Research Article Nexus between Artisanal and Small-Scale ...

Research ArticleNexus between Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining andLivelihood in Prestea Mining Region Ghana

Francis Arthur1 Williams Agyemang-Duah1 Razak Mohammed Gyasi12

Joseph Yaw Yeboah1 and Evans Otieku3

1Department of Geography and Rural Development Faculty of Social Sciences Kwame Nkrumah University ofScience and Technology Kumasi Ghana2Department of Sociology and Social Policy Faculty of Social Sciences Lingnan University Tuen Mun Hong Kong3Institute of Statistical Social and Economic Research University of Ghana Legon Accra Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Francis Arthur francisarthurholmesrocketmailcom

Received 19 September 2015 Accepted 10 November 2015

Academic Editor Manoj Khandelwal

Copyright copy 2016 Francis Arthur et alThis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Drawing on the DFIDrsquos sustainable livelihood framework this paper explores the nexus between artisanal and small-scale mining(ASM) and livelihood in Prestea mining region Ghana A cross-sectional mixed method survey involving simple random andpurposively sampled participants (119873 = 151) was carried out The results suggest both positive and negative relationships betweenASM and livelihoods of the people The study found various livelihood assets associated with ASM and how critical assetsare adversely affected by ASM activities Limited employment opportunities in rural areas (82) economic hardshipspovertysituations of people (59) and ldquoquickrdquo income earnings fromASM (90)were themajor factors that influenced people to combineand use their personal assets to enable them to engage in ASM ASM contributes to the livelihood enhancement through incomegeneration increasedwell-being and asset acquisition (507) reduced vulnerabilities (311) and empowerment of people (192)to establish other economic activities However the small-scale miners and farmers as well as farmlands forest and water resourcesare most vulnerable to adverse effects of ASM activities Accidents of various degrees diseases and death were the shocks in ASMRegarding the massive impact of ASM on employment creation and poverty reduction in rural communities it is recommendedthat stakeholders recast Ghanarsquosmineral policy to ensure concurrent environmental sustainability and socioeconomic development

1 Introduction

Countries that are endowed with mineral resources usuallyextract and use them to develop their economy for whichGhana is not an exception Mining is practiced and existsin many countries [1] Mining activities in the world havecontributed immensely to the manufacturing sector via theprovision of raw materials to secondary industries Over theyears the extraction of precious minerals such as gold anddiamond has led to a magnificent impact on the socioe-conomic lives of people and communities involved directlyor indirectly in the mining sector [2 3] Mining especiallyartisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) represents a signif-icant livelihood and source of income for rural communitiesand poverty-driven population in the world [4] However it

has played a vital role in the development of Ghana rankedsecond after South Africa in gold production [5]

The Collaborative Group on Artisanal and Small-ScaleMining (CASM) [6] observes that ASM employs and engagesmore people than large-scale gold mining and reduces thepoverty levels in rural communities ASM takes place allover the world but most notably in Africa Asia Oceaniaand Central and South America [4] Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is poverty-driven activity and operatedin rural and remote areas [7]

In Ghana the mining sector directly contributed to 6of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 276 of governmentrevenue in 2011 [8] Ghana recorded a magnificent increasein all mineral productions in 2005 with gold rising andtaking over from cocoa as Ghanarsquos leading foreign exchange

Hindawi Publishing CorporationGeography JournalVolume 2016 Article ID 1605427 18 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520161605427

2 Geography Journal

earner In 2004 mineral revenue was $798 million andincreased to $9952 in 2005 contributing about 13 of thetotal revenue collected by Internal Revenue Service Goldproduction had an increase of 63 with its export revenueincreasing from $7312 million to $9039 million and that ofdiamond increased from $26 million to $347 million [9] InMongolia the mining sector has contributed to about 17of GDP 65 of industrial value added and 58 of exportthereby making it the biggest contributor to the Mongolianeconomy [10]

In the entire world mineral resource extraction throughparticularly artisanal gold mining plays a key role in thelivelihood conditions of the people hence providing ameansof living [11] Datta et al [12] indicated that livelihoods aremeans orways of reducing povertyHowever different studieshave indicated that mining results in different outcomesArtisanal and small-scale mining takes different forms ofcontributions at both local and national level such as earningsfrom exports and making import of resource possible [13]It provides significant livelihood for rural communities inAfrica and serves as a means of alleviating poverty [6] It alsohas a major impact on employment in developing countriesespecially in the rural areas where there are limited jobopportunities [3] It provides people the means of employ-ment [2] since it does not involve any special skills Hentschelet al [11] indicated in their studies conducted in Boliviathat the reason for peoplersquos engagement in ASM operationsis purposely to improve their livelihoods Contrary to thisMitullah et al [14] argue that ASM diverts peoplersquos attentionfrom agriculture due to low income earnings associatedwith farming activity and also lack of formal jobs andopportunities compels people to participate in it irrespectiveof the high risks involved Hilson [15] in his studies in Ghanaconcluded that most of the small-scale miners are involved ingold extraction because it generates income quickly

Studies amply show that not only are men engaged inASM operations but also women participate in the activities[11] According to Hentschel et al [11] 75 of those involvedin ASM activities in Guinea are women while those ofGhana South Africa and Indonesia are 44 5 and 10respectively Small-scale mining results in loss of source oflivelihood of miners when they have accidents which causesome miners to depend on their relatives for sustenance andassistance [5] ASM is noted with its myriad of primary andsecondary problems through land degradation deforestationair pollution and water pollution [16]

Even thoughmany peoplewith various reasons of engage-ment in ASMhave benefited from it the various vulnerabilitycontexts of the ASM and critical assets in ASM are notbeing demonstrated and investigated by mining researchersWith the increasing rate of ASM operations in Ghana espe-cially Prestea mining area the extent to which ASM affectslivelihood of people and the community and contributes tolivelihood enhancement is not well-indicated in empiricalliteratureThis is becausemany studies in Ghana are based onenvironmental and health ramifications of mining [5 17ndash21]There is chronic dearth of empirical research and literatureon the various connections between ASM and livelihoodin Ghana However this current study was conducted to

fill this gap and add to knowledge by exploring the nexusbetweenASMand livelihood in Presteamining region (PMR)in Ghana using the sustainable livelihood approach

2 Data Theoretical Approach and Methods

21 Research Setting The study is based on a researchconducted between October 2013 and June 2014 in Presteamining enclave Prestea-Huni Valley District (PHD) in theWestern region of Ghana to assess the nexus between ASMand livelihood The Prestea-Huni Valley District is one ofthe newly created districts which was carved out of theWassa West District with Bogoso as its capital [22] Thecommunities of Prestea mining region are Prestea BondayeandHiman (see Figures 1 and 2)The district has an estimatedtotal population of 154528 of which males and femalesconstitute 78014 and 76514 respectively [23] Presteaminingarea Prestea Bondaye and Himan has a total populationof 40607 The study area forms approximately 267 of thedistrictrsquos total population The district statistician indicatedthat the study area has the highest proportionate shareof the population of the district This is attributed to theincreasing number of migrants from other parts of Ghana toengage in ASM activities in the area as well as the associatedtrading ventures Other equally important factors such aspoor acceptance rate of family planning teenage pregnancyand early marriage also account for the population increaseover the years [22]

The topography of the area is generally undulating withfew scarps ranging between 150m and 300m above sea levelMany rivers traversing the study communities could havemaintained its relevance of providing the communities withsource of water for domestic and irrigation purposes butthe intensive operations of ASM have rendered them unsafeThe study area falls within the wet equatorial climate withaverage minimum temperature experience of about 26∘C anda maximum temperature of 30∘C The climatic condition ofthe study area is hot and humid and it is characterized byseasonal weather patterns with double wet seasons [24] ThePHD is one of the districts that experience the highest rainfallin the country It has a mean annual rainfall of 18783 cmTherainy season is usually from March to July (major season)and from September to November (minor season) The rainyseason has an important effect on the environment in creatingwatersheds large expanse of stagnant water bodies deeptrenches and gullies aswell as leaching the nutrient content ofthe soil [22] Rain water that fills dug holes and pits promotesbreeding of mosquitoes and supports malaria vector growthThis iswhyAkabzaa andDarimani [5] stressed in their studiesconducted in Tarkwa that there are always cases of malariain mining communities The PHD falls within the rainfallbelt and exhibits wet moist evergreen rainforest with theheight of trees ranging between 15 and 40metersThe naturalvegetation of the area is full of climbers and lianas stranglerswhich are able to reach the upper tree layer ASM operationsparticularly illegal mining have gradually destroyed andaltered the rich vegetation in the study area

It also lies within the forest-dissected plateausrsquo phys-iographic region Precambrian rocks of Birimian origin

Geography Journal 3

2∘15

9984002∘05

9984001∘55

9984001∘45

998400

District boundaryDistrict capitalRoadsRailway lineTowns and villagesStudy area

Source Prestea-Huni Valley District Assembly

5∘40

998400

5∘30

998400

5∘20

998400

Figure 1 Map of Prestea-Huni Valley District showing the study communities Source Mapping Unit Department of Geography and RuralDevelopment Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology [25]

National

Regional

District

Study area

5∘

30998400

6∘

30998400

7∘

30998400

8∘

30998400

9∘

30998400

10∘

30998400

11∘

Source Survey Dept of Ghana (1994 Edition)

3∘

30998400

2∘

30998400

1∘

30998400

0∘

30998400

boundary

boundary

boundary

Figure 2 District map of Ghana showing the study district Source Mapping Unit Department of Geography and Rural DevelopmentKwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology [25]

