions Research generates more questions than answers…than answers…

Humility vs. arrogance (use humility Humility vs. arrogance (use humility please)please)

Don’t use the word “prove” here!Don’t use the word “prove” here!

Research ParticipantsResearch Participants

90% of researchers work at college 90% of researchers work at college universities universities

Most participants (subjects) in Most participants (subjects) in research studies are college students research studies are college students mostly from Intro to psych coursesmostly from Intro to psych courses

Often a requirement in most Often a requirement in most universitiesuniversities

Sears (1986)Sears (1986)

Looked at the major journals in social Looked at the major journals in social psych from 1980-1985 and found psych from 1980-1985 and found this:this:• 74% are college undergrads74% are college undergrads• 51% from psych classes51% from psych classes• 8% are other students8% are other students

Problems with this???Problems with this???

So, we have the majority being 17-19 So, we have the majority being 17-19 year-olds and overloaded with white, year-olds and overloaded with white, middle-class as wellmiddle-class as well

Other Potential Limitations…Other Potential Limitations…

(1) Do people behave differently just (1) Do people behave differently just because it’s a psychological study?because it’s a psychological study?

(2) Be careful of “experimenter bias” (2) Be careful of “experimenter bias” which can occur when the which can occur when the experimenter knows the conditions experimenter knows the conditions participants are placed inparticipants are placed in

Do participants behave Do participants behave differently in these studies? differently in these studies?

Orne (1962) looked at this issue and Orne (1962) looked at this issue and raised some serious questions about raised some serious questions about psychological studies in general…psychological studies in general…

Experimenter BiasExperimenter Bias

Be careful to avoid “producing” Be careful to avoid “producing” results you wantresults you want

““Placebo effect”Placebo effect”

Created by subject’s expectationsCreated by subject’s expectations• For example, participants might improve For example, participants might improve

when taking a “sugar pill”, might act when taking a “sugar pill”, might act drunk when drinking something they drunk when drinking something they think contains alcohol, etc.think contains alcohol, etc.

How do we solve these problems?How do we solve these problems?

Single-blind designSingle-blind design Double-blind designDouble-blind design

Other potential problems…Other potential problems…

Confounding variablesConfounding variables

SamplingSampling

Convenience sampleConvenience sample Representative sampleRepresentative sample Random sampleRandom sample Cross-cultural sampleCross-cultural sample

Naturalistic ObservationsNaturalistic Observations

FeaturesFeatures• Observations of humans or animal behavior in Observations of humans or animal behavior in

the environment in which it typically occursthe environment in which it typically occurs

StrengthsStrengths• Provides descriptive data about behavior Provides descriptive data about behavior

presumably uncontaminated by outside presumably uncontaminated by outside influencesinfluences

WeaknessesWeaknesses• Observer bias and participant self-Observer bias and participant self-

consciousness can distort resultsconsciousness can distort results

Case StudiesCase Studies

FeaturesFeatures• Intensive examination of the behavior and Intensive examination of the behavior and

mental processes associated with a specific mental processes associated with a specific person or situationperson or situation

StrengthsStrengths• Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new,

complex, or rare phenomenoncomplex, or rare phenomenon WeaknessesWeaknesses

• May not provide representative picture of May not provide representative picture of phenomenaphenomena

SurveysSurveys

FeaturesFeatures• Standard set of questions asked of a large Standard set of questions asked of a large

number of participantsnumber of participants

StrengthsStrengths• Gather large amounts of descriptive data Gather large amounts of descriptive data

relatively quickly and inexpensivelyrelatively quickly and inexpensively WeaknessesWeaknesses

• Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and response biases can distort resultsresponse biases can distort results

CorrelationsCorrelations

FeaturesFeatures• Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly

one variable is related to anotherone variable is related to another StrengthsStrengths

• Allows researcher to better formulate their Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore furtherfurther

Weaknesses Weaknesses • Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in

a second)a second)

CorrelationsCorrelations

Statistically speaking, it refers to how Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one variable is related to strongly one variable is related to another…another…

Positive CorrelationPositive Correlation• Two variables either increase or Two variables either increase or

decrease togetherdecrease together Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the

number of pregnancies increased at the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as did the number of rainy days same rate as did the number of rainy days

CorrelationsCorrelations

Negative CorrelationNegative Correlation• The variables move in opposite The variables move in opposite

directions directions Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the

number of pregnancies increased at the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as the number of rainy days same rate as the number of rainy days decreaseddecreased

Correlations do not mean cause Correlations do not mean cause and effectand effect

Correlation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation and Causation

Illusory CorrelationIllusory Correlation

A perceived correlation that does not A perceived correlation that does not really existreally exist

For example: Infertile couples who For example: Infertile couples who adopt become more likely to adopt become more likely to conceive conceive

StatisticsStatistics

Helps us to make sense of our dataHelps us to make sense of our data

StatisticsStatistics

Measures of Central TendencyMeasures of Central Tendency• ModeMode• Mean Mean • MedianMedian

Measures of VariationMeasures of Variation• RangeRange• Standard DeviationStandard Deviation

Standard DeviationStandard Deviation One standard One standard

deviation away from deviation away from the mean in either the mean in either direction on the direction on the horizontal axis (the red horizontal axis (the red area on the graph) area on the graph) accounts for accounts for somewhere around 68 somewhere around 68 percent of the people percent of the people in this group. Two in this group. Two standard deviations standard deviations away from the mean away from the mean (the red and green (the red and green areas) account for areas) account for roughly 95 percent of roughly 95 percent of the people. And three the people. And three standard deviations standard deviations (the red, green and (the red, green and blue areas) account for blue areas) account for about 99 percent of about 99 percent of the people the people

Statistical SignificanceStatistical Significance

When the difference observed When the difference observed between two groups is between two groups is probablyprobably not not due to chance factorsdue to chance factors

Common alpha levels (levels of Common alpha levels (levels of significance) are set at .05 or .01significance) are set at .05 or .01

Medical experiments often set theirs Medical experiments often set theirs at .001at .001