ΠW REGIONAL ASIA AND PACIFIC (Australia, Bangladesh, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Federated States of Micronesia, Sri Lanka, Truk Islands, Vanuatu, Viet N a m , Western Samoa)

Research and its application to mangrove ecosystems management in Asia and the Pacific

Project Findings and Recommendations

Serial No. FMR/SC/MRI/91/216(UNDP)

United Nations Educational, United Nations Scientific and Development Cultural Organization P r o g r a m m e

Paris, 1991

REGIONAL ASIA AND PACIFIC

RESEARCH AND ITS APPLICATION TO MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS MANAGEMENT IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Project Findings and Recommendations

Report prepared for the Governments of Australia, Bangladesh, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Solcmon Islands, Thailand, Federated States of Micronesia, Sri Lanka, Truk Islands, Vanuatu, Viet Nam and Western Samoa, by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) acting as Executing Agency for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

••

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNDP/RAS/86/120 Terminal Report FMR/SC/MRI/91/216 ( UNDP ) 15 October 1991

© UNESCO 1991 Printed in France

Table of Contents

Page

Summary (ii)

Acronyms (vi)

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS 2

III. THE RESULTS 6

IV. THE SHORTCOMINGS 13

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 14

ANNEXES

A. List of Project Personnel 21

B. Research grants and contracts made within the framework of the Regional Mangrove Project 23

C. Inventory of Project Equipment in Delhi Office and for the Ranong Programme 28

D. ' Workshops/Meetings held within the framework of the Regional Mangrove Project 33

E. Publications 35

F. Assessment Report (Abridged) by J.T. Baker 39

G. Executive Report of the International Multi-disciplinary Study and Research Programme of the Ranong Mangrove Ecosystem (Abridged) 73

(ii)

S U M M A R Y

- Total Governments' contribution: (in kind) estimated at US$ 3.000.000 (including US$ 500.000 from Thailand alone)

- Total UNDP contribution: US$ 1.124.471

(a) Objectives:

The raising of the awareness of the value and need to preserve and properly manage the mangrove ecosystems was largely achieved. From eight at the starting, the number of countries # participating in the project reached twenty two at its end. The demonstration was done that different types of development of mangrove areas are possible, ranging from total conservation and genetic diversity safeguard, to total conversion to other uses, provided that the development plans are established after Environmental Impact Assessments have been carried out based on site-specific surveys and studies, involving team works with the cooperation of scientists specialized in different relevant fields, technicians and managers. Specialized training based on field research was a standing function of the project.

(b) Outputs:

- training of more than four hundred specialists at all levels in different relevant disciplines of sciences and management, and through an interdisciplinary approach;

- establishment of a network of twenty two countries and National Mangrove Committees (NATMANCOMs) coordinated by a Regional Mangrove Coordinating Committee (RMCC) for the exchange of information and expertise among decision-makers, managers and scientists, plus links with specialists from a number of other countries; >

- mangrove re-afforestation plans being developed; silvi-aquacultural and agro-silvi-aquacultural practices considered as part of the management of mangrove ecosystems;

ecological constraints on the mangrove ecosystem incorporated into the Benefit-Cost framework;

- creation of an International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME), affiliated to the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU);

- more than forty reports, manuals, 'occasional papers' and a book for the interested laymen, for decision and policy-makers * in government and for managers.

(c) Findings and Recommendations:

Findings

- the usefulness of undertaking multidisciplinary integrated survey and research of any ecosystem in order to understand its structure and function as a basis for rational management;

(iii)

• - the development of an ecological economic model of analysis that can be used for planning zoning for sustainable development of the coastal zone on an ecological valid and economically rewarding basis;

. - "the relevance and value of a variety of disciplines usually not often called upon such as palynology, hydrology, microbiology, remote sensing and social studies, to achieve rational management;

- to plan and take action for coastal zone management, it is necessary to extrapolate from a limited approach that involves only mangroves and silvi-aquacultural practices inside the mangroves to other coastal ecosystems upstream (savannahs and agricultural lands or shrubs and forests) and ecosystems downstream (sea-grass beds and coral reefs), that ultimately are all interdependent.

Recommendations:

a) Do not disrupt hydrography and topography of the area,

b) Avoid dumping dredged material, mining tailings and treated or untreated sewage in the mangroves;

c) Conserve tidal regime intact;

d) Coastal structures in the proximity of mangrove areas should be designed in such a manner as to avoid excess sedimentation or erosion. Upstream structures should be made, keeping in. view that landslides in the catchment area, dam bursts upstream and damming of rivers may be hazardous to mangroves by causing decrease or total stoppage of freshwater inputs or by burying the mangroves under excess silt;

e) Maintain continuous monitoring of the ecosystem's reaction to the extraction of forest and fishery products, since regeneration rates of the ecosystem vary with season and site;

f) Be prepared to make adjustments to the management plans;

g) Locate aquaculture ponds behind - or landwards - from the mangroves, rather than inside them;

h) Silvi-aquacultural practices under humid tropical conditions are the most sound type of exploitation and management of the resource; management of mangrove ecosystems should include silvi-aquacultural and agro-silvi-aquacultural practices;

i) Always keep a green mangrove belt between rivers and ponds, between the coastline and ponds; keep creeks always bordered with mangroves; the' width of the belt varies

(iv)

greatly from a few to one hundred metres width depending on local conditions;

j) Management of mangrove forests for fodder could be done on a rotation system, with thinning and replanting if necessary to ensure recuperation and full regrowth of Avicennia trees (the genus that produces best fodder). There are, so far, no mangrove forests methodically managed for fodder although they are exploited for the purpose; it is estimated that output could be doubled if these mangroves were rationally managed and they could include non-destructing aquaculture;

k) Nypa palm plantations should only be made when there is regular and abundant fresh water throughout the year; insecticides should be avoided in Nypa palm plantations since the plant is pollinated by fruit flies;

1) Improved techniques for apiculture for higher returns involves previous study of the flora, flowering seasons and species composition of the forest for the introduction of the right species'of honey-bees;

m) Where roads and bunds must be built parallel to the coastline, the structures should be provided with drains and should be interrupted at intervals with channels large enough and placed in the correct position to ensure water circulation by tidal and land runoff; mangroves die in stagnant water;

n) Recommendations for the establishment of biosphere reserves and parks are being elaborated on the basis of the experience gained by those countries that have already done so;

o) Development of mangroves for tourism is recommended, provided:

i) outboard or .other motors are not used in the upper reaches of the creeks;

ii) oil spills are avoided; and

iii) catwalks are provided for the visitors and tourists passage, who should be confined to those areas and to guided tours.

p) Reforestation of degraded coastal areas with mangroves should be actively pursued; wherever ecologically feasible;

q) Total conservation of mangrove pockets for the preservation of genetic diversity should be practiced;

r) Coastal zone structure should not be altered without due attention to the mangrove ecosystems of the area;

(v)

s) A national mangrove ecosystem project should be developed in each country for , site-specific development and management of areas, preferably on a multiple use, long-term sustainable yield basis, especially in LDC countries, such as Vietnam;

t) An island countries coastal management project should be developed and managed where mangroves may or may not play a dominant or subordinate role; , .

u) The RMCC should be strengthened and encouraged to continue functioning; a meeting of its members should be convened by the Chairman at least once every two years;

v) ISME should be universally recognized as an important advisory body for matters related to mangrove ecosystems management and tropical coastal zone surveys research and training.

Lessons learnt:

- A regional project of this nature and complexity can save a great amount of effort and time to each participating country, but it needs time for a careful preparation and the dedication of a few but well selected international staff cooperating closely with a committee of country representatives;

- The realization of the common concern and interest will motivate the sharing of experience and expertise, while the individuality and the unique socio-ecological and politico-legal characteristics of each country are recognized and respected.

- Guidelines for the management of mangrove ecosystems can only be given in a general term. It could be counter-effective to apply defined norms indiscriminately to any and all mangrove situations. Therefore, a single set of guidelines of validity for all the situations and objectives is considered impossible to produce because of the great variability in both structure and dynamics, in space and time, of the mangroves themselves.

(vi)

ACRONYMS

COMAR COMARAF

CSIR

ISME '•

JIAM

JICA NATMANCOM(s) NRCT OKINAM

REMIN RMCC RTF

Coastal Marine Project of UNESCO Regional Project on Coastal Systems of Africa (UNDP/UNESCO) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; India International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems; Okinawa Japan International Association for Mangroves; Tokyo Japan International Cooperation Agency; Tokyo National Mangrove Committee(s) National Research Council of Thailand; Bangkok Okinawa International Association for Mangroves; Okinawa Regional Mangrove Information Network; Manila Regional Mangrove Coordinating Committee; . Regional Task Force

RAS/86/120: Research and its Application to Mangrove Ecosystems Management

TERMINAL REPORT

I. INTRODUCTION

1. The mangrove ecosystems occupy a key place at the tropical land/sea interface and play a prominent role as a link among land, brackish and sea water ecosystems. They receive, process, recycle and export nutrients and toxic wastes, including heavy metals. As an open-ended ecosystem the mangroves have been unadvisedly considered to be fit for treated or untreated sewage disposal and as dump sites. Depending on geographic, topographic and climatic characteristics of the site, mangroves may temporarily or permanently function as sinks of minerals and nutrients. More often, however, mangroves are net exporters of particulate and dissolved organic matter. Most mangroves form peat in their upper reaches and trap some of the organic and inorganic compounds of mineral and biogenic origin produced by the ecosystem, or brought there by land run off.

2. The peculiarities of mangroves, well known to local populations around the world, were until recently, poorly known to scientists, planners and administrators, a situation that has led to frequent mismanagement, although some clear minded foresters of the XIX and early XX centuries, for instance, Watson, in Malaysia, perceived the potential of mangrove forests and developed sound management practices that ensure sustained exploitation without causing degradation of the ecosystem.

3. The mangrove waters were not equally fortunate in that in his eagerness for quick monetary returns modern man has haphazardly built aquaculture ponds for shrimp and fish in mangrove areas totally converted to open air ponds. Ecological disasters occurred almost everywhere, they dragged vast areas down a degradation slope and shrinking production of both capture and captive fisheries. Aquaculture must go hand in hand with rational multiple sustainable use of the mangroves as an ecosystem.