4 Geography Journal

S

H

P F

N

Vulnerabilitycontext

(i) Shocks(ii) Trends

(iii) Seasonality

Livelihood assets

DFIDrsquos sustainable livelihoods framework

Influenceand access

Transformingstructures and

processesStructures

(i) Levels ofgovernment

(ii) Privatesector

Processes

(i) Laws

(ii) Policies

(iii) Culture(iv) Institutions

Livelihoodstrategies

In

order

to

achieve

Livelihoodoutcomes

(i) More income(ii) Increased

well-being(iii) Reduce

vulnerability(iv) Improved food

security(v) More sustainable

use of NR base

H human capital

N natural capital

F financial capital

S social capital

P physical capital

Figure 3 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework Source DFID [32] and Ashley and Carney [33]

underlie the forest-dissected plateau Geologically it is madeup of two distinct rock formations namely the Birimian andthe Tarkwaian rocks [22] The study communities are under-lain by the Precambrian metasediments of the Birimian rock(pelites greywacke and occasional volcanics) and Tarkwaianrock (conglomerates quartzites and phyllites) The Birimianrocks are viewed as the most important rock formation dueto its mineral capacities [22] This explains the existence ofgold mining companies in the study area as well as increasingconcentration of ASM The major economic activities inthe study area can be grouped into three categories indus-triesmining agriculture and commerceMining is themajorforce that Prestea area relies upon in terms of employmentThis profile of the study area Prestea mining area thereforebest illustrates the decision behind conducting this researchin the area

22 Theoretical Approach To offer understanding of therelationship between mining activities and livelihoods thesustainable livelihood approach (SLA) with DFIDrsquos sustain-able livelihood framework (SLF) was adopted to guide thestudy Many livelihood studies have adopted and appliedthe SLF approach giving grounds for development studiesthinking and research [26] This framework came intobeing as a result of debates and discussions on sustainablelivelihood poverty reduction and assets [27ndash31] BrundtlandCommission on Environment and Development in 1987 wasthe first to put sustainable livelihood notion forward [28]The concept of sustainable livelihood was then expandedby the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environmentand Development which advocated for the achievement ofsustainable livelihoods as a goal for poverty eradication [28]The SLF focuses on people and their livelihoods and howpeople can use their assets to realize their basic needs of lifeand reduce poverty [32 33]

The SLF has five main components vulnerability context(in terms of stress shocks and seasonality) livelihood assetstransforming structures and processes livelihood strategiesand livelihood outcomes (see Figure 3) The variables in theframework show the linkages between the components andreflect how each component affects the other The SLF showsthat sustainable livelihoods are achieved through access tovariety of livelihood sources such as natural capital (land)that are combined together in the pursuit of livelihoodstrategies to realize livelihood outcomes [33] Livelihoodstrategies consist of a range and combination of activitiesand choices that people decide or undertake to achieve theirlivelihood goals Livelihood strategies are dependent on assetendowments and policies institutions and processes in place[32] The livelihood strategy that applies to this study isartisanal and small-scale gold mining activities

The transforming structures and processes such as cul-ture laws and policies in the framework are linked to thevulnerability context which in turn affects the livelihoodassets available Livelihood strategies such as ASM withvarious transforming structures and processes such as lawspolicies and culture influence livelihood assets which in turnhelp to enhance or reduce peoplersquos assets in the communityThe institutions policies and customs of the transformingstructure and processes in the framework enhance or hinderpeoplersquos access to an asset or resource such as natural capital[32] The livelihood outcomes in the framework are achievedas a result of livelihood strategies and are linked to livelihoodassets to indicate how they enhance or increase them [33]

The assets in SLF show different forms of asset capitalwhich people use to realize livelihood outcomes The frame-work indicates that assets have five forms natural humanphysical financial and social capital DFID denotes assetsas natural physical human social and financial capitalAssets are both created and destroyed as an upshot of

Geography Journal 5

trends shocks and seasonality of vulnerability context [32]Assetsrsquo relationships with livelihood strategies illustrate thatpeople with more assets tend to have range of options andability tomove betweenmultiple strategies to secure their live-lihoods as well as achieve positive livelihood outcomes [32]

The vulnerability context of DFID sustainable livelihoodframework encompasses shocks trends and seasonality oflivelihood strategies which in turn is linked to livelihoodassets to show how it affects livelihood assets such as humancapital and natural capital [32 33] The vulnerability contextin the framework represents the external environment inwhich people exist Trends shocks and seasonality are thefactors over which people have limited or no control [32]Scoones [31] argues that the ability of livelihood to recoverfrom stresses and shocks is key to sustainable livelihood Theusefulness of the sustainable livelihood framework to thisresearch is its focus on livelihood outcomes assets ownedby people in their pursuit of livelihood strategies such asASM activities and vulnerabilities exposed to people [33]In employing the SLF to analyze our research output thestudy followed the appreciative inquiry approach to exploreand describe the positive and negative outcomes of ASM[34 35] This framework gives a better understanding andappreciation of the possible outcomes of mining activitieson livelihoods and to make induction whether ASM isenvironmentally sustainable in Ghana As Ashley andCarney[33] stressed SLF provides a structure to help establish theunderstanding of livelihoods and how people cope withstresses shocks and seasonality in their quest to reduce oreliminate poverty SLA is also important to this study dueto its usefulness in ensuring that livelihood opportunitiesexist for the future generation yet unborn and helping usto identify and explore the assets and vulnerability contextassociated with ASM

23 Research Design and Variables In line with the theoret-ical and analytical orientation of the study a cross-sectionalsurvey with both quantitative and qualitative research designwas employed The qualitative research design involved theuse of in-depth interviews focus group discussion and keyinformant interviewsThe qualitative research approach usedprovided the avenue to assess the opinions and knowledgeof people on ASM and livelihood issues The study employedquestionnaires for quantitative research design The researchinstruments used made the survey easier and flexible towork with the research designs adopted The independentvariables constituted the demographic and socioeconomiccharacteristics of sex age education occupation incomelevels marital status ethnicity religious belief status ofrespondents and the years a respondent has stayed in thestudy area The dependent variable was livelihood outcomeThe study variables were operationalized and further codedas indicated in Table 1 to ensure that the credibility appro-priateness and accuracy of the data were established ASMwas conceptualized as an activity that covers small mediuminformal legal and illegal miners who use rudimentarymethods tools and processes to extract valuable mineralresources from the earthrsquos crust to enable them to obtainlivelihood income and improve their living conditions

24 Sampling and Study Participants The study participantswere individuals at the age of 18 and above ASM workersand farmers in Prestea mining region Prestea Bondaye andHiman were the selected communities of Prestea miningenclaveThe reason for this selection was based on proximityto mining sites and intensiveness of ASM activities in thesecommunities These study participants were our units ofanalysis Community members at the age of 18 or abovewere contacted because they had adequate knowledge andinformation of ASM operations and its associations withlivelihood contexts in terms of shocks vulnerability assetsand livelihood outcomes and policies The minimum agethreshold was also used because at that age every personcould decide for themselves and participate in decisionmaking at both local and national level

A combination of simple random purposive and snow-ball sampling techniques was used for the study The simplerandom sampling was used to select community membersto respond to questionnaires The residents were asked aninitial question whether they were at the age of 18 and aboveor not before those who met the minimum age thresholdand showed interest were recruited Finally a blind foldedperson was selected randomly and asked to pick the studyparticipants The snowball and purposive sampling methodswere employed to select key informants ASM workersand farmers The ASM workers and farmers were selectedpurposively because this group of people and unit of analysiscould be directly affected by ASM and would be in a betterposition to share their knowledge as well as voice out theirconcerns and worries

The residents of Prestea Bondaye and Himan in Presteamining region constituted the study population while resi-dents aged 18 and above farmers and ASM workers consti-tuted the sample frame A sample size of 151 was used Outof the 151 53 50 and 48 respondents were from PresteaHiman and Bondaye respectively The reason for the samplesize from the study communities was based on unequalpopulation size of the communities and response rate anddeemed adequate for the research taking into considerationthe objective of the study

25 Research Instruments and Data Collection Process Forproper appreciation analysis and association between fielddata and the works that have already been conductedand documented as concerns the ASM both primary dataand secondary information were used for the study Thesecondary information was obtained from published andunpublished documents such as books journals articles andthesis A pilot study was conducted in the three communitiesto help the testing of the reliability and validity of theinstruments using SPSS Cronbachrsquos reliability analysis andalpha value of 07 for the closed-ended questions which weremeant for the quantification of the study results This helpedto reframe questions clarify issues and effect changes inthe data The primary data collected from the respondentswere through face-to-face community-level interviewer-administered questionnaires semistructured in-depth inter-view and focus group discussions (FGDs) serving as themain

6 Geography Journal

Table 1 Operationalization and coding of the study variables

Variable Operational definition Category Code

Community Place of residenceBondayePresteaHiman

123

Sex (dichotomous) Being a male or female MaleFemale

12

Age of respondents(ranked)

Number of years attained by a respondent at his lastbirthday

lt21 years21ndash30 years31ndash40 years41ndash50 years51ndash60 years

60 years and above

123456

Status in thecommunity(nominal)

Categorized as native (as born in the community) asettler (a person who moves to the community to settlepermanently) or a migrant (just living in thecommunity for a short while or purpose)

NativeMigrantSettler

123

Marital status(nominal)

Categorized as married single and divorced Singlecohabitation is classified as married Those who are notmarried and widowhood are classified under singleThose who are no more cohabiting are classified underdivorced

MarriedSingleDivorced

123

Occupation(nominal)

A kind of economic activity that a respondentundertakes to earn income

TradingTeachingMiningFishingOthers

12345

Educational level(ranked)

A kind of educational level a respondent completedDropout is where respondent could not complete basicschool

BasicSecondary educationTertiary education

Drop-outNever been to school

12345

Ethnicity (nominal) The ethnic backgroundtribe of the respondents

AkanEweGa

NorthernersaOthers

12345

Religion (nominal) Religious affiliation of the respondents

ChristianityIslam

African TraditionalOthers

1234

Income level (ranked) Income received monthly by respondents from allsources including cash and gifts

Less than Ghcent 100Ghcent 100ndash400Ghcent 401ndash1000Ghcent 1001ndash2000Above Ghcent 2000

12345

Number of years ofstay in thecommunity (ranked)

Number of years a respondent has stayed in thecommunity

Less than 5 years5ndash10 years11ndash15 years

More than 15 years

1234

aNortherners used in this context means the people of Mole-Dagbani Guan and Gurma ethnic groups of Ghana

data collection instruments The face-to-face community-level interviewer-administered questionnaires allowed us toavoid incompleteness of questionnaires increase responserate and obtain first-hand information and knowledgeon ASM and livelihood Three research enumerators wereappointed and trained to help in the data collection process

