Research Article Sacred Groves: The Consequence of...

Research ArticleSacred Groves The Consequence of Traditional Management

Arpita Vipat and Erach Bharucha

Institute of Environment Education and Research Bharati Vidyapeeth University Pune 411030 India

Correspondence should be addressed to Erach Bharucha arpita iifm14yahoocom

Received 4 September 2014 Accepted 21 October 2014 Published 10 November 2014

Academic Editor Kaushik Bose

Copyright copy 2014 A Vipat and E Bharucha This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

TheWestern Ghats are one of the globally recognized ldquohot spotsrdquo of biodiversity in India In Maharashtra small patches of forest intheGhats are protected by local people as ldquosacred grovesrdquoThey are called ldquoDevrairdquo which have beenmanaged by local people and arededicated to the deity in the grove These groves act as benchmarks of less disturbed vegetation The study has been conducted onfifteen groves through detailed expert and semistructured interviews of their priests and locals have been conducted to appreciatetheir traditional management systems There is no evidence to show that the groves were intended primarily for biodiversityconservation or as a science based natural resourcemanagement strategy Biodiversity conservation of groves is thus a by-product ofa traditional belief of locals in the supernatural power of the forest deityThe concept of ICCAs (Indigenous Community ConservedAreas) and making registries of local knowledge of biodiversity as a tool for developing future conservation initiatives can act as auseful strategy to preserve the groves in the face of regional development pressures and gain government recognition for protectingthe groves in the long term

1 Introduction

Traditional knowledge has been used for centuries by indige-nous local communities to manage natural resources underlocal laws customs and traditions [1] Many traditionalsocieties all over the world revere and worship nature andconsider certain plants and animals sacredThe sacred grovesin the Western Ghats are small patches of ancient forestdedicated to local animistic deities [2 3] These groves area rich source of fruit bearing trees and small water bodiesand act as habitat for several birds and reptiles Resourceextraction in the groves is limited by a variety of rules toplacate the deityThis has resulted in the development of relictpatches of climax forest [4] Cultural and biological diversityis even today relevant as a tool for nature conservation [5] thatis foremost for sacred grove conservation in Maharashtra

The Western Ghats of India are one of the 34 globallyimportant biodiversity hot spots [6 7] In 2006 the WesternGhats were proposed as a protected ldquoWorld Heritage Siterdquoand this has now been accepted by UNESCOMulshi Districtnested in the Ghats is a key site for conservation actionIn Maharashtra the ldquosacred grovesrdquo in the Ghats which arelocally called ldquoDevrairdquo are key hot spots of biological diversity

The Devrai word came from two local words that is Devmeans God and rai means forest So it means godrsquos forest isDevrai Such forest patches are considered a sacred forest bylocals so they are called sacred groves The groves thus act askey benchmarks of less disturbed vegetation in a mosaic ofother traditional and modern forms of land use The grovesplay a role in maintenance of the local ecological balanceconservation ofwatersheds and preservation of bioresourcesSustainable use of resources and use of management princi-ples for different landscape elements are frequently linked toculturally distinct sentiments

In the villages in which groves are protected regionallyrelevant folk knowledge supports traditional conservationpractices Local people have evolved their own traditionalrules and management based on ancient practices which ledto conservation and maintenance of the groves as relativelyintact patches of forests as a by-product of their religioussentiments [8] During the last two decades farmers have soldlarge pieces of land to speculators for urbanization This isdue to the enormous rise in the price of landThis change hastriggered several socioeconomic and cultural aspects in theregion with a consequent loss of protective sentiments for thesacred groves

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of AnthropologyVolume 2014 Article ID 595314 8 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014595314