4. The mangrove ecosystem programme fostered by UNESCO and UNDP was planned for the purpose of acquiring a balanced perspective of the real significance of mangroves aiming at a rational use of the ecosystem without causing ecological degradation. The knowledge acquired was meant to be useful for planners and policy makers in governments and for big and small users of the mangroves themselves.

5. The UNDP/UNESCO Regional Project on Mangrove Ecosystems, (Research and its Application to Mangrove Ecosystems Management) was implemented from January 1987 through December 1990. It is conceptually part of the UNESCO-COMAR (COastal MARine) Programme. Its total budget was: US$ 1,228,095. It succeeded the Regional Project RAS/79/002: Research and Training Pilot Programme on Mangrove Ecosystems (1983-1987).

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6. The two projects constitute a single conceptual unit, the second being an inescapable consequence of the first, since it became imperative to apply and test the wisdom obtained during the first phase and to disseminate the knowledge so far acquired through research and team work in the field.

7. The present report presents in a concise manner the achievements of the project implemented in cooperation with representatives of the NATMANCOMs of the 19 participating countries, plus representatives of 3 "donor" countries.

II. DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS

8. At the time this project was implemented, there was an increasing general consensus throughout the world that environmental problems pose the most serious threat to the habitability of the planet, hence development pursuits should not clash with the maintenance of a healthy environment.

9. Contrary to common belief and general appearance, tropical systems are usually fragile and, in particular, the tropical coastal systems have come under increasing pressure for development due to ever growing human population density. Achievements in science and technology make it possible, at present, to undertake almost any engineering work of any magnitude or complexity and having far reaching consequences, while natural ecosystems in general are often inconsiderately destroyed. Consequently, the coastal zone has been reshaped and changed in the post second world war period to an extent and at a pace unheard of earlier.

10. This process is quite obvious in the developed countries where it has been shown to be economically rewarding even if often ecologically precarious. The problems are aggravated in the developing countries by the fact that basic infrastructure and supporting industries are often inadequate to provide the equipment and its installation and maintenance, that are necessary for sustained production. Decline in efficiency of man-made systems is often apparent only after the natural ecosystems are ruined beyond hope of recovery.

11. The mangroves of the tropical belt were often sacrificed to industrialization, construction of airports, roads, harbours, power generation complexes, tourism, wars and pollution, in addition to aquaculture activities and growing needs for fuel, such as firewood and charcoal, needed both by the local population and for export to economically developed countries.

12. The problems of development of the tropical coastal zone are further aggravated by the transfer of technologies without critical consideration of the different environmental and socio­economic conditions under which the introduced technologies will be operating. Thus, for instance, intensive aquaculture for shrimp and fish in the tropics may take years before becoming economically regarding practices or may suddenly collapse because

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of ecological desequilibrium or because of the outburst of epidemics of new and hitherto unknown diseases in the hatcheries or in the ponds.

13. Thus to revert this trend the stated central problem faced by the project was: what and how important a role does the mangrove ecosystem play in the coastal zone? Can this complex world of mangroves, that is neither land nor sea nor air but all of them at the same time, be put at a higher level of sustained production without causing permanent damage neither to the parts nor to the whole?

14. It is a matter of fact and daily observation throughout the tropics that the mangroves in which and out of which local populations live, is a basically important life sustaining system. The forest produces timber, fuel wood, fodder, food and chemicals, the waters produce fish, crustaceans and molluscs that can be directly used as food or reared to larger sizes; vertebrate animals provide food, hides, or, like the dugong that is useful to clear up unwanted vegetation from the waterways, may be eaten. The mangrove system itself promotes land accretion, protects against erosion and cyclones, maintains estuarine channels well dredged, produces fertilizing soils and creates innumerable ecological niches for the microflora, microfauna and microbes that promote recycling of nutrients, besides exporting particulate and dissolved organic matter to the adjoining coastal waters. The International Conference on Mangroves, Okinawa, Japan, December 1-5, 1989, adopted as its motto a local saying: "No forest on land, no fish in the sea".

15. In brief, the objectives the project was intended to achieve were :

a) To develop awareness of the need to preserve mangrove ecosystems for a sustained production of resources;

b) To clarify the relevance of the indirect benefits that can be obtained by a rational management of mangrove ecosystems;

c) To increase human capability in all countries for solving problems related to conflicting interests in the development process;

d) To define the role that training and research play for a rational permanent solution of the development of the tropical coastal zone;

e) To produce general guidelines for the management of mangroves. •

16. The more detailed objectives of project RAS/86/120 "Research and its application to mangrove ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific" were:

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a) To strengthen the exchange of information and expertise among the countries of the region, especially for the use of improved techniques and methods of survey and research leading to a better understanding of the functioning of the mangroves and of their interaction with related coastal systems. The ultimate aim is the management of mangroves as appropriate to each specific place.

b) To strengthen the capability of about 50 scientists, technicians and managers and to promote cooperative research on the mangroves and their interactions with related coastal systems including:

i) research on the ecosystem structure and functioning and its role in generating and maintaining coastal resources and coastal stability;

ii) research on the influence of water dynamics such as tides, current patterns, sediment transport, water and nutrient runoff from land on coastal processes;

iii) survey and research capabilities of each country aiming at developing indigenous expertise to apply research to management requirements with due consideration to the complexity and specificity of each site;

iv) application-oriented research undertaken in cooperation with human populations living in mangrove coastal and estuarine areas for betterment of their life patterns;

v) guidelines for management and to reinforce the countries' capability in the formulation of their coastal management plans.

17. In more general terms the stated goal of the project was to determine what ecological factors should be observed, measured and studied in detail to enable sound advice to be given to managers and planners.. Such preliminary surveys are necessary to decide which options to select for development. The options could be:

a) total conservation of mangroves

b) management of the mangrove as a multiple use system

c) management of a limited number of resources from the mangrove

d) partial or total conversion to other systems such as: palm oil plantation, paddy field, aquaculture for fish and shrimp, salt pans, or mining fields.

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Where and how should different options be decided upon? Since different solutions to the problems are advisable at different places and times,, the goal will be reached only when the appropriate option is considered as a function of the peculiarities of each site.

18. After defining the objectives of the project and recognizing that there is a mangrove ecosystem problem that needs to be tackled to enable planners and managers to take the most appropriate and best decisions for the management of the tropical coastal zone, a strategy to achieve the goal had to be established.

19. Prior to the onset of the project, it was well known that there was not enough information on the structure and function of the mangroves at large to warrant generalized recommendations. Hence research and training was needed, and the first project put emphasis on all aspects of training. It also introduced in the programmes of the project subjects not hitherto considered relevant for a rational management of the mangroves nor as having much importance for understanding the structure and dynamics of this very special ecosystem. Those were, for instance, remote sensing, microbiology of soils and waters, recycling of nutrients, palynology, etc. Towards the end of the first project it was considered that a good job in different areas of training had been achieved, but more emphasis should be put on research and training-for-research by doing research mainly in the field. It was decided that a major effort should be directed towards intensifying research and applying research results to the management of the mangrove ecosystem, as well as for experimental and pilot scale reforestation and afforestation of desert or degraded tidal coastal plains and of secondarily denuded areas; to advise on silvi-aquacultural and hydrographie practices on a scientific basis and also to make a rough assessment of the potential production of rationally managed different mangrove ecosystems, to ensure a long term sustained yield. Thus the second project put more emphasis on different research programmes and large scale experiments in the field, as well as on a major multidisciplinary integrated programme undertaken in the Ranong Province of Thailand. The Ranong Programme involved the participation of scientists from all the countries of the project and from several others, each in their own field of specialization, in a programmed and coordinated manner. Junior scientists from many countries participated in these programmes.

20. In conclusion, the strategy followed was successful in developing awareness and concern in governments and amongst the people living in the coastal area of the importance and usefulness of the mangroves; the strategy followed was also able to establish a functional network that will hopefully outlive the limited duration of the project. Finally this strategy led to the creation of the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) based together with OKINAM (Okinawa International Association for Mangroves) in Okinawa, Japan, at the University of the Ryukyus. The Society is affiliated to the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and we hope that many of its

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action programmes in the field, laboratory, libraries and governments will be supported by the Japanese International Association for Mangroves (JIAM). ISME will keep alive the momentum created by the project and will pursue its scientific and practical ideas with work and support of research and field programmes.

III. THE RESULTS

21. A basic point made by the project was to demonstrate that to achieve sound development there should be a well planned balance between fundamental research, mission oriented research and field survey and experiments and, when possible pilot scale projects for the immediate application of research results to management and for improvement of the performance and productivity of the coastal zone.

22. The project's activities were based on the principle that wise administration of any ecosystem requires a sound knowledge of its structure and function and that there must be a critical mass of knowledgeable persons (scientists, technicians and managers) to actually manage the system on a sustained yield basis. Throughout the seven years of implementation of the projects, care was taken to apply as directly and quickly as possible, research results to the management of the mangrove ecosystem. The goal was to achieve high sustainable returns without causing ecological impoverishment such as loss of species, spreading of diseases of the flora and fauna, desertification, and emigration of the human population.

23. The results achieved could be summarized as follows:

a) Awareness of the importance of mangrove systems at government and general public levels (publications, public lectures and talks);

b) Practical demonstration that Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) based on site-specific survey and studies must be carried out before development plans are undertaken (Ranong Programme, reforestation of Sind coastal area in Pakistan; coastal social forestry in India; traditional management practices throughout the region, specially Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka);

c) Place, time and type of development should follow the EIA studies. Different types of development of mangrove areas are possible, ranging from total conservation for tourism and genetic diversity safeguard, to total conversion to other uses, as for instance building airports, harbours or industrial estates, etc.

d) Demonstration that meaningful field work can only be done by team work with the cooperation of scientists

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specialized in different fields, surveyors and technicians working, together (Report of Workshops, Reports ,of Research Grants, Ranong Programme);

e) Training of more than 400 scientists and technicians, at different levels and in different areas (throughout both projects);

f) Establishment of the network of National Mangrove Committees (NATMANCOMs) for the exchange of information and expertise among decision-makers, managers and scientists that spans 19 countries that integrated the project formally, plus many others that were project-related (i.e.: scientists from the United Kingdom, France, Japan and the USA); African countries (through COMARAF); American countries (through COMAR and individual contacts); Burma (through the UNDP Res. Rep. Mr. K. Kitatani, individual contacts and trainees); China (direct contacts); Japan (organizer and host country of the International Conference on Mangroves, December 1979, Okinawa, Japan; several Pacific Islands. Establishment of the Regional Mangrove Coordinating Committee (RMCC) and of the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME).

g) The publication of 2 6 Reports of Training Courses and Workshops; of 9 papers in the series of "Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers"; 3 manuals ("Mangrove Microbiology. Role of Microorganisms in Nutrient Cycling of Mangrove Soils and Waters", "Mangrove palynology" and "Manual for Investigation of Hydrological Processes in Mangrove Ecosystems") and 2 major Technical Reports ("The Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific - Status and Management"), and the "Report on the Integrated Multidisciplinary, Survey and Research Programme at Ranong, Thailand"). A number of research grants were allocated. Some of them resulted in the publication of the above-mentioned "occasional papers". Others will result in specialized scientific papers partly or totally supported by these projects which will be submitted for publication in scientific journals and-periodicals by their respective authors, with due acknowledgement to the Project for the support given. The CTA, Dr. M. Vannucci, has published the book The Mangroves and Us.