Six (6) and three (3) focus group discussions were formed forASM workers and farmers respectively who were differentfrom those who responded to the face-to-face community-level interviewer-administered questionnaires Each groupconstituted eight (8) participants In total there were nine(9) groups of seventy-two (72) constituting 30 females and

Geography Journal 7

42 males Also to complement the FGDs separate in-depthinterviewswere conducted for FGDparticipantswith the helpof research enumerators This was done in order to touchon pertinent issues and things that the discussants could notdisclose in the discussion section [36]Three (3) farmers wereselected from the focus groups for an in-depth interviewSeventy-nine (79) respondents answered a specific set ofquestionnaires in the three communities The questionnairefocused on the factors that influence peoplersquos engagementin ASM the category of people involved in it the types ofjob opportunities created by ASM and contribution of ASMto livelihood enhancement FGDs and in-depth interviewsalso focused on the assets of ASM workers how ASM affectsfarmersrsquo and small-scale minersrsquo source of income vulner-ability contexts assets of ASM ASM and environmentalsustainability and finally exploring the livelihood adapta-tion strategies The questionnaires administration FGDsand interview were conducted in Wassa-Twi which is themain dialect of the people in the study communities Thequestions were read in English and translated to Wassa-Twi but responses were written in English to ensure contextvalidity The FGDs and interviews were tape-recorded Thiswas done with the consent of participants Field notes werealso taken Every focus group discussion lasted for about 15hours On average each in-depth interview or administrationof questionnaire took about 35 minutes

26 Ethical Consideration Social scientists are usually facedwith ethical problems and cannot carry out research thatinvolves people without any informed consent [37] Withregard to this various ethical issues were considered andaddressed before the field survey started Field introductoryletter was obtained from the Department of Geography andRural Development KNUST Kumasi Ghana Verbal andinformed consent was obtained from the study participantsThe participants in the communities were briefly informedabout the purpose of the research and guaranteed theanonymity of the information they provided

27 Data Analysis Both qualitative and quantitative toolswere employed to analyze the empirical data obtainedfrom the field After the data collection all tape-recordedinterviews were screened and transcribed into English Thefirst author then read and reviewed all the field and inter-view notes and transcripts for comprehension Predominantthemes were collated and then analyzed using a combina-tion of thematic and content analysis The thematic andcontent analysis was used to identify recurring themes inthe data establish typologies of these themes and findthe variations and associations between and within thethemes [38] Some direct quotations from study participantswere used to support the findings Also data were cross-checked with the original questionnaires edited and codedfor analysis The cross-check was done purposively to makeany corrections The quantitative data were then enteredinto an electronic database and analyzed statistically throughthe Predictive Analytics Software (PASW) for Windowsapplication programmes (version 170) Descriptive statisticswere used to describe the demographic and socioeconomic

characteristics of the respondents and the thematic issuesof ASM and livelihood Bivariate methods of analyzing datawere employed A nonparametric Pearsonrsquos Chi-square (1205942)test was conducted to compare demographic and socioe-conomic independent variables (such as place of residenceage of respondents status in the community marital statusoccupation and sex)Other variableswere comparedwith thestudy communities to establish the differences or relationshipof outcomes of ASM The interpretation of the results tookinto consideration the 119901 value of 005 or less as significantData were organized and presented using frequency tablesand proportionate counts Finally the analytical techniquesused for the study allowed us to make proper discussionsinterpretations and conclusions by triangulating the datawith secondary information

3 Results

31 Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics of StudyParticipants Table 2 depicts the baseline characteristicsof the study participants by sex status (for those whoresponded to the face-to-face community-level interviewer-administered questionnaires) Two hundred and eight (208)people were contacted but 151 people agreed to partake in theresearch The response rate was approximately 73 Seventy-two of the total respondents (151) were engaged in discussionsessions of nine groups with eight members each consistingof 30 females and 42 males The remaining seventy-nine(79) responded to face-to-face community-level interviewer-administered questionnaires which were quantified for thequantitative aspect of the study However for the quantitativeaspect nearly more than half (506 40) of the respondentswere females and 456 were within the age range of 31ndash40years About 39 were married with 696 Akans since theethnic setting of the study prefecture is an Akan ethnic groupMost (797 63) of the respondents professed Christiandoctrines and faith 354 were engaged in trading activitieswith 417 of respondents receiving a monthly incomewithin GHcent 100ndash400 (US$ 33ndash133) (the exchange rate ofGhanaian Currency Cedis (GHcent) per United States dollarsas of the time of data collection and analysis (FebruaryndashMay 2014)) A total of 405 of the respondents had anative status in the communities with 557 of respondentshaving stayed in these communities for more than 15 yearswhile 9 had never been to school Only small portionof the respondents (127) had attained tertiary educationwhile 43 had achieved basic education as their higheston the educational ladder Apart from mining with 19respondents majority of the respondents were engaged intrading farming teaching and others as livelihood strategiesto achieve their livelihood goals A statistical analysis wasconducted to compare the demographic and socioeconomiccharacteristics of the respondents with respect to sex Astatistical significant difference between marital status andsex [1205942 (2119873 = 79) = 7811 119901 = 0020] occupation andsex [1205942 (4119873 = 79) = 14666 119901 = 0005] and educationallevel and sex [1205942 (4119873 = 79) = 4265 119901 = 0006] was estab-lished

8 Geography Journal

Table 2 Characteristics of study participants by sex

Variable CategorySex

119875 valueMale Female Total119899 () 119899 () 119873 ()

Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)

0989Himan 13 (164) 13 (165) 26 (329)Prestea 15 (190) 14 (177) 29 (367)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199

21ndash30 years 15 (190) 10 (127) 25 (316)31ndash40 years 19 (241) 17 (215) 36 (456)41ndash50 years 1 (13) 7 (89) 8 (101)51ndash60 years 3 (38) 2 (25) 5 (63)61 and above 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)

Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Status in the community

Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)

0198Migrant 15 (190) 8 (101) 23 (291)Settler 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)

0020lowastMarried 20 (253) 11 (139) 31 (393)Divorced 0 (0) 5 (63) 5 (63)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)

0005lowastTeaching 5 (63) 3 (38) 8 (101)Mining 13 (164) 2 (25) 15 (190)Farming 1 (13) 3 (38) 4 (51)Others 13 (165) 11 (139) 24 (304)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006

Secondary 13 (165) 4 (51) 17 (215)Tertiary 6 (76) 4 (51) 10 (127)Drop-out 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

Never been to school 0 (0) 9 (114) 9 (114)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)

Northerners 10 (127) 4 (51) 14 (177)Ga-Adangbe 1 (13) 1 (13) 2 (25)

Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)

African traditional 2 (25) 0 (0) 2 (25)Other 1 (13) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460

Ghcent 100ndash400 20 (253) 13 (165) 33 (417)Ghcent 401ndash1000 11 (139) 16 (203) 27 (342)Ghcent 1001ndash2000 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)Above Ghcent 2000 1 (13) 0 (0) 1 (13)

Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued



Number of years of stay in the community

Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)

05175ndash10 yrs 9 (114) 4 (51) 13 (165)11ndash15 yrs 4 (51) 4 (51) 8 (101)

More than 15 yrs 20 (253) 24 (304) 44 (557)Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

lowastThe Chi-square statistic is significant at the 005 levelThe item validity for each variable is 100 (79) since the respondents answered all the questions

32 ASM and Employment Opportunities This sectionassessed the impact of ASM activities on employment oppor-tunities Table 3 depicts the results of bivariate analysis ofemployment issues of ASM for the study Out of the 79respondents 595 strongly agreed that ASM has positiveeffect of creating job opportunities to people in mining com-munities while 76 (6) held a contrary view However therewas no statistical significant difference between the effects ofASM on creating job opportunities in the three communities[1205942 (4119873 = 73) = 8748 119901 = 0068] as indicated in Table 3Majority (466) of the respondents indicated that both menand women were the major category of people involved inASM while 246 of respondents argued for that of menwomen and children (see Table 3) Even though the studyrevealed that children constituted part of ASM workers theywere not permitted to engage in it However the study foundno significant difference in category of people in ASM withrespect to the study communities [1205942 (8119873 = 73) = 9212119901 = 0325] An in-depth interview with female ASM workersindicated that women were important in ASM because oftheir key role as head porters carrying mineral deposits (orgold mineralization materials) to mining sites concessionowners gold dealers machine owners and cooking food forworkers Some women also found themselves at mining sitesas mobile network credit water and food sellers

Moreover the respondents also reported that miningactivities (452) food and water vending (192) golddealinggold smiting driving (192) and head porters(137) were the major types of job opportunities createdby ASM Nearly more than half (589) of the respondentsrevealed that mining activities (such as chiseling diggingand washing gold mineralization materials) and head portersserved as an area where ASM provides direct jobs forpeople Thus approximately four in ten of the respondentsidentified indirect job opportunities such as food vendingand water selling gold dealing and driving machine ownersand others in study prefecture However the study resultsfound a statistically significant difference between the typesof job opportunities created by ASM as regards the studycommunities [1205942 (8119873 = 73) = 15786 119901 = 0046]

33 Driving Force of Taking Employment in ASM Table 4shows themajor factors that drive people to take employmentin ASM Through multiple response scoring the majority(904 119899 = 66) noted that quickhigh income generations

from small-scale goldminingwere themajor factor that com-pels most people to engage in ASM A significant percentageof 822 (119899 = 60) indicated that limited or inadequateemployment opportunities in rural areas influenced manypeople to engage in ASM The third factor respondentsexpressed to have swayed people to seek job in it was theeconomic hardshippoverty situations of people in ruralcommunities in the region (59) Also about 203 ofrespondents indicated that the need to supplement incomegenerated from other livelihood activities drove people intoASM activities

34 Contribution of ASM to Livelihood Enhancement Most(877) of the respondents said that people benefit fromASMrsquos role of job creation Nearly more than half (507)of the respondents expressed that ASM contributed to liveli-hood enhancement through income generations increasedwell-being and asset acquisitions such as building houses andownership of cars Others included reducing vulnerability(ie reducing poverty situations and rural exodus and anyvulnerability in ASM) and empowerment which were indi-cated by 311 and 192 of the respondents respectively (seeTable 3)