2 Journal of Anthropology

Table 1 Location of fifteen sacred groves in Mulshi

Sr number Name of the grove Name of the deity Village Location Present status

1 Dhigiaairai Dhigiaai devi Bhiravwadi 18∘321015840223310158401015840N73∘301015840586610158401015840E P

2 Waghjai Waghjai devi Sonarwadi 18∘321015840265010158401015840N73∘301015840596810158401015840E P

3 Rai Waghjai devi Wadwathar 18∘33101584004710158401015840N73∘291015840292610158401015840E Th

4 Waghjairai Waghjai devi Chandiwali 18∘35101584095310158401015840N73∘28101584044710158401015840E Th

5 Firnangairai Firnangai devi Sarole 18∘251015840411810158401015840N73∘231015840247210158401015840E P

6 Firnangairai Khagjai devi Sarole 18∘251015840411810158401015840N73∘231015840247210158401015840E P

7 Kalkairai Kalkai devi Kondether 18∘231015840523610158401015840N73∘231015840561810158401015840E Th

8 Vinjai rai Vinjai devi Tamini 18∘261015840257210158401015840N73∘251015840391710158401015840E P

9 Kalubai chi rai Kalubai Lavarde 18∘23101584068910158401015840N73∘291015840151710158401015840E D

10 Bhiruoba cha ran Bhiruoba Lavarde 18∘211015840327810158401015840N73∘30101584000910158401015840E Th

11 Kanguram Kangur maharaj Kanguram 18∘241015840252210158401015840N73∘301015840572810158401015840E Th

12 Kanguram Waghjai Kanguram 18∘241015840234610158401015840N73∘301015840533610158401015840E P

13 Kolavade rai Bhiravnath Kolavade 18∘271015840186610158401015840N73∘331015840309310158401015840E Th

14 Kharavade rai Mhasoba Kharavade 18∘271015840153310158401015840N73∘351015840268010158401015840E D

15 Vandev rai Vanoba Temghar 18∘231015840298610158401015840N73∘301015840403010158401015840E D

P protected Th threatened and D destructed

2 Methods

This study has been carried out in and around the sacredgroves of Mulshi region in Maharashtra The research datahas been collected through transects walks and discussionswith local people Seven detailed expert interviews with localpriests and ninety-three semistructured interviews were car-ried out with elders and local village folk to understand thelocal relevant institutional management used for protectingtheir sacred groves Semistructured interviews are the onesthat have a flexible and fluid structure unlike structuredinterviews that have a prepared sequence of questions tobe asked in the same way of all interviewees [9] Thesemistructured interviews can modify or deflect from topicas per the requirement of study During the interviewsmostlythe locals diverted from the topic but the given informationwas also useful So in such case the formal interviews sessionswere avoided and we had supple interview session with thelocals

The fifteen sacred groves studied are linked to tribaldeities and often occur in inaccessible areas at higher ele-vations near the crest line of the Ghats at a considerabledistance from the villages (Table 1) Among the fifteen sacred

groves ten are dedicated to female deities and five to maledeities The female deities of the groves are unshaped stonespainted with red color (sindhur) and the male deities areoften roughly sculpted black stone figures The names of theanimistic deities are frequently related to the ferocious tigersor tigresses that once roamed these forests which had to beappeased

Each village is located around their sacred grove Sothat villagers can access the grove for worship and resourceextraction The tribal communities Dhangar and MahadeoKoli and the agropastoral community Maratha worship thedeities and look after the groves They are forest dependentcommunities and Marathas carry out agricultural practicesDhangar and Mahadeo Koli survive by extracting forestresources and sometimes also work on agricultural field ofMarathas such as on their agricultural field and take care oftheir cattle

Transect walks were made with local stakeholders tostudy the utilization of resources from the groves which arecommonly collected by local communities for consumptiveand productive uses from within and outside the grove Theknowledge of the resources that can be collected from thegroves and those that are considered taboo is spread from one

Journal of Anthropology 3

person to another without any written rules The groves varyfrom one to eight hectares in size but are occasionally muchlarger The forest patches contain a rich repository of plantspecies massive old trees covered with lianas and climbersThey are frequently associated with an emergent stream andhave better soil as compared to adjacent areas

3 Result

The groves have not been measured or demarcated by theForest Department Revenue Administration or by the localPanchayats (local government) This makes the boundaryrather flexible and denoted only by the change in vegeta-tion There was no evidence to show that the groves weremaintained for their biodiversity conservation potential orfor protecting their natural resource for the future Thepreservation of groves is a result of strong ancient beliefs thatany damage to the grove would anger the deity who wouldtake revenge on the intruder who desecrates its integrityIn Mulshi most groves cannot be entered by local womenIncidentally women are the main resource use collectors inthis region and this normmay act as an additional protectionagainst overexploitation of resources within the groves

Levels of sustainability the assessment of sustainabilityof a grove in terms of economic social and environmental(ecological) parameters is depicted in Table 2 This has beenconsidered in terms of the different local consumptive andproductive uses of resources and ecological services providedby the grove There has been a perceptible loss of protectivesentiments and religious perceptions of local people towardsthe preservation of these groves during the last couple ofdecades New strategies for their management must thusattempt to drive unsustainable practices towards sustainablelevels through locale specificmanagement by enhancing localcommunity initiatives if the groves are to be conserved in thefuture