24. In the words of His Exc. Dr. Sanga Sabhasri, Minister of Science and Technology of Thailand, then Permanent Secretary of the same ministry, the greatest achievement of the projects was "Manpower development and scientific publications". This opinion is shared by the other RMCC members and representatives of NATMANCOMs. In the opinion of all concerned other important achievements of the project were:

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Development of awareness by politicians in developing countries;

Confirmation of the importance of mangroves as nursery grounds for fish and shellfish;

Training for planning and implementation of field survey and research work in mangrove areas as a basis for management. Planning and cost estimate of the logistics support needed for major field work operations.

25. The two year' "Integrated Multidisciplinary Survey and Research Programme of a Selected Mangrove Area", under the abbreviation "The Ranong Programme", was particularly successful in practical results besides the aspects of training and basic research. Four separate reports were prepared. They can be used as a model of what could - and should - be done for the survey of a mangrove area as a basis for an EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) and for planning strategies for management or conversion of mangrove areas to other uses.

26. The most significant contributions made by the countries and coordinated in a substantive whole by the Project are mentioned below:

a) AUSTRALIA hosted a Special Training Course on Mangrove Species Ecophysiology which is an important aspect to be considered for the methodical reforestation of intertidal areas. Fellowships to AIMS (Australian Institute of Marine Sciences, Townsville), and exchange of scientists proved invaluable for particular • aspects of research, particularly estimation of primary production, ecophysiology of species and nutrient cycling.

b) In addition to analysing the results of extensive afforestation of mudbanks (chars) with mangroves, BANGLADESH developed techniques for assessing standing stock and species composition by remote sensing. These techniques developed by SPARRSO (Space and Research Remote Sensing Organization) are routinely used in Bangladesh to evaluate deforestation, afforestation, reforestation and conversion to other uses of the large portion of national territory covered by mangroves. The area is accreting mainly in the eastern Sunderbans. The main problem in the country continues to be the devastation of the Chakaria Sunderbans in the process of conversion of large areas to unwise and ecologically dangerous aquacultural practices. The Sunderbans is one of the best managed mangrove forests in the world.

c) CHINA is not a signatory of the PRODOC; nevertheless it has participated in the project activities and is involved in the work of the International Society for

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Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME). Traditionally the Mangroves of China were reclaimed for paddy rice cultivation. The country is now considering managing the mangroves of south China as silvi-aquacultural systems to increase the production of the coastal zone.

The high level of competence found in FIJI relating to mangrove problems is derived from the lessons learnt the hard way from the negative experience of over a century of intensive exploitation of the land for sugar cane plantations and later for rice cultivation on earlier mangrove areas. The large amount of information and data accumulated during this time was the basis of one of the most important outputs of the Project; the study by P.N. Lai (Mangr. Ecos. Occ. Paper No. 6) that demonstrates that. .. "unless the ecological constraints of an ecosystem are incorporated into a Benefit-Cost framework, the society loses a naturally viable ecosystem without receiving any positive returns from its alternative uses". The study produced a model that could be used in the analysis of any other ecosystem.

INDIA has not given the letter of endorsement of the second phase. However State Forest Departments, Universities and NGOs have programmes in the field of social forestry, reforestation, scientific research on coastal zone management. A National Mangrove Society called the "Mangal-van" has been registered and activities of conservation and research are carried out by CSIR (through the National Institute of Oceanography) and ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research mainly through the Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair). Important scientific contributions were made in the field of microbial aspects of metal leaching and palynology, both with applied interest respectively for recovering metals from sediments and for analysis of coastal dynamics. The only specialist in fish larvae from the mangroves in the whole region is in India and he is now preparing a Manual in continuation of this Project. Booklets for field work were published.by different institutions. The Department of Environment of the Government of India published a "Status Report" on the mangroves of India. Mangrove parks were established in Goa and Bombay areas. There was active participation in the Ranong programme. Dr. A.D. Agate was the principal editor of the Microbiology Manual published by the project.

In INDONESIA the transmigration experiment carried out among people of different islands has prompted the country to update legislation on mangrove management according to scientific findings and to adapt the latter to the local geographical social and ecological

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constraints. Long-term (20 years) lease of mangrove "land" to foreign concerns for total felling for mining or for production of wood chips is under review for the safeguard of the mangrove ecosystem. There is a shift of attitude from seeking once for ever immediate returns to a policy of sustainable production of mangrove ecosystems. Traditional ecologically sound management for silvi-aquaculture or silvi-agri-aquaculture is being encouraged. The impact of destructive mangrove use on coastal fisheries and conversion of mangrove lands to agricultural uses was analysed. A generalized conclusion, if that is possible, is that the tumpak-sari silvi-aquacultural complex type of management is a sound practice in the long run but yields could be increased by applying scientific methods.

JAPAN has given unrestricted support to the Project by allowing their experts and scientists to work with the Project in the field, in many different countries and by hosting and funding ISME (International Society for Mangrove Fcosystems) based at the School of Agriculture of the University of the Ryukyus in Okinawa. An International Conference on Mangroves convened by the Project and hosted by Japan at Okinawa was held from 1-5 December 1989. From 25-29 August Japan again hosted in collaboration with the project several meetings in Yokohama and Okinawa including the formal inauguration of ISME in the presence of their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Hitachi, a Session on Mangroves during the INTECOL Conference, the second meeting of the Executive Committee of ISME at Yokohama and Okinawa and the formal installation of ISME at Okinawa.

The library built up during the project's life time is mostly with ISME at Okinawa and partly with the NIO (National Institute of Oceanography), Goa, India.

One of the best managed mangrove forests in the world is in MALAYSIA, at Matang. The project and all the countries in general benefited from the Malaysian experience, as well as by the exchange of scientists, foresters from the Forest Research Institute and from the University Sains Malaysia. This may help to solve the problems of decreasing productivity of coastal marine waters due to widespread conversion of mangroves to other uses. Important results from research on primary productivity, export/import of nutrients from mangrove ecosystems and basic information useful for the establishment of shrimp farms are based on practical experience and scientific research in southern Malaysia.

Though MYANMAR was not a signatory of the project document of the Project, following conversations with

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Mr. K. Kogo, one of the Project consultants visited the country and returned there for implementing practices adapted to local conditions and needs and for improving the production of firewood since most of the coastal population is dependent on mangrove wood for domestic uses. Increased vegetation cover and coastal stabilization and protection through mangrove reforestation are other goals of the project for that country. Myanmar young scientists participated in project activities through fellowships.

The Nature Conservation Council of NEW ZEALAND has provided the example of a sound legislation for management of nature and natural resources. The basic principle is that direct and indirect benefits on a long term basis can be obtained from nature conservation practices and rational management.

In PAKISTAN reforestation and afforestation on an experimental basis of several parts of the Indus River delta and of the dry coast of Sind represent a large scale programme requiring much constant effort. The large scale experiment and strenuous exercise has been rewarded by success; thus at some places three year old trees have already started flowering. The impressive amount of work put in by Pakistan is an important contribution towards attaining the goals of the project. Forest Department also established a Coastal Forest Unit to deal with mangrove matters and it has shown that dry-coast mangroves can be managed for higher yield of fodder, fuel wood and tannin, thus improving the potential of the area as a nursery ground for different species of coastal fishes.

In PAPUA-NEW GUINEA the Project has learnt to see how virgin mangrove ecosystems, only sparsely or not at all used by man, function. They offer countless opportunities for research on the eco-physiology of plant and animal species. A peculiarity of PNG is the frequency of lightning-strikes; the study of the rate and manner of regeneration of particular species in the clearings thus created in the mangroves provide a good indication of the production potential of these mangroves whose trees are those that probably grow to greatest heights and form the most dense mangrove forests in the world. The Department of Primary Industries, with the collaboration of the University of the South Pacific is in a position to use the information generated by the project; it contributed efficiently by hosting a Workshop on the Dynamics of Mangrove Ecosystems. These efforts will lead to a better valuation of mangrove areas now only too often leased out for the production of wood chips or for mining. Apart from the evil practice of long-term lease of mangroves for destructive uses there has also

- 12 -

been a judicious small scale management of mangrove forests and the associated fauna.

A long-standing interest in the mangrove ecosystem in the PHILIPPINES was boosted by the project. Besides specific analyses of different aspects of management of the mangroves, on the conversion of mangroves to paddy rice cultivation, on the formation of acid sulphate soils, on the economic aspects of different types of aquacultural methods, in collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and with the Fisheries, much work was done towards the understanding of specific problems, for better land use and for coastal zoning, for the use of remote sensing, including the complexity of developing a data base and information system for the mangroves (REMIN). The Philippines published a Newsletter called "Bakavan".

Mangroves in SINGAPORE have been used for gardening purposes and embellishment of the city while the National University has contributed important findings on flora and fauna, on active and potential pests, and has shown what research needs to be done on mangrove flower pollinators, on life cycles, and other basic data required for the rational management of biological species.

SOLOMON ISLANDS has included mangroves, previously neglected, in the plan for zoning of their national territory for the best use of natural resources.