35 Effects of ASM on Household Income Through FGDsrespondents indicated that ASM affected livelihood incomeboth positively and negatively All the discussants reportedthat ASM affected livelihood income positively by providingworkers with high incomes and other people (such as taxidrivers traders and food vendorswater sellers) who indi-rectly depend on ASM for livelihood income which furtherhelps increase peoplersquos well-being and reduce food insecurityTwo of the discussants expressed this in different ways

ldquoConcentration of ASM in these communities doesnot only provide quick income or wage to residentsand migrant ASM workers but also some peoplewho by virtue use the increasing ASM activities asa means to sell food or other items to earn someincome to cater for their familiesrdquo

The other discussant also noted the following

ldquoThere is no need for me to tell you about it you can see it all for yourself that there are alot of people engaging in it as well as many food

10 Geography Journal

Table 3 Results of bivariate analysis of ASMrsquos employment issues and place of residence of respondents

Variable CategoryPlace of residence of respondents

119875 valueBondaye Himan Prestea Total119899 () 119899 () 119899 () 119873 ()

Has ASM createdemployment opportunities

Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)

0068Agree 9 (375) 4 (154) 13 (448) 26 (329)Disagree 2 (83) 4 (154) 0 (0) 6 (76)Total 24 (100) 26 (100) 29 (100) 79 (100)

What category of people areinvolved in ASM activities

Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)

Men and women 13 (591) 12 (545) 9 (311) 34 (466)Women and children 3 (136) 2 (91) 3 (103) 8 (110)

Men women and children 3 (136) 5 (227) 10 (345) 18 (246)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)1

What type of jobopportunities has ASMcreated

Mining activities (gold extracting and processing) 11 (500) 6 (273) 16 (552) 33 (452)

0046lowastFood and water vending 2 (91) 8 (364) 4 (138) 14 (192)Gold dealing and drivers 2 (91) 6 (273) 6 (207) 14 (192)

Head porters 5 (227) 2 (91) 3 (103) 10 (137)Others 2 (91) 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (27)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

Do people benefit from theASM employmentopportunities

Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how

Reducing economic hardships 6 (273) 6 (273) 12 (414) 24 (329)

0005lowastReducing poverty 1 (45) 10 (455) 10 (345) 21 (288)Income generation 15 (682) 5 (227) 7 (241) 27 (370)

Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

Contribution of ASM tolivelihood enhancement

Income generations and increased well-being 16 (727) 9 (409) 12 (414) 37 (507)

0171Reduced vulnerability 3 (136) 8 (364) 11 (379) 22 (301)Empowerment 3 (136) 5 (227) 6 (207) 14 (192)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)173 apply to those who only agreed ASM generated employment opportunities out of the total 79 The item validity for the variables answered by 73 studyrespondents is 924 (73)lowastThe Chi-square statistic is significant at the 005 level

Table 4 Major factors or reasons that drive people to take employment in ASM

Category Frequency (119873 = 73)a PercentageLimited or inadequate employment opportunities in rural areas 60 822Economic hardshipspoverty situations of people 43 589Low income earnings in agriculture 10 137Quickhigh income generations from ASM 66 904Supplement income generated from other livelihood activities 16 203aMultiple responses were possible sum of percentage is more than 100

Geography Journal 11

vendors traders and drivers It has significantimpact on income that is why we have manyfood vendors gold dealers women head portersmachine owners and drivers around I hope youknow by now why people are rushing into ASMrdquo

Small-scale miners stated their average monthly incomeMajority (333) of the participants reported that they earnedmonthly income within GHcent 401ndash500 (US$ 133ndash167) Theyfurther expressed that they even earned more than what theyreported The participants reported that there were unevenmonthly income earnings in ASM due to the type of activitythe miners undertake gold price and varying nature ofincome earnings from the activitiesThey indicated that malesmall-scale miners earned more income than female miners

Majority of the participants from the FGDs indicated thatirrespective of the high income earned from the activitiesthey were still exposed to some vulnerability that theycould not totally get rid of Most participants reportedthat when ASM workers were exposed to occupationalhazards diseases accidents and injuries which furtherexposed them to ill health and could not work anymoretheir livelihoodhousehold incomes were adversely affectedor destroyed The participants also revealed that artisanaland small-scale gold mining especially ldquogalamseyrdquo causeddestruction to farmlands and livelihood income sources ofother people who depended on the land From the FGDs thisis what one of the discussants had to say

ldquoWhen we sustain injuries or accidents and can-not work again our source of income is destroyedand because of this we stay in the house doingnothing and depend on relatives and friends forsurvival or to help us get money to buy food to eatSometimes workers are killed in the course of ASMoperations You have reminded me of my brotherwho died in an underground pit when the roof ofa cave collapsed and fell on himrdquo

Majority of the participants reported that knowing thestresses shocks such as injuries accidents and changes inweather did not influence their decisions to engage in ASMThis was in line with a statement made by a female worker inan interview She stated that

ldquoNo matter what you do to stop injuries deathsand accidents in the operations it will alwayshappenThey are always associatedwith the ASMInjuries accidents and deaths are no more newsto workers and the community We have copedfor years and understand we cannot do anythingabout them The work is risky Poverty is whathas caused me to work as a head porter to earnGHcent 1000 (US$ 33) a dayrdquo

Nonetheless the female participants in the focus groupsrevealed that economic hardships and poverty were thedriving factors that compelled many women to engage inASM in order to cater for their family and improve upontheir living conditions Results from FGDs and in-depth andinformant interview revealed that small-scale farm holders

were also prime victims who severely suffer from miningactivities particularly illegal gold mining and at times losetheir livelihood income via destruction of farmlandsarablelands Several others expressed their views especially a50-year-old female farmer in an in-depth interview whoexpressed her views in the following words

ldquoI am a farmer and have farmed for somany yearsbut the presence of ASM activities in the townBondaye has destroyed many of my farmlandsespecially my sugarcane farm which provided mea source of income to help send my children toschool I believe ASM has greatly destroyed manyfarmersrsquo household income and is still havingnegative effects on usrdquo

It became clear that ASM workers had some knowledgeon ASM activities and their effects on people and the naturalenvironments

36 Livelihood Assets Associated with ASM The participantsstated the critical assets associated with ASM activities whichpeople combine and use to achieve their livelihood objectivesThe various assets the participants indicated are summarizedin Table 5 Most of the participants noted that natural assetwas the most valuable asset since without land and forestfinancial capital in the form of income cannot be obtainedto help access basic needs of life On the contrary someparticipants argued against this view that without humanstrength and ingenuity gold mineral deposits would remainin the earth and cannot be extracted and processed to earnhousehold income Most participants reported that socialcapital in its various forms was the least important capitalto workersrsquo assets The participants further indicated thatsocial capital such as social institutions church kinship andfamily was themost important capital asset to residents whenmaking reference to the community as a whole and dealingwith relationshipsThey held thatminers depended on familymembers friends neighbours and social institutions forsupport and assistance (in various forms such as cash andgifts) in difficult times to cope with shocks and stresses

37 Vulnerability Context of ASM Table 6 presents a sum-mary of the diverse ways in which ASM is vulnerable tomankind and affects critical assets Most participants citedthat human capital (man) and natural capital (farmland)weremost vulnerable livelihood assets usually compromised byASM The participants indicated that diseases and occupa-tional hazards such as injuries accidents and deaths werethe shocks found in ASM activities in the study area Theminers indicated cough tuberculosis waist andmuscle painsasthma skin rashes malaria and respiratory diseases as thecommon health problems they experienced through ASMoperationsThe discussantsrsquo narrative accounts indicated thatASM caused some trends of vulnerability in ASM whichwould lead to future livelihood insecurity

Air and noise pollutions were also found as inducedvulnerability Majority of discussants indicated that changesin weather destruct and affect their activities and householdincome Fluctuation of gold prices was found to have negative


Table 5 Assets associated with ASM and miners

Type of asset capital Critical assets associated with or in ASM

Natural capital

(i) Land containing gold mineralization that enables mining activities to be undertaken(ii) Forest providing timberwoods for the activities(iii) Mineral deposits in the landearth crust(iv) Water bodies (such as rivers) for washing gold mineral materials and processing

Physical capital

(i) Chemicals such as mercury and cyanide for processing and extracting gold(ii) Equipmenttools used in operationmdashchisels truck shovels hammers touch lights sacks gold mill machinesbulldozers water pumping machines and excavators(iii) Roads serving as a mode of transport for conveying miners traders and loads(iv) Shelter camps at mining sites

Human capital

(i) Menrsquos knowledge and skills applied in the extracting processes(ii) Peoplersquos ability to work or function in ASM(iii) Diverse group of people in the capacity as miners drivers trader engineers administrative staff chisellersand others(iv) Physical strength of people used in ASM

Financial capital(i) Cash and income earnings as salaries or wage from the activities(ii) Savings from the activities(iii) Capital (loans) investment into ASM operations

Social capital

(i) Minersrsquo and employeesrsquo networking(ii) Minersrsquo individual social relationships and friendship(iii) Social organisations and kinship(iv) Emotional support via comforting and others

Table 6 Vulnerability of ASM activities to assets and the community

Critical asset affectedby ASM Vulnerability induced by ASM in mining communities

Land(i) Destruction of farmlandsarable lands which results in food insecuritylow agricultural produce(ii) Creating of uncovered pits which serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes to cause malaria(iii) Destruction of fertile lands biodiversity and the natural forest

Water bodies

(i) Destruction of fishing grounds which serve as livelihood source(ii) Destruction of communityrsquos sources of water(iii) Contamination of water bodies with chemicals such as mercury and cyanide leading to water-bornediseases such as skin rashes diarrhoea and cholera

Human

(i) Diseases and injuries accidents and death as a result of workersrsquo or minersrsquo exposure to ASM related hazards(ii) Destruction of minersrsquo livelihood source andor income through injuries and accidents which furtherrenders them poor(iii) Destruction of farmersrsquo livelihood income via destruction of farmlands and arable lands

repercussions on minersrsquo earnings wages and householdincomeThey identified rainy season as the major seasonalitythat slows down small-scale mining activities in Presteamining area Mining pits become filled with water duringrainy seasons ASM workers noted that this caused conces-sion owners to spend money to pump the water from theunderground pits to allow any mining activities to be doneThey also expressed that those who employ open cast methodor surface mining were not greatly affected as compared toalluvial gold mining and underground or open cut mining