4 Discussion

Need for conservation of sacred groves most authoritiesin the past [10] and others emphasized that extraction ofresources from the grovewas strictly prohibitedThis is not sotoday in the groves of theMulshi District where developmentin the form of land use change is increasing rapidly over thelast decade These groves are important today as they arepotential banks of genetic diversity that must be preservedIn the local context the sacred groves have ecological valueseconomic concerns societal functions and use of traditionalsacred rituals and customs for management The long termeconomic value of sacred groves is difficult to assess as itwill only become overt when new uses are found for its rareand endemic species of flora and fauna Conservation ofsacred groves however acts as a contributor to maintenanceof local and regional biodiversity and maintenance of thecomprehensive health of a landscape and preservation of thesociocultural integrity of local communities [4 11 12]

Policy and institutional aspects of resource managementin the sacred groves in the sacred groves resource use

40

40

20

Present status of sacred groves in Mulshi region of the Western Ghats

ProtectedThreatenedDestructed

Figure 1 Present status of sacred groves in Mulshi region of theWestern Ghats

0

98 8

2

6 6

2

Loppedwood

collection

Deadwood

dry leavescollection

Fruitcollection

Flowercollection

Toddycollection

Grazing Medicinalplant

collection

Noresource

collection

Resource collection from sacred groves of Mulshi region

Figure 2 Resource collection from the fifteen sacred groves ofMulshi region

is controlled by local institutional arrangements that haveprotected the groves throughmany generationsThese normsare known not only to the presiding priests but also to mostof the villagers of all the different local communities in eachvillage This includes complete protection in one grove andpartial protection in twelve groves (Figure 1) Two of thegroves have been completely destroyed due to constructionof a dam For example complete protection is observed inthe Kalkai sacred grove where nothing can be taken or usedIn the Bhiravwadi and Wadwathar groves ldquotoddyrdquo (liquor)is tapped In the Kanguram sacred grove medicinal plantssuch as ldquoringnirdquo is used to cure dental problems From theeight groves fruits such as Mangifera indica and Artocarpusheterophyllus are collected The seasonal collection of flowersfrom the grove includes overextraction of Curcuma elata aflower used for rituals at theGanesh festivalThese flowers areextensively collected in eightgroves from August to OctoberIn six of the groves grazing cattle is permitted In nine grovesdead fallen branches of the trees can be used as fuel wood(Figure 2)

Societal functions of sacred groves and localmanagementconcerns there are local institutions and rules of behavior


Table 2 Levels of sustainability of sacred groves

Economic concerns Societal concerns Environmental (ecological) concernsUnsustainable Sustainable Unsustainable Sustainable Unsustainable Sustainable

Biodiversityvalues (faunaland floral)

Destruction ofhabitat andpoaching of speciesfor economicreasons

Conservation ofindigenous plantspecies for theiroption valueconsumptive andproductive value ofresources

Exploitation byoutside people forvarious uses suchas a picnic spot

Understanding theconcept ofintellectualproperty rights(IPR)Sustainability ofresources by localtraditional forestcommunities

Loss of biodiversityat all levels leadingto destruction ofsacred grove whichis responsible forloss of overallecosystemintegrity

Need for bettermanagement byestablishingCommunityConserved Areas(CCAs)

Increasing cost ofland forurbanizationoveruse forpharmaceuticals

Extraction of forestproducts should belimited to permitadequateregeneration

Wild flowers usedin rituals

Traditions thatsafeguard the forestshould beencouraged

Due todeforestation anddegradation thebiodiversity of thearea is adverselyaffected

Stringentimplementation oflaws andBiodiversity Act2004

Overexploitationof forest productsfor extensive use oftimber andnontimber forestproduct (NTFP)

Carrying capacityof the forests mustnot be exceeded

Local people ortraditional forestdwellers aredeprived of theirrights over theforest

Limited use ofdetritus for ruralenergy

Bettermanagementthrough localinvolvement byestablishing CCAs

Plantations of localspeciesEcodevelopment ofsurroundingvillage

Use of localespecificecorestoration andecotourism toreduce threat

Surroundingland use(grazingfodder)

Unsustainablechange in land usepattern due toshort termeconomic gainLand speculation

Land use patternshould be such thatenvironmentalconcerns areaddressed

No land for localtribal-forestdwellers who aredeprived of theirtraditional rightsover the forest