THAILAND is one of the countries that has contributed most significant outputs by hosting Training Courses, Workshops and the Multidisciplinary Integrated Research Programme of mangrove ecosystems at Ranong. Thailand was ready to absorb the benefits provided by the project because it had already coordinated internally the work of the fisheries, the forestry and the University departments. Given this background, Thailand was in a position to implement the very ambitious "Ranong Programme" that was an important component of this Project. The Ranong programme spanned two years of field work, with the participation of over 100 foreign and Thai scientists, foresters, managers. The National Mangrove Committee gave a most excellent support to the Ranong Programme, in terms of funds, scientific and technical inputs and logistics. In return it gained in trained manpower at all levels and all fields, it gained experience on how to undertake large scale surveys. The research results are already being used for the benefit of improved management of Thai mangroves. In the opinion of a Director of the National Research Council of Thailand, they can now authoritatively explain to the private sector what the correct practices are. They

- 13 -

can show that "the government has tried to take care of mangrove forests for local people's sake".

q) Development of mission oriented research in SRI LANKA, écologie and economic studies , of the mangrove dependent population, careful analysis of proposed large scale aquacultural developments, and production of educational material and post stamps on mangrove topics were carried out successfully in Sri Lanka.

r) The pressing problem ,faced by VIETNAM is the rehabilitation of defoliated mangrove areas.. The problem was tackled locally with indigenous expertise based on long-term experience and thanks to the input by visiting foresters and scientists. Vietnam participated actively in Project activities.

s) Island nations of the Pacific Ocean and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean are at different stages of awareness and in different needs of assessing the role of the mangroves and their use for the management, consolidation and conservation of the insular coastline. Those more closely related to the Project activities were VANUATU, TRUK ISLANDS (FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA) and WESTERN SAMOA.

IV. THE SHORTCOMINGS

27. Thanks to the solidarity and strong spirit of cooperation alive throughout the implementation of the project amongst all the participating countries and individual scientists, managers, students and policy-makers who were represented individually or through their National Mangrove Committees, there were practically no obstacles or difficulties in the management of the project. Iteran smoothly from beginning to end. Small irritants here and there could be overcome thanks to the patience, goodwill and wisdom of the participants, and of all the NATMANCOMs.

28. The only main shortcoming was the impossibility to write and publish "Guidelines for the Management of Mangrove Ecosystems". Purposefully these were not written and the Ranong Reports are meant as a substitute to the "Guidelines". Guidelines of general validity are considered to be.impossible to produce because of the great variability in both structure and dynamics, in space and time of the mangroves themselves. However a book for the interested laymen, for decision and policy-makers in government and for managers, was written by the C.T.A. It was published free of cost by the Indian Association for the Advancement of Science (IAAS) under the title "The Mangroves and Us - A synthesis of insights". In part three, chapter two of the book, the "dos" and don'ts" are spelled out and examples given in appendices with attention focused on the "caveats" that must be observed before introducing changes in the natural mangroves set­up.

- 14 -

29. For the reasons mentioned above, "guidelines" for the management of mangrove ecosystems can only be given in a very general way since it could be counter-effective to apply defined norms indiscriminately to any and all mangrove situations. (See the recommendations in pages 18 to 20 of this report.)

30. Another small shortcoming that we try to remedy by all possible means, is that we cannot satisfy all the requests for publications because of limited funds for printing and for postage. We hope that ISME will take over the publication of results of mangrove research and management practices, maybe through a regular "Mangroves" Journal.

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

31. It would not have been possible to focus on the problems of the tropical coastal zone and to demonstrate the use to which the mangroves can be put, if the active network established by the Project had not existed. The enthusiastic participation of all the countries kept alive the momentum created by the network and sustained an abiding interest in the ecological, economic and social importance as the mangroves ecosystem that was enhanced following the implementation of the UNDP/UNESCO Project activities which began in 1983.

32. It is the thrust given by the Project that convinced the Governments and NGOs of the need to consider the many benefits, direct and indirect, bestowed by the mangroves. It is the same thrust that has stimulated the adoption of healthier and positive management practices of the mangroves rather than their indiscriminate destruction all around the world.

33. The Project network was materialized by the RTF (Regional Task Force), the nodal points of which were the Chairmen of the National Mangrove Committees (NATMANCOMs) of each country. The RTF re-named itself the RMCC (Regional Mangrove Coordinating Committee) in 1988, in view of the approaching end of the Project. The ex-officio members continue to be the Chairmen of the National Mangrove Committees of each participating country.

34. The establishment of the RMCC consolidated the network at the governments' level and extended its lifetime indefinitely. The first Chairman for the first biennium (1989-1990) was Dr. Sanit Aksornkoae of Thailand; the Chairman elected for the second biennium is Dr. Barry Clough of Australia; the two Vice-chairmen are respectively Mr. M. Jaffar of Fiji and Mr. Daniel Kwanairara of Solomon Islands.

35. According to the document of the second project (RAS/86/120) the outputs expected to be produced by the project were in synthesis:

a) Training of 50 scientists, technicians and managers;

- 15 -

b) Application of research results through the exchange of information and expertise.

36. On both items, the Project has surpassed the target.

a) Training of manpower was achieved through:

i) work in the field and in the laboratory, at Ranong and through research grants to different countries;

ii) participation and training of scientists, foresters, managers, etc.

From 1987 to 1990 more than 200 persons participated in field, laboratory, training courses, RTF, RMCC and ISME Executive Committee meetings, editorial committee meetings and International Conferences (December 1989 at Okinawa, Japan and August 1990 at Yokohama, Japan). For the Ranong Programme alone about 140 foreign professionals participated in the field work and more than 50 • Thai scientists, technicians and graduate and post-graduate students took part in the programme.

b) Application of Research Results

The Ranong Programme, though not the only one, was the major exercise of the second phase. It produced information useful for the management of mangrove ecosystems for sustainable production on a long-term basis.

37. The most important training aspect of this Programme was to train surveyors, young scientists and technicians on what to look for and how to assess qualitatively and quantitatively those components of the ecosystem that are likely to play an important role in conserving the internal equilibrium of the system and for maximizing outputs. Accordingly, the Programme at Ranong was divided into three main branches:

a) study of the physical and chemical factors (hydrography, oceanography, waters);

b) study of the soils and flora (including microbiology, and nutrient cycles);

c) study of the fauna and fisheries (including capture . and captive fisheries).

38. The Ranong Programme Report provides insights on single resources or pests, their management and perhaps control (ex.: edible crab, wood borers, spontaneous replanting or regeneration of tree species, management of waterways, etc.). The edible crab, for instance, is an important economic resource of the mangroves of Thailand. Regulation to avoid overfishing should

- 16 -

be established on the basis of the findings on the life cycle of the species at Ranong. The study of beetles and other insects will help in obtaining and storing timber and poles without damage to the quality of the wood. Studies on the phenology of plants produced information on the self-regenerating capacity of mangroves. Silvi-aquacultural practices depend on the correct , manipulation of the natural hydrological set-up that should be least disturbed; experimental plots, based on the model of Indonesian tumpak-sari were tried on a pilot scale basis. Growth of trees and recycling of nutrients; soil, water and land use » under different management schemes were studied and are being published for immediate improvement of management practices.

39. In addition to establishing the RMCC, another main output of the Project was the creation of ISME (International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems) and some of the national mangrove societies, like Mangal van in India. While the RMCC will keep the network functional and active at government level, the national and international societies will pursue activities of research and training for a correct management of mangroves.

40. There are at present many requests for mangrove specialists addressed to the Project by the U.N. system and other Funding Agencies, by Latin American and Gulf countries, island countries and so on, however the number of tropical coastal zone managers and experts in mangrove area management still falls short of demand. All pre-existing and Project-trained manpower is at present employed in their respective countries.

In summary:

41. Quoting from the Project Document of RAS/86/120, the objectives of the project may be summarized thus:

a) promoting research for sustainable development at national level

b) strengthening research and training cooperation at regional level.

42. The opinions expressed earlier at the Final TPR meeting (Yokohama, August 22, 1990), by representatives of participating countries indicate that the objectives of the project as specified were fulfilled and surpassed. Nevertheless reservations can be expressed on two points: The first is insufficient work done for island countries (Maldive islands and Pacific Ocean islands) and illustrative materials in general, though some countries, for instance Sri Lanka, excelled in this area.

Findings and lessons learnt

43. Perhaps the most significant findings were to demonstrate:

a) the usefulness of undertaking multidisciplinary integrated survey and research of any ecosystem in

- 17 -

order to understand its structure and function as a basis for rational management;

b) the development of an ecological economic model of analysis that can be used for planning zoning for sustainable development of the coastal zone on an ecologically valid and economically rewarding basis;

c) the relevance and value of a variety of disciplines such as palynology as the study of the past to help predict the future (especially in view of mean sea level rise), hydrology, microbiology (nutrient cycling and metal leaching), remote sensing (forest health, regeneration, conservation of the forest, plumes into coastal waters, etc.) social studies of human populations etc. to achieve rational management.

44. Full cooperation among all participants would not have been possible if each country and each individual professional had not understood the importance of the problems and the urgency to solve them and if each had not been willing to share its experiences and know-how with all the others.

45. Thailand, however, needs to be singled out for the tremendous effort and success it achieved in giving all logistic support to such a complex undertaking as the Ranong Programme. All the countries, UNESCO and UNDP expressed their gratitude to all the Thais, NCRT, Universities and Forest Department who were involved in attending an enterprise of unprecedented scale and intensity.

46. The final major finding is that, should we want to plan and take action for coastal zone management, it is necessary to extrapolate from a limited approach that involves only mangroves to other coastal ecosystems upstream (savannahs and agricultural lands or shrubs and forests), other ecosystems in the mangroves themselves (silvi-aquaculture) and ecosystems downstream (sea-grass beds and coral reefs) , that ultimately are all interdependent.

47. The lessons learnt from this stimulating experience show that:

a) there is need for a careful preparation of complex regional projects. In fact it took almost 10 years of preparation to ensure interest in the project and the will to cooperate. , Only when the initial nine participating countries (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand) had indicated their readiness to cooperate in the studies, when the persons who would do it had been designated and, in some cases, after a National Mangrove Committee had . already been established (Thailand, the Philippines) was the green light given to actually start implementation. In conclusion, the

- 18 -

Preparatory Assistance phase of a regional project is as important as the project itself.

b) The network functions well because the individuality and the unique socio-ecological and politico-legal characteristics of each country are recognized and respected. Hence the importance of the annual meetings of the RTF earlier and of the RMCC at present, to share knowledge and experience and define needs and areas of cooperation.

c) The most important lessons learnt is that each country should do'its own work on the principles that we only learn by doing ourselves and through cooperative work. The success of the Ranong Programme shows this to be feasible and fruitful.