38 ASM and Environmental Sustainability Majority of theparticipants indicated that ASM in the study area did notensure sustainable use of natural resources Participantsrsquoaccounts indicated that increasing activities of ASM werecausing rapid destruction to farmlands fertile soils waterbodies biodiversity and forest resources in Prestea miningenclave and Ghana as a whole Small-scale miners noted

that majority of miners in the study area did not haveconcessions and licenses to operate Most of the minerspondered over how they could meet their basic needs oflife if they stopped small-scale mining or illegal miningall in the name of ensuring sustainable environment Someof them also recommended that large-scale undergroundmining must be introduced so that they would stop illegalmining and still have their livelihood source whiles ensuringenvironmental sustainability in Prestea mining area One ofthe ASM workers noted the following

ldquoIf the government cannot open many jobs in thecountry then they should not think of tacklingenvironmental sustainability in ASM ASM islucrative to people like us who do not have skills toengage in formal sectorWe have to engage inASMas our livelihood activity andwill try to reduce ourimpact on the environment and if possible changethe method of operationrdquo


39 Livelihood Adaptation and Coping Strategies Majorityof the participants reported that ASM workers who sustaininjuries or experience occupational hazards as shocks andlose their livelihood income depend on social relations andpersonal networks such as friends and family for survivaland assistance in order to take care of basic necessities oflife Miners who lose their livelihood through injuries andaccidents withdraw their savings to enable them to establishbusinesses or engage in petty-trading as their new livelihoodactivity Also the miners who lose their livelihood source selltheir personal assets to enable them to engage in other formsof livelihood strategies Some miners try as much as possibleto avoid occupational related hazards such as injuries andaccidents during work hours so that they would not lose theirhousehold income forever

However the participants also stated that some farmersintensify their few available farmlands to increase agriculturalproduce and income Other farmers also abandon theirfarmlands destroyed by mining and migrate to nonminingcommunities to search for farmlands for cultivation of cropsRegular health check-ups are adopted by some small-scaleminers to help themmaintain their health and seek treatmentfor their health problems such as muscle and waist painscough asthma and respiratory diseases Participantsrsquo narra-tive accounts revealed that some residents in the study areafilter and boil water collected from rivers and streams whichare contaminated through mining activities before using it attheir homes or do not use water from rivers and streams atall This activity is adopted by few people who are perceivedto be poor They also noted that the study communities copewith ASMrsquos adverse effect of contamination and destructionof water bodies using pipe-borne water and sachet water anddigging wells to get water for their domestic activities

Furthermore artisanal and small-scale miners indicatedthat they cope with changes in weather especially rainyseason by using pumping machines to collect water frommining pits to make a way for them to do their work Fewdiscussants said that some miners have employed surfaceand alluvial gold mining as methods of mining due toits less exposure to occupational hazards as compared tounderground or open cut mining Miners also try to copewith the shocks by educating among themselves about therisks of the work and to be cautious during work periods

4 Discussion

The current study explored the nexus between ASM andlivelihood using data from Prestea mining region GhanaUnderstanding livelihoods of poor people and their assetsis critical to eliminating poverty [33] The study demon-strates that concentration of ASM attracts migrants to thePMR The study found that apart from mining activities inPresteamining area a significant percentage of residentswereengaged in other livelihood activities such as food vendingwater selling farming and others as a means to achieve theirlivelihood goals The low percentage (127) of respondentswho had attained tertiary education coupled with dropouts(114) and those who had never been to school (114) couldbe the reason why many of the respondents were engaged

in the informal sector such as petty-trading farming foodvending and apprenticeships The study however estab-lished that the type of occupation or livelihood strategiesadopted by the residents in the study area have a statisticalsignificant association with sex

The study found that most respondents (43) hadattained basic education as their highest level of educationThis could be attributed to the fact that concentration ofASM in the area did not allow many indigenes to fur-ther their education to secondary and tertiary level Thisfinding is akin to researches conducted elsewhere in theworld For example Hentschel et al [11] in their researchin Bolivia found that small-scale mining has adverse effectson peoplersquos educational status The study found that ASMhas createdopened employment opportunities and that it hasprovided both direct and indirect employment to indigenesand migrants in Prestea mining area It was unearthed thatASM provides direct employment opportunities to peopleas engineers chisel men processors and head porters Italso offers indirect employment opportunities to people aswater sellers food vendors taxi drivers gold dealersgoldsmiths and traders among others These findings are inconsonance with previous researches that show that miningprovides both direct and indirect employment [2 15 21 39]Direct employment opportunities created by ASM howeveroutweigh indirect job opportunities in the PMR It is there-fore not doubtful that Ofei-Aboagye et al [39] indicated thatabout 60 of mining labour is employed within artisanal andsmall-scale mining operation sites Researchers such as Ofei-Aboagye et al [39] and CASM [6] recognize that small-scalemining engages more people than large scale mining Thestudy participantsrsquo responses show a statistically significantdifference between the types of employment opportunitiescreated by ASM in relation to the study communities

Small percentage of the study participants added childrenas part of people involved in small-scale mining Childrenrsquosinvolvement is attributed to the fact that the operationsprovide quick income or cash to people and this influencessome children to engage in it to earn some money Althoughthere are some laws that forbid child labour children stillengage in it Mitullah et al [14] in their research in theMigori District of Kenya concluded that some children skipclasses to work as miners to obtain money Some childrenengage in it to help their poor parents The study showsthat womenrsquos involvement in small-scalemining is importantThey are found in the aspect of carrying mineral deposits towashing sites washing goldmineralizationmaterials conces-sion owners and gold dealers and cooking food for minerssince they cannot involve themselves in the physical strengthaspect of the operations Poverty and economic hardshipsare the factors that drive women to participate in small-scale mining in order to improve their living conditionsThissupports Hinton et al [40] assertion that for most womenASM symbolizes an avenue to reduce strains of povertyUndoubtedly Hilson [15] and Hinton et al [40] underscoredthat gender related activities in ASM have increased womenrsquosinvolvement

The study discovered that limited employment opportuni-ties or lack of jobs in rural areas economic hardshipspoverty


quickhigh income earnings fromASM low income earningsin agriculture and supplementing income generated fromother livelihoods were the driving factors that compelled andinfluenced people to combine and use their personal assets toenable them to engage in artisanal and small-scale mining inPrestea mining region Limited job opportunities or lack ofjobs was seen as the reason for high influx of people from thelength and breadth of Ghana to the study area Since jobs arenot available coupled with low earnings in agriculture andsevere economic hardships in the country many people haveresorted to ASM in the study area to help them achieve theirbasic necessities of life This supports Amankwah and Anim-Sackey [2] statement that low income earning and payingjobs or nonexistence of jobs in rural areas make small-scalemining a valuable source of employment for many peopleThe study reveals a contrary finding to that ofHentschel et alrsquos[11] studies in Bolivia that stress that seasonality of agriculturehas caused many rural people in mining communities toengage in ASM to sustain their livelihood throughout theyearThe study found that low income earnings in agriculturehave caused some farmers to abandon their activity to engagein small-scale mining The difference in the findings may beattributed to differences and occupations in the study settingsand methodology used

The severe rural povertyeconomic hardships lowincome earnings in agriculture and unemployment aremostly the driving vulnerability factors that influence peopleto engage in ASM activities However these three keyfactors that drive many people to combine and use theirpersonal assets to undertake ASM activities trigger inducedvulnerabilities The induced vulnerabilities such as injuriesand accidents and destruction of farmlands and water bodiesare also believed to cause subsequent vulnerability Forinstance miners who get injuries and accidents throughthe activities expose them to ill health and further causesome to lose their livelihood sources or income and finallyworsen their poverty situations This creates some trendsof vicious cycle of vulnerability from driving vulnerabilityto induced vulnerability subsequent vulnerability andfuture vulnerabilities The study results have shown thatsmall-scale mining contributes to livelihood enhancementthrough income generations increased well-being and assetacquisitions reduced vulnerability and empowerment ofpeople to establish their own businesses and take initiativesto improve their lives The study demonstrates that ASMreduces vulnerability by providing people with income to buyfood which in turn reduces food insecurity and improvesliving conditions It also reduces poverty situations andhelps people particularly miners to seek treatment for theirmining related health problems such as muscle and waistpains cough and malaria through the income earned fromtheir activities This finding has come to support previouslyconducted studies [2] The study indicates that ASM asa livelihood strategy benefits or supports people throughincreased income and reduction of vulnerabilities These areevident in DFIDrsquos sustainable livelihood framework [32]

The study found that ASM affects livelihood incomepositively by providing income to miners and other peopleThis provides sufficient income to households to take care of

their needs and family This lends support to the assertionmade by Amankwah and Anim-Sackey [2] that ASM haspositive effects on livelihood through income generationsto both miners and other people and the operations arealternative income generating employment High incomeearnings in ASM in Prestea mining communities are skewedtowards the men since the men perform the difficult aspectsof ASM activities enabling them to earn more income orwages than women

The study also found that small-scale mining has adverseeffects on livelihoodhousehold income as induced vulnera-bility through destruction of farmlands which causes somefarmers especially small-scale farm holders to lose theirlivelihood and household income which in turn render someto extreme poverty This is due to the unregulated illegalmining activities in the area This lends support to previousresearch output that indicates that agriculture as a sourceof livelihood income for rural indigenes is altered and to alarge extent destroyed [5] Those who lose their livelihoodsource andor income experience extreme poverty HoweverAdjei [41] expressed that farmers who are adversely affectedby mining activities maintain their livelihood by pursuingother livelihood activities such as petty-trading and throughsupport (via cash and gifts) from friends and relatives Thestudy found destruction of many farmlandsarable lands byASM as a major factor that caused food insecurity and lowagricultural produce and food crops in the area This is con-sonant with other studies conducted elsewhere For exampleOcansey [17] in his studies in Kyebin concluded that miningactivities have taken up fertile lands and destroyed farmlandsand livelihood which in turn lead to food shortages Akabzaaand Darimani [5] stress that degradation of farmlands inthe Tarkwa Mining Township coupled with migrant workerscauses food prices to be high Mitullah et al [14] also supportour findings that farmers who shift their attention fromagriculture activities to mining as their new occupation dueto lower income generation in agriculture in rural areas causereduction in food production