Use of conceptsand programmeslike communityreserves jointforest management(JFM) andecodevelopment

Loss of preciousbiodiversityincrease indeforestationincrease inwastelandsUrban sprawlleading to poverty

Linkages toregional ProtectedArea Networkecorestoration ofdegradedlandscape andformation ofcorridor forest

Agriculture

Intensiveagriculturedepending on cashcrops Change incropping patternfor short termeconomic gain forexamplecultivation ofsugarcane and usefor Japanesetechnique for ricecultivation

Traditionalagriculturalsystems thatpermit a widerange of produce tobe grown andmarketedthroughout theyear

Farmers receiveeconomicincentives to growcash crops fornational andinternationalmarket rather thanto supply localnutritional needs

Traditional hillslope agriculture(nachni varai etc)should beencouraged as it isan insuranceagainst the failureof one crop

Reduction in soilfertility due tochange intraditionaltechniques highrisk of drought andflood conditionsdesertification dueto overgrazing firechange in land useto urban settings

Mix crops or croprotation should bepracticed tomaintain the soilfertility and properselection of thecrops dependingupon the soilstructure andrestriction ofgrazing areasshould beimplemented

Pilgrimage

Overexploitationof fuel woodduring annual fest

Offer of money tothe deity which ishelpful formaintenance of thesacred grove

Enormous increasein the number oftourists andpilgrims

Control onnegative activitiesof tourists andpilgrims

Solid wastepollution of plasticwrappers and soforth

Ecotourismtraining

Initiatives forlocal


7

40

33

20

Present management authority of sacred groves in Mulshi region of the Western Ghats

Privately ownedCommunity owned

Temple trustDestructed

Figure 3 Present management authority of sacred groves inMulshiregion of the Western Ghats

towards the sacred site which lead to resource preservationThe expert interviews which have been recorded from localpriests emphasize the societal aspects rather than the man-agement concerns of sacred groves Ownership plays a vitalrole in local management (Figure 3) The grove land may beprivately owned by an individual family owned commonproperty of the village panchayat (local government) landsor recently created temple trusts Cultural practices relatedto the sacred groves vary considerably Among the fifteensacred groves studied only one grove is privately ownedwhichwas bought in 1956 by the father of the present owner ofthe grove In Tamini Kharavade and Kolavade villages thelocal people have established temple trustsThe ownership ofgrove has an impact on resource use and level of protectionas the trust is responsible for implementing local rules It isalso linked to other cultural aspects such as animal sacrificeand Kaul ceremonies In case of Kharavade sacred grovevillagers have created trust for better management of sacredgrove These temple trusts act as extra income source forvillagers It is responsible for maintenance of the grove andmanagement of pilgrims They have constructed a bhaktaniwas (lodge) for pilgrims in the adjacent villages Theytake charges from pilgrims for providing a common facilityto stay drinking water and sanitation The money is usedfor maintenance of the temple The trustee and membersorganize an annual fest for the deity So such social gatheringgives large amount of money from devotee Presently thegrove which was surrounded by trees is converted into acommercialized temple only Generally the priest of the groveis the managing authority of the trust So it is his beliefs anddecision to make changes in the grove For example in thecase of Chandiwali sacred grove the decision is based on localtraditional ceremonyKaulThis ceremony is executed by localpriests in front of the village deity to solve local problemsThevillagers of Chandiwali wanted to construct a temple insidethe grove In order to take permission from deity the Kaulceremony was conducted In this ritual the deity is supposed

to take correct decisions for the village The priest places twobeetle nuts or wheat grains in two water droplets that trickledown the side of the deityrsquos platform One grain of wheat isplaced in the right trickle of water and another is placed inthe left trickleThe objects are held to the side of the platformby surface tension of the water The priest asks the deity fora ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo response to a question The question may belinked to permission to fell a tree or help in solving social orpersonal problems of villagers If the right grain falls off thedeityrsquos platform first it is considered a good omen and theanswer is a ldquoyesrdquo If the left falls first it is a bad omen andthe answer is a ldquonordquo The villagers got left grain that meanstemple should not be constructed Indirectly their beliefs savethe forest because construction of temple will harm the wholeforest patch This ritual was performed frequently in the pastand resulted in refusing permission for felling of trees in thegrove The stochastic chance would be about fifty percentThe younger Pujaries (priests) have stopped performing theseceremonies in the last two decades as they believe that theprevious generation had divine powers which they do notpossess