48. In retrospect it can be concluded that the two projects RAS/79/002 and RAS/86/120 achieved the purpose for which they were made. Awareness of the importance of mangrove ecosystems was built up at government, academic and general public levels; training for an understanding of the structure and dynamics of the mangroves leading to a rational management of their resources was given to a large number of technicians, scientists and managers; practical guidelines for management were discussed at different meetings, workshops, training courses and at different levels.

49. The project thus fulfils the dual purpose of contributing to solve the mangrove ecosystem's particular problems, and in a more general manner, it contributes to training young scientists, managers and administrators in doing survey and research and in discussing research results.

Recommendations

50. The following recommendations are made:

a) Do not disrupt hydrography and topography of the area;

b) Avoid dumping dredged material, mining tailings and treated or untreated sewage in the mangroves;

c) Conserve tidal regime intact;

d) Coastal structures in the proximity of mangrove areas should be designed in such a manner as to avoid excess sedimentation or erosion. Upstream structures should be made keeping in view that landslides in the catchment area, dam bursts upstream and damming of rivers may be hazardous to mangroves by causing decrease or total stoppage of freshwater inputs or by burying the mangroves under excess silt;

e) Maintain continuous monitoring of the ecosystem's reaction to the extraction of forest and fishery

- 19 -

products, since regeneration rates of the ecosystem vary with season and site;

f ) Be prepared • to make adjustments to the management plans;

g) Locate aquaculture ponds behind - or landwards - from the mangroves, rather than inside them;

h) Silvi-aquacultural practices under humid tropical conditions are the most sound type of exploitation and management of the resource; management of mangrove ecosystems should include silvi-aquacultural and agro-silvi-aquacultural practices;

i) Always keep a green mangrove belt between rivers and ponds, between the coastline and ponds; keep creeks always bordered with mangroves; the width of the belt varies greatly from a few to one hundred metres width depending on local conditions;

j) Management of mangrove forests for fodder could be done on a rotation system, with thinning and replanting if necessary to ensure recuperation and full regrowth of Avicennia trees (the genus that produces best fodder). There are so far no mangrove forests methodically managed for fodder although they are exploited for the purpose; it is estimated that output could be doubled if these mangroves were rationally managed and they could include non­destructive aquaculture;

k) Nypa palm plantations should only be made when there is regular and abundant fresh water throughout the year; insecticides should be avoided in Nypa palm plantations since the plant is pollinated by fruit flies;

1) Improved techniques for apiculture for higher returns involves previous study of the flora, flowering seasons and species composition of the forest for the introduction of the right species of honey-bees;

m) Where roads and bunds must be built parallel to the coastline, the structures should be provided with drains and should be interrupted at intervals with channels large enough and placed in the correct position to ensure water circulation by tidal and land runoff; mangroves die in stagnant water;

n) Recommendations for the establishment of biosphere reserves and parks are being elaborated on the basis of the experience gained by those countries that have already done so;

- 20

o) Development of mangroves for tourism is recommended, provided:

i) outboard or other motors are not used in the upper reaches of the creeks;

ii) oil spills are avoided; and

iii) catwalks are provided for the visitors and tourists passage, who should be confined to those areas and to guided tours.

p) Reforestation of degraded coastal areas with mangroves should be actively pursued; wherever ecologically feasible;

q) Total conservation of mangrove pockets for the preservation of genetic diversity should be practiced;

r) Coastal zone structure should not be altered without due attention to the mangrove ecosystems of the area;

s) A national mangrove ecosystem project should be developed in each country for site-specific development and management of areas, preferably on a multiple use, long-term sustainable yield basis, especially in LDC countries, such as Vietnam;

t) An island countries coastal management project should be developed and managed where mangroves may or may not play a dominant or subordinate role;

u) The RMCC should be strengthened and encouraged to continue functioning; a meeting of its members should be convened by the Chairman at least once every two years;

v) ISME should be universally recognized as an important advisory body for matters related to mangrove ecosystems management and tropical coastal zone surveys research and training.

- 21 -

Annex A

List of Project Personnel

I.

II.

Name Designation

UNESCO Experts

Dr M. Vannucci

Mrs F. Khan

Miss A. Thapan

Chief Technical Adviser

Programme Assistant

Programme Assistant

Proiect Consultants

Dr D.J. Macintosh

Dr F. Blasco

Dr J.T. Baker

Prof.Colin Field

Dr Sanit Aksornkoae

Miss Prapasri Thanasukarn

Scientific Consultant (Part/time) (THAILAND)

Consultant (VIETNAM)

Consultant (DELHI, OKINAWA)

Scientist Consultant (Part-time) Editor of the project Occasional Papers (AUSTRALIA, HONG KONG)

National Consultant (Part/time) (THAILAND)

National Consultant (Part/time) (THAILAND)

From

1/01/83 (RAS/79/002) 1/01/87

1/06/88

1/01/87

31/12/87

8-21/10/87

1989

1989

1988

1988

To

31/12/86

31/12/88

31/12/89

31/12/87

31/12/89

1989

1989

- 22 -

III

Dr M. Vannucci Consultant (Part/time) (DELHI)

Other Proiect Staff

Miss G. Pandit

Miss S. Walia

Mrs Anita Malik

Miss Promita Lahiri

Mrs A. Thapan

Mr G. Nath

Secretary (temporary) (on contract)

Secretary (Temporary) (on contract)

Programme Assistant (temporary) (temporary

Secretary (temporary) 4 & 1/2 days

Programme Assistant (temporary)

Messenger/ Driver

1989

1/01/87

1/05/87

9/11/87

1/02/88

12/10/87 1/12/87

05-09/9/87

22/02/88

1/05/86

1/04/87

31/12/87

30/01/88

30/11/90

19/02/88 19/02/88

29/02/88

21/12/89

w

- 23 -

Annex B

Research Grants and Contracts made within the Framework of the Regional Mangrove Project

COUNTRY & TITLE OF PROJECT AMOUNT US$ YEAR STATUS

AUSTRALIA Dr. J.T. Baker, AIMS Contract No.SC/AO 270.363.9 To write an Assessment report on the Project RAS/86/120 1989 Completed

BANGLADESH SPARRSO entitled: "Inventory of the Mangrove Forests of Chokoria Sunderbans using Remote Sensing Techniques" Dr A.M. Choudhury Contract No. 250.189.6

12,000 1987 Completed Contract established 1986. Cont'd through 1987.

FIJI Visit to Matang Forests Malaysia by Chairman M. Jaffar

Economic Evaluation of Mangrove Ecosystem Padma Narsey Lai

1988

5,000 1988

Completed

Completed

HONG KONG Prof. Colin Field, Chief Editor Contract No. 281.101.9

2,500 1989 Completed

INDIA Microbiology Activity in Mangrove Ecosystems Dr A.D. Agate

Dr Prince Jeyaseelan, Tamil Nadu University Contract No. 281.129.9-for preparation of Manual on Identification of fish larvae (R.G.)

Contract revived after interruption

8,200 1989 Started in . through Oct. 89 1991

- 24 -

Dr Subrata Maity, Bidhan Krishi viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur Nadia, West Bengal Contract No. SC 281.184.9 To undertake an experiment in view of the replanting and rational management of the Sunderban mangroves

18,000 1989 Started in through Nov. 90 1990 To be completed

by Dec. 90

Dr P. Chaturvedi, Indian Association for the Advancement of Science Contract No. SC/RP 267.037.9 To conduct a survey on sea level rise

3,000 1989 through 1990

Dr M. Vanucci, Principal Consultant RAS/86/120 Contract No. 270.186.9

1989 Completed

JAPAN Prof. Y. Kohda College of Agriculture University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa. Contract No. 281.185.9 For the organization of the International conference on Mangroves to be held in Okinawa, Japan

35,300 1989 Five day conference in Okinawa Completed

PAKISTAN Experimental Plantation for Rehabilitation of Mangroves of Pakistan Dr T.A. Ansari Contract No. 250.252.5

8,525 1987 Completed

Management Plan for Mangroves of Pakistan Coast Contract No. 250.251.6

4,000 1987 Completed

Mr Abeedullah Jan, Chairman NATMANCOM Contract No^ 281.070.9 To proceed with the Research Programme "Experimental Plantation for Rehabilitation of Mangroves of Pakistan". (R.G.)

8,600 1989 To be completed by Dec. 90

- 25 -

Mr Abeedullah Jan, Chairman NATMANCOM (R.G.)To proceed with the research study on "Management Plan and Reafforestation of Mangroves of Pakistan Coast"

4,000 1989 Work to be completed by Nov. 90

SRI LANKA -_ Dr R.P. Jayewardene, Chairman NATMANCOM Contract No. 281.071.9 To undertake an experimental study on the mangrove based brush-pile (R.G.)

Dr R.P. Jayewardene, Chairman NATMANCOM Contract No. 281.072.9 To undertake biomass study of Mangroves (R.G.)