Water pollution and contamination were another effectof ASM on livelihood in PMR This was due to the fact thatmost ASM activities in the study area used water and wereundertaken in water bodies Most water bodies that servedas sources of water for domestic and agricultural activitiessuch as drinking cooking and irrigating farms have beendestroyed in the PMR This has reduced the communitiesrsquoaccess to safe water hence causing water shortage problemsIt is not surprising that previous studies indicated that small-scale mining destroys sources of water with chemicals suchas cyanide andmercury and render them unsafe for domesticactivities [19 21 42ndash44]

ASM also affects livelihoodhousehold income whensmall-scale miners lose their livelihood income throughoccupational hazards such as injuries accidents and diseasesand cannot work anymore The study identified injuriesdeaths accidents and diseases as the shocks in ASM Thisaffirms Stephens and Ahern [45] statement that miningremains the most dangerous occupation in terms of injuriesaccidents and death It was found that small-scale minersare most vulnerable when they sustain injuries accidents


and diseases Due to how the activities are conducted anddone many small-scale miners are exposed to these occu-pational hazards and mining related diseases such as skinrashes tuberculosis waist and muscle pains and respiratorydiseases Changes in weather especially rainy season wereidentified as the major seasonality associated with ASMRainy season poses dire threat to ASM activities which slowsdown operations and subsequently affects household incomeIt also causes workers to lose their employment when therainy season is severe and prolonged for longer period

Fluctuation of gold prices was identified as a trend inASM that affects household income and has subsequenteffects on workersrsquo assets The study illustrates that criticalassets affected by ASM pose threat to human developmentand natural environment ASM destroys fertile lands waterbodies biodiversity and natural forest as well as creatinguncovered pits and trenches These problems of water pol-lution destruction of fertile soils and vegetation inducedby ASM make it difficult to ensure environmental sustain-ability and sustainable use of the natural resource base Theincreasing activities of ASM are degrading and destroyingthe forest which is contributing to climate change andundermining Reducing Emissions from Deforestation andForest Degradation (REDD+) initiatives The deforestationand forest degradation by ASM sector is making it difficultfor Forest Commissions to ensure sound and effective forestmanagement in Ghana

However albeit artisanal and small-scale mining has thepotential of generating employment and income to manypeople especially rural people it defies the principle ofenvironmental ethics and sustainability and destroys liveli-hood income of peopleThis finding illustrates that livelihoodshould not only look at meeting basic needs but also con-sider sustainability in the three-model table environmenteconomy and development as Morelli [46] expressed Thestudy reveals that weak policies regulating artisanal andsmall-scale gold mining in Ghana are also responsible forthe increasing environmental problems Due to this non-Ghanaians particularly Chinese immigrants have troopedthemselves into illegal small-scale mining hence increasingthe environmental impacts of ASM in the country Thisfinding has emerged to support Suleman and Agyemangrsquos[47] assertion that there areweak legal and policy frameworksthat regulate small-scale mining activities in many countriesin the world

Also economic hardships and lack of employment oppor-tunities or unemployment in rural areas were believed tohave caused many miners to overlook the small-scale miningregulations Drawing from Chamber and Conway [29] alivelihood is considered as sustainable when it can copewith and recover from stresses and shocks and maintainor enhance its capacities and assets while not underminingthe natural resource base and also providing sustainablelivelihood opportunities for the next generation yet unbornThis assertion serves as a base to conclude that ASM activitiesin Ghana particularly PMR cannot be seen as sustainablelivelihood This is because ASM activities in the study com-munities are increasingly undermining the natural resourcebase and causing widespread environmental degradation

even though people have coped with the shocks and stressesin the ASM The study found that peoplersquos knowledge andawareness of the shocks do not influence their decision toengage in ASM This is because minersrsquo main concern is toget some money to access basic needs of life and reduce theirpoverty situations

The study found that there are different kinds of assetsin ASM and that people combine and use these assets toenable them to engage in small-scale mining to achievetheir livelihood goals Natural capital in the form of landmineral deposits and water bodies enables miners withtheir human capital (skills strength and efforts) and miningtools and equipment to extract and process gold mineral-ization materials obtained from the land Natural capitalwas however indicated by the small-scale miners as themost valuable asset since without land water bodies andforest resources financial capital in the form of income orcash cannot be obtained with human strength and ingenuityThis assertion is therefore in contrast to Sen [27] whoargues that what a person can do or does with his orher personal features manpower skills and knowledge toimprove his standard of living is what matters most in lifebut not the availability of commodities or assets (such asminerals) Mining equipment and tools sacks trucks andcyanide and mercury as processing chemicals were revealedby the study as physical capital which people use to realizetheir livelihood goals Cash or income earnings and capitalinvestment as well as minersrsquo savings are the financial capitalin ASM This capital is important to miners because it isthe main reason why they engage in ASM in order to havethe means to access basic necessities of life-shelter foodand clothing to improve their living conditions Howeversome of the income earned from ASM (as financial capital)is reinvested in the operations through purchasing of miningequipment and tools (physical capital) in order to increasethe earnings Social capital was identified as social relationsfriends family and networks that miners rely upon whenthey have any problem and need assistance This is whatEllis [48] indicated as important capital when someone needssupport or assistance for survival These capital assets are thevarious livelihood assets identified by DFID [32] Howeverthese assets show a significant relationship with small-scalemining activities The study discovered that those who losetheir livelihoods through accidents and injuries depend onsocial relations for support and assistance for survival or basicneeds of lifeThis is consistentwith earlier research output [5]

The strength of this study lies in its combination ofquantitative and qualitative research design involving simplerandom and purposive sample techniques The use of DFIDrsquosSLF as the guide to this study also served as a strengthin assessing the nexus between artisanal and small-scalemining and livelihood in the PMR Ghana The use ofqualitative appreciative inquiry approach in this paper helpedto establish clear understanding of vulnerabilities in ASMand the various ways people adapt to cope with stresses andmaintain their livelihood conditions The study encounteredsome limitations Some study participants were reluctant tobe interviewed by the research enumerators There could bea sample bias due to the small sample size used for the study


This has the potential to influence the study results in onewayor the other

5 Conclusion

This study explored the nexus between artisanal and small-scale mining and livelihood in Prestea mining region GhanaQuickhigh income earning from ASM limited job opportu-nities in rural areas economic hardshipspoverty scenarios ofpeople and low earnings in agriculture are the main reasonswhy most people or miners engage in ASM Economichardships and poverty are the driving factors that swayand force many women to engage in mining activities toassist them in catering for their family and improving theirliving conditions Direct employment opportunities createdby ASM for people outweigh indirect jobs such as driving andfood vending in mining communities However the studyhas shown that there is no difference with the effects ofASM on job creation in mining communities of Ghana Ithas also shown that small-scale mining contributes to liveli-hood enhancement through income generation increasedwell-being asset acquisitions reduced vulnerabilities andempowering of people to establish their own businesses andtake initiatives to improve their lives It reduces poverty situa-tions and rural exodus in the areaHowever injuries diseasesaccidents and deaths rainy season and fluctuation of goldprices are the vulnerability context in ASM Weak policiesregulating ASM create an avenue formany people to combineand use their personal assets to enable them to engage in it aslivelihood strategy to generate positive livelihood outcomesThe study shows that livelihood assets can be enhanced anddestroyed by small-scale mining activities ASM adopted byrural people destroys livelihood assets through destruction offarmlands and forest and water resources High income fromASM shows a connection among assets vulnerability con-text and livelihood outcomes where high income earningsincrease peoplersquos financial capital and reduce vulnerabilitysuch as poverty situations and food insecurity Destructionof fertile lands water bodies farmlands and forest resourcesby mining poses dire threat to sustainable development andenvironment The study therefore concludes that there isa clear nexus (both positive and negative) between ASMand livelihood The findings will therefore improve peoplersquosunderstanding of ASM with its links to livelihood assets andvulnerability context of livelihood

Recommendations

As Solesbury [49] indicated sustainable livelihood approachprovides a three-way street triangle of research policy andpractice which informs each other With regard to this thestudy provides recommendations which in turn would affectpolicies and assist policymakers in implementing appropriatemeasures to ensure sustainable mining activities in GhanaFirstly the study recommends that land policies in Ghanashould be reviewed to incorporate land reclamation andrefill and reforestation programmes in mining communi-ties to ensure sustainable small-scale mining activities TheGovernment of Ghana in collaboration with Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) must employ trained personnel asa monitoring team to help ensure that small-scale minersconform to mineral and land regulations Secondly the EPAshould collaborate with the local government at the districtlevel to create buffer zone to limit or stop ASM activitiesfrom being undertaken in water bodies so that destructionand contamination of water bodies would be reduced in thecountry Also small-scale miners should adopt proper andmodern methods in their operations in order to minimizetheir impact on the environment

There should be law enforcement by the EPA MineralCommissions and local authorities to protect farmlands sothat farmers will not lose their livelihoods through illegalsmall-scale mining Again opinion leaders and chiefs shouldcollaborate with the Prestea-Huni Valley District to initiateborehole and well construction programmes to increaseaccessibility of water in PMR Ghana Moreover non-governmental organisations the EPA and various mediasuch as television and radio stations should organise seminarsto create awareness on ASM and its effects on livelihood andthe environment to help small-scale miners understand theneed to ensure environmental sustainability in their quest toachieve their livelihood goals

Furthermore in order to minimize the vulnerability andsusceptibility to livelihood insecurities the core structuresinvolving government and private agencies ought to focuson reducing poverty and unemployment as well as inducedvulnerability These structures must create enabling environ-ment for more job opportunities Investment into areas suchas rural industries education agriculture and constructionworks helps to reduce economic hardships and unemploy-ment which are the forces compellingmany people to involvein illegal small-scale mining in Ghana Policy makers shouldnot only look at the ramifications of ASM activities but alsoincorporate ASM sector into poverty reduction strategies inGhana to provide significant number of job opportunities topeople and an avenue to reduce poverty