Current threat due to the developmental programs andland use change in the area the groves and their surroundsare being degraded The whole Temghar village has beenrelocated due to the construction of Temghar damThere wasa large sacred grove in the area dedicated to the deity Vanoba(Van in the local language means ldquoforestrdquo) In Wadwatharand Kanguram village sacred groves have been fragmenteddue to construction of a tarred road passing through thegroves Among the fifteen sacred groves three of the shrineshave been converted into temple trusts in the recent pastDevelopment of trusts for managing the groves is responsiblefor degradation of ancient traditional management systemsThe traditionalmanagement system led to the conservation ofindigenous knowledge as well the protection of biodiversityof the groves The change is also responsible for an increasein the number of pilgrims from distant places This resultsin unmanageable amounts of nondegradable solid wastebiodegradable garbage and air and noise pollution insidethe groves In the past it was not possible to build a largetemple as local traditional management insisted that it hadto be completed overnight It also required that a successfulldquoKaulrdquo ceremony was done and divine permission had to beobtained from the deity before construction

During expert interviews the impacts of development onthe sacred groves were discussed with local people Theymainly link the impacts on the groves to surrounding changesin the economics of land and resources that are drivenby neighboring urban markets The possible conservationstrategies that could help to restore the ldquonaturalnessrdquo ofdegraded sacred groves were discussed with local people andtheir active participation has been assessed

Ecological management the existing management func-tions are usually cryptic and are not generally associatedwith managerial functions by the local community Localpeople do not associate the groves with issues such asthe need for biodiversity conservation or integrity of waterresources However these ldquomodernrdquo surrogate values can beused to strengthen local support for groves that are being


threatened by the increasing economic value of land andortimber value sequestrated in the groves The local peoplecan be made aware of some of the ecological functions ofthe grove through an awareness campaign and a schooleducation program This must include the importance ofbiodiversity values especially rare endangered threatenedand endemic flora and fauna of the grove the role of the grovein local sustainable land use management functions relatedto water management and soil preservation the economicpotential as a gene pool of wild relatives of crops and theavailability of seed banks of rare trees that are present inthe grove The role of the grove for microclimate controlthe importance of carbon sequestration and the economicpotential of the grove through sustainable tourism can beexplained to local people to support management of thegroves [13]The sacred groves improve the soil stability of thearea thus preventing erosion Further these habitats maintainmicroclimate enhance nutrient cycling and can be used as aunique focus of in situ conservationThe sacred groves act assmall less disturbed islands of vegetation and are an asylumfor endemic and endangered plant and animal species [14]The groves in Mulshi act as store houses of medicinal plantsand wild plants that could help as sources of gene pools forcultivar varieties These concepts must now be included inredrafting of management practice by the local communitywhere necessary as their traditional knowledge is not overtlylinked to complex scientific foundations of ecological theory

Biodiversity conservation management expert inter-views demonstrated that these management functions arenot understood precisely by local people as the concepts areessentially not a part of their local traditional knowledgesystems If howevermodern concepts of conservation biologyare explained in the local language these functions are easilyappreciated Most respondents agreed that the large grovesof old growth signify near climax vegetation patterns and actas benchmarks of ldquonaturalnessrdquo When all the species presentin the fifteen small groves were surveyed for their speciesrichness they together contain amajority of the species foundin the region The role of these small patches in ecosystemservices like carbon sequestration temperature control andwater conservation can be explained to local people for bettermanagement of the groves Few studies on developmentstrategies however endorse this role in biological or thepotential ecological services of groves as being assets thatlocal people can use sustainably Being a part of relic forestsgroves are repositories of ancient trees and undisturbedsoils which play a pivotal role in sequestering considerableamounts of carbon [15] Isolated small fragments may nothave a great impact on regional temperature control on alarge scale but their role in maintaining the local climatenear the ground cannot be ignored This function protectsand helps in preservation and regeneration of ecologicallysensitive species Local people knew that endangered speciessuch as the giant squirrel which have disappeared from mostparts of Mulshi are still found in some of the sacred grovesStudies on scattered trees in African savannas have shownthat due to interception of radiation and precipitation theyoffer cooler microclimate in their surroundings which act asshelter for many small organisms [16ndash18]