7,600 1989 To be completed by Dec. 89

18,500 1989 To be , completed by Dec. 89

THAILAND Dr D.J. Macintosh -Scientific Consultant

Dr D.J. Macintosh -Scientific Consultant Contract No. 270.290.9

Dr M.R. Chakratong Tongyai, NRC, Bangkok Contract No. 281.094.9 To organize and participate in field research activities of the III Intensive Research Programme from 12-25 March 1989 Dr M.R. Chakratong Tongyai, NRC, Bangkok Contract No. 281.100.9 To provide assistance to the scientist involved in the field work with regard to their accommodation, transport, laboratory equipment and staff as necessary Dr M.R. Chakratong Tongyai, NRC, Bangkok Contract No. 281.187.9 Meeting Chiang Mai

9,432 1988

1989

23,900 1989

Completed

Completed

Completed

20,000 1989 Completed

7,650 1989 Completed

- 26 -

Dr Sanit Aksornkoae, Chairman RMCC Fee as a "Programme coordinator" to coordinate the Integrated Multidisciplinary Survey and Research Programme Contract No. 281.099.9 Ms Prapasri Thanasukarn, Assistant Programme Coordinator Fee paid to undertake the administrative tasks related to the implementation of the III Intensive Research Programme Contract No. 281.098.9

2,000 1989 Completed

2,000 1989 Completed

Dr Chompol Swasdiyakorn, Dy. Chairman, NRC Contract No. 281.102.9 drawn to provide return air ticket Bangkok/Columbia S.C. U.S.A. and one month subsistence allowance to Dr Guilaya for study work with Prof. B. Kjerfve

5,000 1989 Completed

RESEARCH GRANT REPORTS

BANGLADESH

1. Development of Computer Techniques for Rapid Mangrove Forest Inventory in the Sunderbans

2. Timber Volume Inventory in the Sunderbans Using Aerial Photography and other Remote Sensing Techniques - by Faruq Aziz Kahan, A.M. Choudhury, M. Jinnahtul Islam

INDIA

1. Microbiology Activity in Mangrove Ecosystems - by Dr A.D. Agate

2. Regional Remote Sensing Training Course on Mangrove Ecosystem - by Mr Vijay Kumar Yadav

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

1. Intrinsic Controls of Mangrove Leaf Litter Decompositin rate -by Dr N. Polunin

- 27 -

PHILIPPINES

1. Report on the Œchthyoplankton Survey in Selected Mangrove Swamps and Estuaries of the Philippines - by Mr Robert Jara

2. Comparative Study of Rhizophora and Avicennia Mangrove Soils and its Micro-Flora in Pagbilao - by Mr Robert Jara

PAKISTAN

1. Experimental Plantation for Rehabilitation of Mangrove Forests in Pakistan - by Dr.M.T. Qureshi

FIJI

1. Report on Visit to Matang Forest - by M. Jaffar

2. Conservation of Reclamation: Economic and Ecological Interactions within the Mangrove Ecosystem in Fiji - by Dr Padma Narsey Lai.

THAILAND

1. Distribution of Sonneratia Trees along the La-un Estuary, Ranong Province - by Dr Thawatchai Santisuk (Progress Report)

2. Phenological characteristics of Main Species in Mangrove Forests - by Mr Jitt Kongsangchai (Progress Report & Final Report).

3. Productivity and mortality of mangroves in an abandoned tin mining area for coastal zone development in Thailand - by Dr Sanit Aksornkoae (Progress Report & Final Report)

4. Some algae found in Thai mangroves - by Dr Ananat Saraya (Progress Report)

5. Reviewed research activities on mangrove ecology in Thailand -by Miss P. Thanasukarn (Final Report)

6. Physiological Ecology of some mangrove crabs - by Prof. N. Paphavasit (Progress Report & Final Report)

7. Impacts of Human Activities on the Mangrove Ecosystem - by Dr Piyakarnchana (Progress Report)

8. Reforestation of mangroves for Forestry and Fishery production in Thailand - by Dr Sanit Aksornkoae (Progress Report)

Il • If II II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

- 28 -

Annex C

Inventory of Project Equipment in Delhi Office and for the Ranonq Programme

Equipment Quantity

a) Delhi Office

Roneo Slotted Anqle Rack 2 2 2 1 2

Olivetti linea 98 standard office typewriter 1 IBM Model 6705 Selectric III typewriter (with accessories) l IBM 6747 Electronic Typewriter, Enqlish keyboard (with accessories) - 1 Toshiba Model BD3503 Plain Paper Copier 1 Canon NP-155 photocopying (with accessories) 1

Personal Computer (UC IBM XT 286) 640 KO (with accessories) 1 Software WORD PERFECT 1

Roneo Multi Value Postal Franking Machine 1

Westinghouse Model AH 125 Room Air Conditioner 1

'Westinghouse Model AH-15E Room Air Conditioner (with heating facility) 1

Casio Model M-7 Electronic Calculator 1

Major Cupboard for Lateral system 1 Major Cupboard with three shelves 1

The Computer Furniture: Workstation 1 Printer table 1 Chair 1 Roneo Typist chair with cushion seat & back revolving RV-17 1 Toyota Car 1

Refrigerator 1

Hot Case 1

IBM DC-XT Computer with colour monitor and printer 5216

- 29 -

(IBM) on stand along with accessories such as diskettes, BASIC, Wordstar program, Servo-controlled stabilizer, PUP-PC system, cables for power connection, etc. 1

RICOSHA - J-Z Sampler for surface sampling of water: Model 2901 . !

RIGOSHA Emery bottom sampler: Model 2900 1

b) Ranonq Programme

(UNESCO supplied)

7000 New Sigma Thermohygrograph MDL No. 307 with accessories

Actinograph MDL OSK 7199

Electromagnetic Current Meter S4 with 64K Bytes Memory, Standard Temperature; Conductivity with accessories

Silicon Cell Quantum Sensor Type QS

Hydro Bios No. 436 413

Universal Water Sampler - with recommended accessories

Hydro-Bios No. 43 6 420, Center Mounting Rack Hydro-Bios No. 440 435, Deep Sea Reversing Thermometer,

Pressure-protected with Test Certificate Hydro-Bios No. 440 600, Deep Sea Reversing Thermometer,

Pressure-unprotected for indirect depth measurement Hydro-Bios No. 437 210, Bottom Sampler ace to Ekman-Birge Hydro-Bios No. 460 500, Océanographie Salinometer-Model MCS

Field Fluoro meter with accessories

Tide Gauge Type "ALPHA" with accessories

Electronic Sounding Aparatus/Accessories; Portable Echo Sounder

Current Meter, Model EMCMl/20m cable

Portable suspended solids monitor Model 7000-3RP/34m cable with accessories

Temperature & Conductivity/Salinity Monitor = (Estuary Environmental Monitor) - Type TCS 81 with accessories

Current meter EMCM l/20m cable Model S1000/2 Sensor for 7000 -3 RP C/W

- 30 -

(Local Purchases)

Bench Centrifuge Type 549 "Selecta" with Angle Head Rotor 8 x 15 ml 1

Bantam Deionize Single Cartridge with Analog Meter Model D 0805 "Branstead" 1

Desicator Diameter 30 cm 3

Vacuum pump 1/6 U p Oilles "GAST3 1

Generator C.M.C.R. 175 N with Dynamo 2KW 1

Refractometer ATAGO Salinity per-milt 0-100 2

HANNA, Portable pH/MV Temperature meter Model HI 8424 complete with combination electrode 2

Dendrometer 100

Computer and Partipherials/diskette DS/DD 1

Air condition "Carrier" Model 51 M SA012 + 42AS012 1

Dissolved Oxygen Meter "YSI" 1

Sieves for benthos with dia. 35 cm. 2

Freezer 1

Micro-bus (NISSAN URVAN) with no tax charge 1

Engine/10 Hp for Fibreglass boat 1

Engine (YAMAHA) for wooden long-tailed Boat 1

Fibreglass boat 1

Water samplers (1000 ml.) Hydro-Bios No. 436 131 2

Electronic Top-loading Precision Balance Model 1600C 1

Analytical Top-loading Balance Model 200A 1

Generator/5SW with accessories 1

Portable generator (Toshiba) 1

Sterilizing equipment with accessories 1

Binocular Microscope, Series CH-2 Mode CHT/Complete Set 1

Stereoscopic Microscope, Model VMZ/Complete Set 1

- 31 -

Universal Oven/Model F115 "Binder" 2

Lab. sieving machine 1

Spectrophotometer(390/Borocillicate Square cuvette 1 Digital Flow Meter-Hydro-Bios No. 438 110 1

Fish larvae net/size 80 cm. + 3m dia 1

Shrimp larvae net/size lm + 3m dia 1

Shaker bath Model S-320-OR/Lid "Selecta" l

Bottom larvae net/size 100 x 50cm, 1.5m long 1

Furnace 1100°C - Model EML 11/6 1

Refrigerator-Hitachi/Model R 221 SC 1

Word Processor/accessories 1

- 33 -

Annex D

Workshops/Meetings held within the framework of the Regional Mangrove Project

YEAR WORKSHOP/MEETINGS COUNTRY PARTICIPANTS M F Total

1987 Sept.

1987 Oct.

1987 May

1988 Feb.

Working Group Meeting for the Rational Use of Mangroves in the Pacific Island Region

Visit to Vietnam by Dr. F. Blasco to advise on suitable procedure for developing a national programme

4th RTF Meeting

WG Meeting for the Rational Use of Mangroves

Suva FIJI Postponed from Sept. 1987 to Feb. 1988

Vietnam

Thailand 15 (RanongJ

Apia, 10 Western Samoa

16

15

1988 March

1988 May

First Intensive Research Thailand Study "Multidisciplinary (Ranong) Survey & Research Programme of Ranong Mangroves Ecosystem"

Mission to Delhi of Project Chief Editor Prof. Colin Field & Dr. M. Steyaert from UNESCO

India (Delhi)

20 - 20

2 -

1988 May

1988 July/ Aug.

1989 Jan.

Vth RTF Meeting & Thailand Vth TPR Meeting (Ranong)

Second Intensive Research Thailand Study "Multidisciplinary (Ranong) Survey & Research Programme of Ranong Mangroves Ecosystem"

Workshop convened by the India Indian Association for (Delhi)

18

38

2

2

10

1

20

48

3

Advancement of Science -Dr. M. Steyaert, Dr. Bjorn Kjerfve and Dr. M. Vannucci attended in connection with the National Project on Coastal Zone Management and Mean Sea Level Rise

- 34 -

YEAR WORKSHOP/MEETINGS COUNTRY PARTICIPANTS M F Total

1989 Feb.

1989 March

1989 March

1989 Oct.

Visit by Dr. F. Blasco to assist on the various aspects of the implement­ations of this Project

Field Work at Ranong Third Period of Intensive Studies "Integrated Multi-disciplinary Survey and Research Programme"

4 day Workshop in Ranong to discuss the results achieved and to discuss the publication of reports and research results.