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of the paper

Acknowledgments

The authors express their heartfelt gratitude to the researchenumerators for their assistance in the data collection pro-cess Special thanks are due to Rosemary Arthur for herfinancial support Much appreciation also goes to AbrefaKwaku Busia and Vincent Boanor for their comments andinspiration

References

[1] A MacDonald Industry in Transition A Profile of the NorthAmerican Mining Sector International Institute for SustainableDevelopment 2002

[2] R K Amankwah and C Anim-Sackey ldquoStrategies for sustain-able development of the small-scale gold and diamond mining


industry of GhanardquoResources Policy vol 29 no 3-4 pp 131ndash1382003

[3] G Hilson ldquoSmall-scale mining and its socio-economic impactin developing countriesrdquo Natural Resources Forum vol 26 no1 pp 3ndash13 2002

[4] D Ulrike G Franken M Liedtke and H Siever ldquoArtisanaland small-scale mining (ASM)rdquo POLINARES Working Paper19 POLINARES 2012

[5] T Akabzaa and A Darimani ldquoImpact of mining sector invest-mentin Ghana a study of the Tarkwa Mining Regionrdquo DraftedReport for SAPRI 2001 httpwwwsaprinorgghanaresearchgha miningpdf

[6] Collaborative Group on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining(CASM) 2003 httpenwikipediaorgwikiArtisanalminingcollaborative group on Artisanal and small scale mining28CASM2

[7] International Labour Organisation (ILO) ldquoSocial and labourissues in small-scale minesrdquo in Proceedings of the TripartiteMeeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines(TMSSM rsquo99) Geneva Switzerland October 1999

[8] B N A Aryee ldquoContribution of minerals and mining sector tothe national development Ghanarsquos experimentrdquo Great Insightsvol 1 no 5 2012

[9] Ghana Chamber of Mines ldquoThe impact of mining on localeconomyrdquo Annual Report of the Chamber of Mines AccraGhana 2005

[10] WorldBank ldquoMongolia a reviewof environmental and social im-pacts in themining sectorrdquo 2006 httpsiteresourcesworldbankorgINTMONGOLIAResourcesMongolia-Miningpdf

[11] T Hentschel F Hruschka and F Priester ldquoGlobal report onartisanal and Small scale miningrdquo Working Paper 70 Mineralsand Sustainable Development (MMSD) Project London UK2002

[12] S Datta V Mahajan and G Thakur An Introduction toLivelihood Promotion Rural Finance Centre 2004

[13] A Y Iddrisu and F S Tsikata ldquoMining sector development andenvironment projectrdquo Regulatory Framework study to assistsmall miners prepared for the mineral commissions 1998

[14] W V Mitullah J S Ogola and M A Omulo ldquoThe socio-economic aspects of Artisanal Gold mining in Migori DistrictKenyardquo in The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries G Hilson Ed pp 260ndash270 Taylor and Francis Publications London UK 2003

[15] G Hilson ldquoA Contextual Review of the Ghanaians Small-scaleMining Industry Mining Minerals and Sustainable Develop-ment Projectrdquo 2001 httppubsiiedorgpdfsG00722pdf

[16] R K Amankwah and W K Buah ldquoSome metallurgical aspectsof small-scale gold mining in Ghanardquo in Proceedings of theExtraction Metallurgy Africa rsquo98 Conference pp 1ndash4 SouthAfrican Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 1998

[17] I T Ocansey Mining impacts on agricultural lands and foodsecurity Case study of towns in and around Kyebi in the EasternRegion of Ghana [Bachelor Thesis] Turku University of AppliedSciences Turku Finland 2013

[18] J Y YeboahMining Activities in Obuasi Ghana Environmentaland Health Impacts LAP LAMBERT Academic PublishingSaarbrucken Germany 2011

[19] M A Bessah Effects of small-scale gold mining on waterresources a case study of BogosoPrestea mining area [MSthesis] KwameNkrumahUniversity of Science and Technology(KNUST) Kumasi Ghana 2011

[20] TM Akabzaa J S Seyire and K AfriyieTheGlittering FacadeEffects of Mining Activities on Obuasi and Its SurroundingCommunities Third World Network Africa (TWN-Africa)Accra Ghana 2007

[21] J Opoku-WareThe social and environmental impacts of miningactivities on indigenous communities the case of Newmont Gold(Ghana) Limited (Kenyasi) in Ghana [MS thesis] University ofAgder Kristianland Norway 2010

[22] PresteaHuni-Valley District Assembly (PHDA) PresteaHuni-Valley Assembly Medium Term Development Plan (2010ndash2014)Planning Unit Prestea Huni-Valley District Assembly 2010

[23] Ghana Statistical Service (GSS)Ghana Population and HousingCensus 2010 Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) Accra Ghana2012

[24] Golden Star Bogoso Prestea Limited (GSBPL EMP) ldquoSurfaceand groundwatermonitoring projectrdquo EnvironmentalManage-ment Plan pp 13ndash15 2008

[25] Mapping Unit Department of Geography and Rural Develop-ment Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and TechnologyKumasi Ghana 2015

[26] A Shankland ldquoAnalysing policy for sustainable livelihoodrdquo IDSResearch Report 49 IDS Brighton UK 2000

[27] A SenThe Standard of Living The Tanner Lectures Clare HallCambridge UK 1985 Cambridge University Press CambridgeUK 1987

[28] World Commission on Environment and Development(WCED) Report on World Commission on Environment andDevelopment Our Common Future United Nations New YorkNY USA 1987

[29] R Chambers and G Conway ldquoSustainable rural livelihoodspractical concepts for the 21st centuryrdquo IDS Discussion Paper296 IDS Brighton UK 1992

[30] G Carswell ldquoAgricultural intensification and sustainable rurallivelihoods a think piecerdquo Working Paper 64 IDS BrightonUK 1997

[31] I Scoones ldquoSustainable rural livelihoods a framework foranalysisrdquo Working Paper 72 IDS Brighton UK 1998

[32] Department for International Development Sustainable Liveli-hoods Guidance Sheet Department for International Develop-ment (DFID) London UK 1999

[33] C Ashley and D Carney Sustainable Livelihoods Lessons fromEarly Experience Department for International DevelopmentLondon UK 1999

[34] D Cooperrider and D Whitney ldquoThe appreciative inquirysummit an emerging methodology for whole system positivechangerdquo Journal of the Organization Development Network vol32 pp 23ndash26 2000

[35] G R Bushe ldquoAppreciative inquiry is not (Just) about thepositiverdquo OD Practitioners vol 39 no 4 pp 30ndash35 2007

[36] J Corbin and J M Morse ldquoThe unstructured interactiveinterview issues of reciprocity and risks when dealing withsensitive topicsrdquo Qualitative Inquiry vol 9 no 3 pp 335ndash3542003

[37] M Israel and IHayResearch Ethics for Social Scientists BetweenEthical Conduct and Regulating Compliance Pine Forge PressLondon UK 2006

[38] G Graffigna and K Olson ldquoThe ineffable disease exploringyoung peoplersquos discourse about HIVAIDS in Alberta CanadardquoQualitative Health Research vol 19 no 6 pp 790ndash801 2009


[39] E Ofei-Aboagye N M Thompson S Al-Hassan T Akabzaaand C Ayamdoo ldquoPutting miners first understanding the live-lihoods contexts of small scale and artisanal mining in GhanardquoSynthesisReport 2004 httpr4ddfidgovukpdfoutputsC392pdf

[40] J J Hinton M M Veiga and C Beinhoff ldquoWomen andartisanal mining gender roles and the road aheadrdquo in TheSocio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Miningin Developing Countries G Hilson Ed pp 161ndash203 Taylor ampFrancis Publications London UK 2004

[41] E Adjei Impact of mining on the livelihoods of rural householdsa case study of farmers in the Wassa mining region [MS thesis]Norwagian University of Science and Technology 2007

[42] A G N Kitula ldquoThe environmental and socio-economicimpacts of mining on local livelihoods in Tanzania a case studyof Geita Districtrdquo Journal of Cleaner Production vol 14 no 3-4pp 405ndash414 2006

[43] P N Owens R J Batalla A J Collins et al ldquoFine-grainedsediment in river systems environmental significance andmanagement issuesrdquoRiver Research andApplications vol 21 no7 pp 693ndash717 2005

[44] S Phiri Impact of artisanal small scale gold mining in Umzing-wane district (Zimbabwe) a potential for ecological disaster [MSthesis] University of the Free State Bloemfontein South Africa2011

[45] C Stephens and M Ahern ldquoWorker and community healthimpacts related to mining operations internationallyrdquo TechRep 25 IIED 2001

[46] J Morelli ldquoEnvironmental sustainability a definition for envi-ronmental professionalsrdquo Journal of Environmental Sustainabil-ity vol 1 no 1 article 2 2011

[47] I Sulemana and I Agyemang ldquoThe socio-cultural implicationsof small-scale mining in the Talensi-Nabdam district of theUpper East Region of Ghanardquo International Research Journal ofPublic and Environmental Health vol 2 no 3 pp 27ndash36 2015

[48] F Ellis Rural Livelihood Diversity in Developing CountriesOxford University Press Oxford UK 2000

[49] W Solesbury ldquoSustainable livelihoods a case study of theevolution of DFID Policyrdquo Working Paper 217 Overseas Devel-opment Institute London UK 2003

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Child Development Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Education Research International


Biomedical EducationJournal of



Psychiatry Journal

ArchaeologyJournal of



AnthropologyJournal of


Research and TreatmentSchizophrenia


Urban Studies Research

Population ResearchInternational Journal of


CriminologyJournal of


Aging ResearchJournal of



NursingResearch and Practice

Current Gerontologyamp Geriatrics Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Volume 2014

Sleep DisordersHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AddictionJournal of


Depression Research and TreatmentHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Geography Journal


Research and TreatmentAutism


Economics Research International

2 Geography Journal

earner In 2004 mineral revenue was $798 million andincreased to $9952 in 2005 contributing about 13 of thetotal revenue collected by Internal Revenue Service Goldproduction had an increase of 63 with its export revenueincreasing from $7312 million to $9039 million and that ofdiamond increased from $26 million to $347 million [9] InMongolia the mining sector has contributed to about 17of GDP 65 of industrial value added and 58 of exportthereby making it the biggest contributor to the Mongolianeconomy [10]