Future potential management strategies if groves arebeing satisfactorily protected by local people any interven-tion by the Forest Department other government organi-zations or NGOs may in fact become counterproductiveThus careful studies of existing institutional mechanismsthat have preserved the groves are required to be assessedand documented before any new interventions are institutedThe tabular way of strategies to study sacred groves hasbeen shown in Figure 4 The level of intactness and extentof utilization of resources from the grove are prerequisitesto development of rational future management strategiesHowever the concept of developing and managing ICCAs(Indigenous Community Conserved Areas) or creatingBiodiversity Management Committees (BMC) and PeoplersquosBiodiversity Registers (PBR) as registries of local biodiversityknowledge can act as a tool for assisting local communities tomanage the groves proactively These options may be used asnew strategies without underplaying the spiritual importanceof the groves This would also permit gaining governmentrecognition of their rights over biodiversity and recognitionof their traditional culture

The role of education and awareness for managementof the sacred groves the ldquorole of education and awarenessfor conservation management of resources within the sacredgrovesrdquo is a key component for the future sustainablemanage-ment of the groves by local communities The identificationof specific groups of people or local functionaries is essentialfor conservation action Amajor stakeholder group should belocal school students as they form an important enthusiasticorganized group to spread the need for conservation of thegroves in the community This would help in establishmentof modern concepts of conservation in the villages by linkingthem to their own traditional knowledge If sacred groveshave to be conserved younger generations should under-stand their importance both as a part of their traditionalknowledge and through newer scientific approaches to biodi-versity conservation at ecosystem species and genetic levels

Local awareness strategies are to be looked at in terms of atemporal analysis by asking local people especially the elderlyrespondents about the traditional values that were enshrinedin the grove and its deity in previous years Studies havebeen made by asking them about the local folklore associatedwith the origins of the grove which have been described intheir own words Folk stories connected with an integral partof local myths and beliefs This is now being lost due tothe rapidly vanishing local sentiments and a decrease in thereverence level towards the deity which had once preventedloss of the ldquonaturalnessrdquo of the groves

5 Conclusion

The study reveals the strong local management strategies linkbetween folk culture and their land for a variety of surround-ing landscape elements The management systems used atpresent in some groves permit a limited level of resource useto be extracted from the grovesThis has permitted the sacredgroves to develop into old growth forests of great antiquityThe residents of Mulshi interviewed during this study clearly


Need to conserve the groves

Maintain ecological balance

Gene bank for indigenous species

Conservation of biodiversity

Managing the natural resources

Ecodevelopment

CCA (Community Conserved Areas)

Local management

Future management options for

conservation of thegroves

Threat

Based on religious

Strategies for conservation of sacred grove

belief (ritual such as ldquoKaulrdquo)

Based on societal functions such as

local traditions andfestivals

Based on economicfunctions based on

local rule andregulation for

accessing resourcesfrom the grove

Change in peoplersquosattitude

Change insociocultural practices

Negative humanimpact on the

groves

Developmental activities

Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation

Resettlement of the area

Excessive tourism

Encroachment of the grove for

residential use Exploitation of

resources

Generation of wasteand noise

Figure 4 Strategies for conservation of sacred grove

brought out their deep understanding of local forest resourcesas a life giving support system However they indicated thatdevelopment has altered their perception due to the economicbonanza that land speculators have offered them over thelast decade The local myths stories and religious ritualsare gradually being homogenized by external influences andthe influx of townsrsquo people and formal school educationThus ceremonial rituals such as the ldquoKaulrdquo that had a strongcontrolling influence on resource extraction from sacredgroves are not practiced by the younger generation Thegroves are slowly but surely being degraded or even severelydamaged An example is the complete destruction of theLavarde grove which was an excellent example of a groveThewhole grove was felled to construct the Temghar dam Thusthe local management systems of the sacred groves are beinggradually lost The institutional local management structurebased on respected priests and the integrity of the localvillage panchayat government is now being altered through awidening economic divide in the traditional community andthrough new societal changes The traditional managementof land and resource use patterns at the local level willbe progressively lost as the farmland is converted to anintensively man modified urban landscape Pros towards thegroves are absentTheir values are linked to economic consid-erations or to superficial aesthetic concerns or for holidaysand picnics There is no respect for nature as a supporterof livelihoods which was a part of the lives of traditionalagropastoral people Finally appropriate management todaymust include identifying ways of using alternate conservationstrategies for groves Ecodevelopment ecorestoration andsustainable tourism through registering local BiodiversityManagement Committees can prevent the destruction ofthe fragile and biologically rich ecosystems of the groves

and their surrounds Only strong locally relevant publicopinion to conserve these regions fragile ecosystem andtraditional cultural values can save the groves from ultimateannihilation