Editorial Committee Meeting held in Chiang Mai to work-on the final reports and scientific papers resulting from Ranong Programme

India (Delhi)

Thailand (Ranong)

Thailand (Ranong)

1 -

32 1 33

15 15

Thailand (Chiang Mai)

11 1 12

1989 International Conference Japan Dec. on Mangroves; Second Meeting

of the RMCC - Regional Mangrove Coordinating Committee; Organi­zation of ISME; held at Okinawa hosted by Prefectural government of Okinawa and University of the Ryukyus

42

*

- 35 -

Annex E

Publications

PUBLICATION DATE

Mar. 1987

June 1987

July 1987

July 1987

Sept. 1988

Sept. 1989

Nov. 1989

Jan. 1990

Nov. 1987

June 1988

TITLE

Reports

Report on the Workshop on the Conversion of Mangrove Areas to Aquaculture, Iloilo City, Visayas, Philippines, April 24 - 26, 1986, 175 pp.

Report on the workshop for Mangrove Zone Managers, Phuket, Thailand, Sept. 9 - 1 0 , 1986, 60 pp.

Report on the Training Course/Seminar on Microbial Aspects of Nutrient Cycling in Mangrove Environments, Manila, Philippines, Oct. 28 -Nov. 8, 1985.

Report .on the Laboratory Exercises of the Training Course on Microbial Aspects of Nutrient Cycling in Mangrove Environments, Manila, Philippines, Oct. 28 - Nov. 6, 1985.

Report on the Regional Symposium on new Perspectives in Research and Management of Mangrove Ecosystems, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Nov. 11 - 14, 1986.

Report on the Training Course on Life Histories of Mangrove Species, Bangkok, Thailand, Oct. 2 -16, 1985.

Appendix to the Report on the Training Course on Life Histories of Mangrove Species, Bangkok, Thailand, Oct. 2 - 16, 1985.

Special Working Group Meeting for Planning the Pilot Research Programme of Phase Two, Ranong, Thailand, Sept. 1 - 7 , 1986.

Manuals

Manual on Mangrove Palynology (Published jointly with the French Institute, Pondicherry).

Manual on the Role of Micro-organisms in Nutrient Cycling of Mangrove Soils and Waters.

- 36 -

April 1990 Manual for Investigation of Hydrological Processes in Mangrove Ecosystems, by B. Kjerfve, U.S.A.

Mangrove Ecosystems, Occasional Papers

Nov. 1987 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers N° 1. Traditional uses of the Mangrove Ecosystem in Malaysia - Chan Hung Tuck; Salleh Mohammad Nor.

May 1988 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 2 Timber Volume Inventory, - Mohammad. J. Islam and Faruq A. Khan.

Sept. 1988 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 3 Socio-economic Status of the Human Communities of Selected Mangrove Areas on the West Coast of Sri Lanka, - Mala D. Amarasinghe.

June 1990 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 4 Experimental Plantation for Rehabilitation of Mangrove Forests in Pakistan - Mohammad Tahir Qureshi.

July 1990 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 5 Physiological Ecology of Selected Mangrove Crabs: Physiological Tolerance Limits - Nittharatana Paphasit - Somtawin Dechaprompun - Ekapol Rumnuch.

Aug. 1990 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 6 Ecological Economic Analysis of Mangrove Conservation - a Case Study from Fiji - Padma Narsey Lai.

Nov. 1990 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 7 Insects and Ground Mesofauna at Ranong - D.H. Murphy & Wijarn Meepol - D.H. Murphy & M.T. Rau - D.H. Murphy - M.T. Rau & D.H. Murphy.

Nov. 1990 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 8 Mangrove Plantation in Bangladesh - Mr. Neaz Ahmad Siddiqi and M.A.S. Khan; Mr. Neaz Ahmad Siddiqi.

Dec. 1990 Mangrove Ecosystems Occasional Papers No. 9 Timber Volume Inventory in the Sunderbans using Aerial Photography and other Remote Sensing Techniques - Faruq Aziz Khan, A.M. Choudhury, Md. Jinnahtul Islam.

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Project-related publications

M. ̂ annucci, 1989, The Mangroves and Us - A Synthesis of Insights, XVII + 203 pp. Published by Indian Association for- the Advancement -of Science, New Delhi, India.

Publications produced by Project RAS/79/002 (for memory)

Reports

Jan. 1984 Report on the Regional Remote Sensing Training Course on Mangrove Ecosystems; Bangkok, Thailand, Nov. 23 - Dec. 16, 1983, 185 pp.

March 1984 Directory of Mangrove Experts

Dec. 1984 Report on the Training Seminar on Geology, Sedimentology, Erosion and Accretion in Mangrove Areas; Causes and Effects, salt Balance; Dhaka, Bangladesh, Jan. .14 - Feb. 5, 1984, 169 pp.

Dec. 1984 Report on the Workshop on Productivity of the Mangrove Ecosystem: Management Implications; Penang, Malaysia, Oct. 4 - 6 , 1983; II + 183 pp.

Feb. 1985 Report of the First Introductory Training Course on Mangrove Ecosystems; Bangkok, Thailand, March 2 - 30, 1983, 47 pp.

May 1985 Productivity of the Mangrove Ecosystem; a Manual of Methods; Penang, Malaysia, Sept. 18 - Oct. 2, 1983, V + 117 pp.

Sept. 1985 Report on the Conversion of Mangrove Areas for Paddy Cultivation; Los Banos, Philippines, April 1 - 3, 131 pp.

Jan. 1986 Report on the Second Introductory Training Course on Mangrove Ecosystems; Goa, India, Nov. 1 - 2 5 , 1984, 276 pp.

Feb. 198 6 Report on the Special Training Course on Mangrove Species Ecophysiology; Townsville, Australia, May 1 - 14, 1985, 123 pp.

May 1986 Report on the Workshop on the Dynamics of Mangrove Ecosystems; Motupore, Papua New Guinea, May 27 - June 2, 1985, 210 pp.

July 1986 Report on the Workshop on Human Populations; Mangrove Resources; Human Induced Stresses and Human Health; Bogor, Indonesia, Oct. 2 - 7 , 1984, 133 pp.

- 38 -

Sept. 1986 Report on the Third Introductory Training Course on Mangrove Ecosystems, Singapore, Oct. 20 -NOV. 16) 1985, 46 pp.

Nov. 1986 Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific: Status and Management. Technical Report UNDP/UNESCO Research and Training Pilot Programme on Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific (RAS/79/002) 538 pp.

Dec. 1986 Report on the Special Working Group Meeting for Planning the Pilot Research Programme on Phase Two,- Ranong, Thailand, Sept. 1 - 7 , 1986, 76 pp.

March 1987 Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific: Studies and Management. Technical Report of the UNDP/UNESCO Research and Training Pilot Programme on Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific. Chairman Editorial Board: Ricardo M. Umali, JMC Press, Incorporated, Quezon City, Philippines.

- 39 -

Annex F

Assessment Report (Abridged)

Research and its Application to. Mangrove Ecosystems Management in Asia and the Pacific

by Dr. J. T. Baker

(Director, Australian Institute of Marine sciences)

I. INTRODUCTION

1 The Origin and Conduct of Project RAS/86/120

Both RAS/86/120 (Research and its application to Mangrove Ecosystems Management in Asia and the Pacific) and its predecessor, RAS/79/002 (Research Pilot Programme on Mangroves and their interaction with other coastal ecosystems of Asia and the Pacific) are conceptually part of the UNESCO - COMAR -Integrated Project on Coastal Systems.

RAS/86/120 was conceived and implemented with the objectives of strengthening the research training aspects of RAS/79/002: to enable more scientists and technicians in the region to undertake the surveys and research necessary to promote the development of the tropical coastal zone through rational management; and to encourage long-term sustained yield of natural resources.

The countries participating in the project are Australia, Bangladesh, China, Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,. Singapore, Solomon . Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Truk Islands, Vanuatu, Vietnam and Western Samoa.

Japan established the "Okinawa International Mangrove Association" (OKINAM) in June 1989, the "Japan International Association for Mangroves" (JIAM) in September 1989 and is host of the "International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems" (ISME), established on December 5 1989, and having its headquarters at the University of the Ryukyus, in Okinawa. These moves are consistent with long-established mangrove research in Okinawa and a number of bilateral agreements established by Japan.

Other "non-member" countries who have had some involvement with the Project are Brazil, Canada, France, Nigeria, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Senegal and USA.

It is encouraging to note the increased country involvement from the first Project RAS/79/002. At the beginning of RAS/79/002 there were 10 countries - Australia, Bangladesh,

- 40 -

India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand.

Now in the Project RAS/86/120 there are 22 countries involved.

This growth of interest is a sure sign that increasingly, the countries of the region have seen direct benefit arising from the participation.

Project RAS/86/120 was approved on 28th April 1987 with the total financial support of US$ 1,000,000 for two years. The first draft proposal submitted to UNDP by UNESCO was for US$ 2,898,400 and for a four year term. Subsequent to budgetary constraints the approved Project was reduced in both budget and duration. At a later stage the Project was extended to three years, with additional allocation of US$ 228,953 to make the total allocation US$ 1,228,953.

2. ASSESSMENT OF THE PROJECT'S ACHIEVEMENTS

2.1 Achievement against objectives - Efficiency and Effectiveness

.The Research Programmes concentrating on mangrove ecosystems were borne from concern that, in the past and even in the present, mangrove ecosystems have been sacrificed to development involving destruction of the mangroves' natural qualities of productivity and protection, without understanding of the biological or physical consequences.

In setting out to increase knowledge and awareness of the role of mangrove ecosystems in sustainable biological productivity, as well as their role in protecting coastlines, river banks and river and coastal water quality, this Project has become a central study to the overall objective of long-term rational use of natural coastal ecosystems within planned coastal zone management, for all countries participating.

In assessing efficiency and effectiveness of the project RAS/86/120 it is necessary to analyse the achievements in each of the participating countries against the objectives set and, particularly, to determine if the following aspects related to mangrove ecosystems, have been enhanced by reason of the Project:-

awareness of the need to preserve such ecosystems for sustainable productivity

appreciation of direct and indirect benefits resulting from rational protection of mangrove ecosystems

capability in each country for resolving conflicts in the planned development

- 41 -

provision of appropriate training and research

thet production of accepted general guidelines for the' management of mangroves

In summary, with respect to the objectives of the Project, there is an increased awareness of the types of pressures on the mangrove ecosystems in each participating country. Effectively all Governments have expressed at least some level of support of the proposals to protect mangrove ecosystems but, to date, few governments have put in place enforceable regulations with respect to the protection of mangrove ecosystems.