In the entire world mineral resource extraction throughparticularly artisanal gold mining plays a key role in thelivelihood conditions of the people hence providing ameansof living [11] Datta et al [12] indicated that livelihoods aremeans orways of reducing povertyHowever different studieshave indicated that mining results in different outcomesArtisanal and small-scale mining takes different forms ofcontributions at both local and national level such as earningsfrom exports and making import of resource possible [13]It provides significant livelihood for rural communities inAfrica and serves as a means of alleviating poverty [6] It alsohas a major impact on employment in developing countriesespecially in the rural areas where there are limited jobopportunities [3] It provides people the means of employ-ment [2] since it does not involve any special skills Hentschelet al [11] indicated in their studies conducted in Boliviathat the reason for peoplersquos engagement in ASM operationsis purposely to improve their livelihoods Contrary to thisMitullah et al [14] argue that ASM diverts peoplersquos attentionfrom agriculture due to low income earnings associatedwith farming activity and also lack of formal jobs andopportunities compels people to participate in it irrespectiveof the high risks involved Hilson [15] in his studies in Ghanaconcluded that most of the small-scale miners are involved ingold extraction because it generates income quickly

Studies amply show that not only are men engaged inASM operations but also women participate in the activities[11] According to Hentschel et al [11] 75 of those involvedin ASM activities in Guinea are women while those ofGhana South Africa and Indonesia are 44 5 and 10respectively Small-scale mining results in loss of source oflivelihood of miners when they have accidents which causesome miners to depend on their relatives for sustenance andassistance [5] ASM is noted with its myriad of primary andsecondary problems through land degradation deforestationair pollution and water pollution [16]

Even thoughmany peoplewith various reasons of engage-ment in ASMhave benefited from it the various vulnerabilitycontexts of the ASM and critical assets in ASM are notbeing demonstrated and investigated by mining researchersWith the increasing rate of ASM operations in Ghana espe-cially Prestea mining area the extent to which ASM affectslivelihood of people and the community and contributes tolivelihood enhancement is not well-indicated in empiricalliteratureThis is becausemany studies in Ghana are based onenvironmental and health ramifications of mining [5 17ndash21]There is chronic dearth of empirical research and literatureon the various connections between ASM and livelihoodin Ghana However this current study was conducted to

fill this gap and add to knowledge by exploring the nexusbetweenASMand livelihood in Presteamining region (PMR)in Ghana using the sustainable livelihood approach

2 Data Theoretical Approach and Methods

21 Research Setting The study is based on a researchconducted between October 2013 and June 2014 in Presteamining enclave Prestea-Huni Valley District (PHD) in theWestern region of Ghana to assess the nexus between ASMand livelihood The Prestea-Huni Valley District is one ofthe newly created districts which was carved out of theWassa West District with Bogoso as its capital [22] Thecommunities of Prestea mining region are Prestea BondayeandHiman (see Figures 1 and 2)The district has an estimatedtotal population of 154528 of which males and femalesconstitute 78014 and 76514 respectively [23] Presteaminingarea Prestea Bondaye and Himan has a total populationof 40607 The study area forms approximately 267 of thedistrictrsquos total population The district statistician indicatedthat the study area has the highest proportionate shareof the population of the district This is attributed to theincreasing number of migrants from other parts of Ghana toengage in ASM activities in the area as well as the associatedtrading ventures Other equally important factors such aspoor acceptance rate of family planning teenage pregnancyand early marriage also account for the population increaseover the years [22]

The topography of the area is generally undulating withfew scarps ranging between 150m and 300m above sea levelMany rivers traversing the study communities could havemaintained its relevance of providing the communities withsource of water for domestic and irrigation purposes butthe intensive operations of ASM have rendered them unsafeThe study area falls within the wet equatorial climate withaverage minimum temperature experience of about 26∘C anda maximum temperature of 30∘C The climatic condition ofthe study area is hot and humid and it is characterized byseasonal weather patterns with double wet seasons [24] ThePHD is one of the districts that experience the highest rainfallin the country It has a mean annual rainfall of 18783 cmTherainy season is usually from March to July (major season)and from September to November (minor season) The rainyseason has an important effect on the environment in creatingwatersheds large expanse of stagnant water bodies deeptrenches and gullies aswell as leaching the nutrient content ofthe soil [22] Rain water that fills dug holes and pits promotesbreeding of mosquitoes and supports malaria vector growthThis iswhyAkabzaa andDarimani [5] stressed in their studiesconducted in Tarkwa that there are always cases of malariain mining communities The PHD falls within the rainfallbelt and exhibits wet moist evergreen rainforest with theheight of trees ranging between 15 and 40metersThe naturalvegetation of the area is full of climbers and lianas stranglerswhich are able to reach the upper tree layer ASM operationsparticularly illegal mining have gradually destroyed andaltered the rich vegetation in the study area

It also lies within the forest-dissected plateausrsquo phys-iographic region Precambrian rocks of Birimian origin

Geography Journal 3

2∘15

9984002∘05

9984001∘55

9984001∘45

998400



5∘40

998400

5∘30

998400

5∘20

998400


National

Regional

District

Study area

5∘

30998400

6∘

30998400

7∘

30998400

8∘

30998400

9∘

30998400

10∘

30998400

11∘


3∘

30998400

2∘

30998400

1∘

30998400

0∘

30998400

boundary

boundary

boundary


4 Geography Journal

S

H

P F

N



(iii) Seasonality

Livelihood assets


Influenceand access


processesStructures


(ii) Privatesector

Processes

(i) Laws

(ii) Policies



In

order

to

achieve

Livelihoodoutcomes





use of NR base

H human capital

N natural capital

F financial capital

S social capital

P physical capital







Geography Journal 5








6 Geography Journal




123


12




60 years and above

123456




123




123

Occupation(nominal)



12345





12345


AkanEweGa

NorthernersaOthers

12345


ChristianityIslam


1234



12345




More than 15 years

1234




Geography Journal 7





3 Results


8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 3

2∘15

9984002∘05

9984001∘55

9984001∘45

998400



5∘40

998400

5∘30

998400

5∘20

998400


National

Regional

District

Study area

5∘

30998400

6∘

30998400

7∘

30998400

8∘

30998400

9∘

30998400

10∘

30998400

11∘


3∘

30998400

2∘

30998400

1∘

30998400

0∘

30998400

boundary

boundary

boundary


4 Geography Journal

S

H

P F

N



(iii) Seasonality

Livelihood assets


Influenceand access


processesStructures


(ii) Privatesector

Processes

(i) Laws

(ii) Policies



In

order

to

achieve

Livelihoodoutcomes





use of NR base

H human capital

N natural capital

F financial capital

S social capital

P physical capital







Geography Journal 5








6 Geography Journal




123


12




60 years and above

123456




123




123

Occupation(nominal)



12345





12345


AkanEweGa

NorthernersaOthers

12345


ChristianityIslam


1234



12345




More than 15 years

1234




Geography Journal 7





3 Results


8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





4 Geography Journal

S

H

P F

N



(iii) Seasonality

Livelihood assets


Influenceand access


processesStructures


(ii) Privatesector

Processes

(i) Laws

(ii) Policies



In

order

to

achieve

Livelihoodoutcomes





use of NR base

H human capital

N natural capital

F financial capital

S social capital

P physical capital







Geography Journal 5








6 Geography Journal




123


12




60 years and above

123456




123




123

Occupation(nominal)



12345





12345


AkanEweGa

NorthernersaOthers

12345


ChristianityIslam


1234



12345




More than 15 years

1234




Geography Journal 7





3 Results


8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 5








6 Geography Journal




123


12




60 years and above

123456




123




123

Occupation(nominal)



12345





12345


AkanEweGa

NorthernersaOthers

12345


ChristianityIslam


1234



12345




More than 15 years

1234




Geography Journal 7





3 Results


8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





6 Geography Journal




123


12




60 years and above

123456




123




123

Occupation(nominal)



12345





12345


AkanEweGa

NorthernersaOthers

12345


ChristianityIslam


1234



12345




More than 15 years

1234




Geography Journal 7





3 Results


8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 7





3 Results


8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





8 Geography Journal




Place of residence

Bondaye 12 (152) 12 (152) 24 (304)


Age of respondents

Less than 21 years 2 (25) 3 (38) 5 (63)

0199


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)


Native 13 (164) 19 (241) 32 (405)


Marital status

Single 20 (253) 23 (291) 43 (544)


Occupation

Trading 8 (101) 20 (253) 28 (354)


Educational level

Basic 17 (215) 17 (215) 34 (430)

0006



Ethnicity

Akan 23 (291) 32 (405) 55 (696)

0110Ewe 6 (76) 2 (25) 8 (101)


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Religion

Christianity 31 (392) 32 (405) 63 (797)

0379Islam 6 (76) 7 (89) 13 (165)


Income level

Less than Ghcent 100 4 (51) 5 (63) 9 (114)

0460


Total 40 (506) 39 (494) 79 (100)

Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Geography Journal 9

Table 2 Continued




Less than 5 yrs 7 (89) 7 (89) 14 (177)


















Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal










Strongly agree 13 (542) 18 (692) 16 (552) 47 (595)



Men 3 (136) 2 (91) 7 (241) 12 (164)

0325

Women 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (14)Children 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)








Yes 20 (909) 20 (909) 24 (828) 64 (877)0584No 2 (91) 2 (91) 5 (172) 9 (123)

Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)

If yes how



Other 0 (0) 1 (45) 0 (0) 1 (13)Total 22 (100) 22 (100) 29 (100) 73 (100)
























Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal






















Natural capital


Physical capital


Human capital



Social capital





Water bodies


Human










4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal









4 Discussion
























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal























5 Conclusion


Recommendations







Acknowledgments


References





























































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal































































Psychiatry Journal



















Volume 2014


AddictionJournal of




Geography Journal





Research Article Nexus between Artisanal and Small-Scale ...

Documents

Transcript of Research Article Nexus between Artisanal and Small-Scale ...