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] C M Correa Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual PropertyQuaker United Nations Office Geneva Switzerland 2001

[2] M Gadgil and V D Vartak ldquoThe sacred groves of WesternGhats in Indiardquo Economic Botany vol 30 no 2 pp 152ndash1601976

[3] M D S Chandran M Gadgil and J D Hughes Sacred Grovesof the Western Ghats of India 1992

[4] A Anthwal N Gupta A Sharma S Anthwal and K-HKim ldquoConserving biodiversity through traditional beliefs insacred groves in Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo ResourcesConservation and Recycling vol 54 no 11 pp 962ndash971 2010

[5] R Ray and T V Ramachandra ldquoSmall sacred groves in locallandscape are they really worthy for conservationrdquo CurrentScience vol 98 no 9 2010

[6] C Folke ldquoTraditional knowledge in social-ecological systemsrdquoEcology and Society vol 9 no 3 article 7 2004

[7] S Molur K G Smith B A Daniel and W R T Darwall TheStatus and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in theWesternGhats India IUCN Cambridge UK and Gland SwitzerlandZoo Outreach Organisation Coimbatore India 2011


[8] K C Malhotra S Chatterjee S Srivastava and Y GokhaleCultural and Ecological Dimensions of Sacred Groves in IndiaIndian National Science Academy 2001

[9] J Mason ldquoemistructured interviewrdquo inThe SAGE Encyclopediaof Social Science Research Methods pp 1021ndash1022 SAGE Publi-cations Thousand Oaks Calif USA 2004

[10] M Gadgil and V Vartak ldquoSacred groves of India a plea forcontinued conservationrdquo Journal of Bombay Natural HistorySociety vol 72 pp 314ndash320 1975

[11] S Bhagwat C Kushalappa PWilliams andN Brown ldquoThe roleof informal protected areas in maintaining biodiversity in theWesternGhats of IndiardquoEcology and Society vol 10 no 1 article8 2008


[13] S A Bhagwat and C Rutte ldquoSacred groves potential for biodi-versity managementrdquo Frontiers in Ecology and the Environmentvol 4 no 10 pp 519ndash524 2006

[14] S Chatterjee A R K Sastry B N Roy and R Lahon ldquoSacredgroves of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradeshrdquo in Abstract NationalWorkshop on Community Strategies on the Management ofNatural Resources Bhopal India 2000

[15] M L Khan A D Khumbongmayum and R S Tripathi ldquoThesacred groves and their significance in conserving biodiversityan overviewrdquo International Journal of Ecology and Environmen-tal Sciences vol 34 no 3 pp 277ndash291 2008

[16] S Sukumaran and S Jeeva ldquoA floristic study on miniaturesacred forests at Agastheeshwaram southern peninsular IndiardquoEurAsian Journal of BioSciences vol 2 p 66 2008

[17] S Sukumaran and A D S Raj ldquoEvolution of sthalavrikshaworship concept through the Sacred Groves in KanyakumariDistrict Tamil Nadu Indiardquo India Journal of Basic and AppliedBiology vol 2 no 1 pp 40ndash48 2008

[18] S Sukumaran S Jeeva A D S Raj and D Kannan ldquoFloristicdiversity conservation status and economic value of miniaturesacred groves in Kanyakumari district Tamil Nadu southernPeninsular Indiardquo Turkish Journal of Botany vol 32 no 3 pp185ndash199 2008

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Table 1 Location of fifteen sacred groves in Mulshi

Sr number Name of the grove Name of the deity Village Location Present status

1 Dhigiaairai Dhigiaai devi Bhiravwadi 18∘321015840223310158401015840N73∘301015840586610158401015840E P

2 Waghjai Waghjai devi Sonarwadi 18∘321015840265010158401015840N73∘301015840596810158401015840E P

3 Rai Waghjai devi Wadwathar 18∘33101584004710158401015840N73∘291015840292610158401015840E Th

4 Waghjairai Waghjai devi Chandiwali 18∘35101584095310158401015840N73∘28101584044710158401015840E Th

5 Firnangairai Firnangai devi Sarole 18∘251015840411810158401015840N73∘231015840247210158401015840E P

6 Firnangairai Khagjai devi Sarole 18∘251015840411810158401015840N73∘231015840247210158401015840E P

7 Kalkairai Kalkai devi Kondether 18∘231015840523610158401015840N73∘231015840561810158401015840E Th

8 Vinjai rai Vinjai devi Tamini 18∘261015840257210158401015840N73∘251015840391710158401015840E P

9 Kalubai chi rai Kalubai Lavarde 18∘23101584068910158401015840N73∘291015840151710158401015840E D

10 Bhiruoba cha ran Bhiruoba Lavarde 18∘211015840327810158401015840N73∘30101584000910158401015840E Th

11 Kanguram Kangur maharaj Kanguram 18∘241015840252210158401015840N73∘301015840572810158401015840E Th

12 Kanguram Waghjai Kanguram 18∘241015840234610158401015840N73∘301015840533610158401015840E P

13 Kolavade rai Bhiravnath Kolavade 18∘271015840186610158401015840N73∘331015840309310158401015840E Th

14 Kharavade rai Mhasoba Kharavade 18∘271015840153310158401015840N73∘351015840268010158401015840E D

15 Vandev rai Vanoba Temghar 18∘231015840298610158401015840N73∘301015840403010158401015840E D

P protected Th threatened and D destructed

2 Methods

This study has been carried out in and around the sacredgroves of Mulshi region in Maharashtra The research datahas been collected through transects walks and discussionswith local people Seven detailed expert interviews with localpriests and ninety-three semistructured interviews were car-ried out with elders and local village folk to understand thelocal relevant institutional management used for protectingtheir sacred groves Semistructured interviews are the onesthat have a flexible and fluid structure unlike structuredinterviews that have a prepared sequence of questions tobe asked in the same way of all interviewees [9] Thesemistructured interviews can modify or deflect from topicas per the requirement of study During the interviewsmostlythe locals diverted from the topic but the given informationwas also useful So in such case the formal interviews sessionswere avoided and we had supple interview session with thelocals

The fifteen sacred groves studied are linked to tribaldeities and often occur in inaccessible areas at higher ele-vations near the crest line of the Ghats at a considerabledistance from the villages (Table 1) Among the fifteen sacred

groves ten are dedicated to female deities and five to maledeities The female deities of the groves are unshaped stonespainted with red color (sindhur) and the male deities areoften roughly sculpted black stone figures The names of theanimistic deities are frequently related to the ferocious tigersor tigresses that once roamed these forests which had to beappeased

Each village is located around their sacred grove Sothat villagers can access the grove for worship and resourceextraction The tribal communities Dhangar and MahadeoKoli and the agropastoral community Maratha worship thedeities and look after the groves They are forest dependentcommunities and Marathas carry out agricultural practicesDhangar and Mahadeo Koli survive by extracting forestresources and sometimes also work on agricultural field ofMarathas such as on their agricultural field and take care oftheir cattle

Transect walks were made with local stakeholders tostudy the utilization of resources from the groves which arecommonly collected by local communities for consumptiveand productive uses from within and outside the grove Theknowledge of the resources that can be collected from thegroves and those that are considered taboo is spread from one



3 Result



4 Discussion



40

40

20




0

98 8

2

6 6

2

Loppedwood

collection

Deadwood


Fruitcollection

Flowercollection

Toddycollection


collection

Noresource

collection



































Agriculture







Pilgrimage






Ecotourismtraining



7

40

33

20
















5 Conclusion








Ecodevelopment


Local management



Threat

Based on religious











groves


Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation


Excessive tourism



resources







References




























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal







3 Result



4 Discussion



40

40

20




0

98 8

2

6 6

2

Loppedwood

collection

Deadwood


Fruitcollection

Flowercollection

Toddycollection


collection

Noresource

collection



































Agriculture







Pilgrimage






Ecotourismtraining



7

40

33

20
















5 Conclusion








Ecodevelopment


Local management



Threat

Based on religious











groves


Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation


Excessive tourism



resources







References




























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal



































Agriculture







Pilgrimage






Ecotourismtraining



7

40

33

20
















5 Conclusion








Ecodevelopment


Local management



Threat

Based on religious











groves


Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation


Excessive tourism



resources







References




























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal






7

40

33

20
















5 Conclusion








Ecodevelopment


Local management



Threat

Based on religious











groves


Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation


Excessive tourism



resources







References




























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal











5 Conclusion








Ecodevelopment


Local management



Threat

Based on religious











groves


Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation


Excessive tourism



resources







References




























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal











Ecodevelopment


Local management



Threat

Based on religious











groves


Habitat degradation

Grove fragmentation


Excessive tourism



resources







References




























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal

























Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Research Article Sacred Groves: The Consequence of...

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