Mangrove areas are often remote from the seat of government and from effective patrol and enforcement procedures. Legislation is essential but so is the will and the ability to enforce the legislation and to impose penalties, of sufficient magnitude to be effective deterrents to illegal action, on an international scale.

Some countries have introduced Coastal Zone Management Plans and the forward planning countries are introducing Environmental Education in the schools.

A major concern of the assessor is that an effective and very active coordinating mechanism must be in place when the project RAS/86/120 concludes. The vast area represented by countries of Asia - Pacific region poses enormous practical problems in communication and in on-going scientist exchange activities. Unless there is a dedicated regional and international programme to build on this UNDP/UNESCO initiative, the benefits of the excellent work of the past eight years will be progressively eroded.

The outcome of' short-term development, with focussed tangible economic rewards is always more obvious to the politician and decision-maker than are the long-term benefits of sustainable biological productivity, environmental quality and coastal and river protection.

The pursuit of sustainable coastal zone development is truly an international responsibility and one from which UNESCO/UNDP and related agencies cannot completely withdraw. The international agencies must maintain a watching brief over progress towards effective coastal zone management plans and be prepared to move quickly to draw attention to those countries degrading their mangrove ecosystem natural resources.

National Mangrove Committees (NATMANCOMs) must be maintained and their leaders encouraged to interact as the representative voice regarding scientific training and research on, and awareness of, the productivity and protection offered by mangrove ecosystems. Additionally, they must ensure • that Management Plans are developed and enforced. The Regional Mangrove coordination Committee (RMCC) has been effective and

- 42 -

should continue, either as the RMCC or be integrated into the Council of any new international body.

The Project RAS/86/120 has provided scientific evidence of the direct and indirect, physical and biological, benefits resulting from rational protection of mangrove ecosystems and it „ has provided training for what can ben seen as a core group of qualified persons to work in, and advise on mangrove ecosystems. The number trained is impressive, but is not yet in any way adequate in numerical strength, to effectively participate in all * relevant areas of government, industry, education and research.

• Therefore the aspect of training cannot be diminished and the centre in Ranong must be maintained, not only for training, but for periodic surveys of sites established in this Project. If these surveys were conducted at 2 yearly intervals, once in each dry season and once in each wet season, the cost every 2 years would be approximately (US) $100,000. Such an ongoing investment would be of significant regional benefit in understanding change and relating change to different impacts.

International commitments are required to ensure the ongoing effectiveness of the centre. The commitments must come from experts in different fields and in different countries. Also, funding must be available for resources and for effective on-going monitoring, workshops, field exercises, training, etc.

Project RAS/86/120 has contributed trained people to express the sustainable productivity viewpoint against the "immediate return development" viewpoint, and thus has enhanced the prospects of introduction of planned coastal zone development and wise management.

A critical aspect for the future is that the proponents of wise use and development of mangrove ecosystems must be pro­active in their planning and not reactive to specific development proposals.

Scientists trained in mangrove ecology must use the expertise and capabilities of other technologies such as remote sensing, coupled initially with ground-truthing, to propose areas suitable for different types of development and areas which must not be disturbed.

Scientific knowledge of natural ecosystem will never be adequate to develop perfect management plans: however, it is certainly now adequate to propose coastal zone management and development plans which are projected to be in place for say 10 years in the first instance, with review after 7 years to modify where necessary, the coastal zone management and development * plans for the following 10 years. (The suggestion of review after 7 years allows a reasonable time of operation under the plan and a reasonable time, say 2 years, to review and prepare the next 10 year plan which could be advertised one year before it became effective. In such an ongoing assessment proposal the needs of sociologists, economists, planners, managers,

- 43 -

developers, politicians and scientists must all be taken into account).

Training and research provided under RAS/86/120 have been directly relevant to immediate needs. There have been a number

4 of perhaps unexpected bonus results. Respect for the project has resulted in significant input from individuals and agencies outside the participating countries and has resulted in an enhanced knowledge and resource base, bringing, together

». information that was previously scattered and effectively inaccessible. The value-added result is a very, significant bonus to the UNDP/UNESCO investment.

Additionally, there have been close interactions with other Projects having major commitments to mangrove ecosystem studies, e.g. the ASEAN - Australian (AIDAB) Project on Living Coastal Resources and, to some extent, that on Tides and Tidal Phenomena.

The objective of producing accepted general guidelines for the management of mangrove ecosystems has probably not been completely achieved. Such a successful achievement must take into account not only scientific issues, but also different traditional practices of different countries and different socio­economic conditions and demands. In fact it could be interpreted that one outcome of the Project was that it would be unwise to have "general guidelines" for the Management of mangrove ecosystems because of the great variety of mangrove ecosystems and of the social and economic factors which must be considered in each case.

The assessor believes that there is certainly adequate evidence, and results, to be clear on "general principles" that must be applied, even if there cannot be "general guidelines". The "principles" may not be perfect; they are certainly apposite for forward planning, which will be periodically reviewed - as all plans must be.

There are clear examples of what must not be done. These examples have come from studies of severely degraded areas.

A clear message from the training and research activities has been the need for interdisciplinary studies of mangrove ecosystems. Nature does not separate the botany, zoology, chemistry, physics, hydrology and microbiology of the area. Rather it integrates these for maximum effectiveness. The

* combination of experts in the different disciplines to work closely together in understanding ecological processes, is essential.

On the basis of such interactive studies, it is clear that we will be unlikely to find two mangrove systems which are "the same"; therefore, the methodologies developed on mangrove ecosystem studies must take into account all different ecological components and standard procedures must be applied in different

- 44 -

local conditions to understand the local processes, the local biological productivity and the local physical protection value.

Not all countries may have the human or financial resources to establish the necessary interdisciplinary studies. Such countries should be able to access the institutions experienced in such studies for training and for field assistance and data analysis.

Accepted standardized methodologies are the key to understanding and to the establishment of bases for comparison among mangrove ecosystems.

When scientists are able to explain how a particular mangrove ecosystem functions as a local resource, it is appropriate to discuss the resource value with managers, politicians and developers. Such people are not interested in the component parts but they must bè aware of the overall resource value in putting all the pieces together to come to a wise decision on "development with conservation of natural resources."

It is probable that enhanced attention must be given to the training of scientists in their ability to communicate with non-scientists, and in the establishment of additional training courses attended at the same time by scientists, managers and decision-makers.

Overall, with respect to the Project RAS/86/120 design and progress against the objectives set, one would assess that the Project has been effective in training, particularly in the Asia region, effective in enhancing communication among member countries, and effective in developing methodologies for studying mangroves as interactive ecosystems thus leading to an understanding of their value as a sustainable resource. As discussed earlier, it has not yet been effective in producing general guidelines for the management of mangroves, acceptable to all the different governments and decision-makers. Such an objective must be seen as longer term than the life of this Project. The scientific ground rules have been put in place. Enhanced interaction with governments is now necessary to develop accepted guidelines from the general principles which are now available.

A mechanism must be found to facilitate this development. Obviously NATMANCOMs are well placed to take the National leadership roles, and their Chairpersons must interact to take the International leadership roles, through the RMCC or through an equally apposite successor.

The Project is assessed as being efficient in the carriage and translation of the objectives, particularly in the Asia region. Most countries of the Pacific have been comparatively recent entries to the Project. They bring additional challenges in their widely scattered geographic locations.

- 45 -

They also bring an urgency associated with concern for many island communities if the projected sea-level rises occur.

t

UNDP/UNESCO should note the comparatively late entry of the majority of the developing Pacific Island countries to this Project and determine appropriate mechanisms for their continued involvement in relevant studies, training and research.

UNDP/UNESCO should be well satisfied with the apparent cost effectiveness of the Project and with the effectiveness and efficiency of the Chief Technical Adviser, Dr. M. Vannucci, based on the total financial allocation and the diverse beneficial outcomes. It has not been practicable to conduct a quantitative assessment of detailed financial effectiveness and efficiency because of separation of financial responsibility between Delhi and Paris during the life of the Project.

UNDP/UNESCO should be mindful of the fact that reports will continue to be produced beyond the formal termination date of the Project and should find a way to ensure that these reports are properly finished,'printed, distributed and archived.

2.2 The Nature and Quality of the Research being Conducted under the Project

The assessor read a wide variety of interim reports, reports of meetings and books, which arose directly or indirectly from RAS/79/002 and RAS/86/120.

The assessor is concerned that this vast array of Publications be properly archived and adequately communicated.

The assessor also had available the reports of the first (3-30 March 1988) second (15 July - 15 August) and third (12 -25 March 1989) intensive research study periods at Ranong,

Thailand and the report of the resident scientific consultant, Dr. D.J. Macintosh (covering the two year period ending 31/12/1988).

The first part of this section concentrates on activities leading up to the studies at Ranong because the Ranong Project was central to the objectives of RAS/86/120.

The sequence of development of an integrated multidisciplinary programme of research and the selection of the Ranong site are important to record. From the viewpoint of this assessment it is important to realize the essential sequence as:

- 46 -

May 1985 Decision taken at Motupore (PNG) field station workshop to develop the programme of research

1985 - 1986 Discussions with Thailand Government agencies, involving Thailand NATMANCOM

May 1986 Approval of site selection and of research and training plan (RTF meeting)

Sept. 1986 Meeting of Special Working Group for Planning the Pilot Research Programme at Ranong

Feb. 1987 Approval for RAS/86/120

Feb. - May 1987 Detailed planning, selection of personnel, purchase of equipment

June - July 1987 Field Study Site selected Draft Ranong Work Plan prepared

August 1987 Final Work Plan completed

Sept. - Dec. 1987 Field Study Sites Surveyed and Walkways installed Routine Field Research commenced

Jan. 1988 Field Study Sites completed, equipment installed

March 1988 First Intensive Study Period

July - Aug. 1988 Second Intensive Study Period

Sept. - Dec. 1988 Routine Fieldwork concluded

March 1989 Third Intensive Study Period

- 47 -

The selection, development and operation of the Ranong centre is impressive.

When one studies the work conducted at Ranong it is clear that the correct philosophy has been adopted in giving careful consideration of the types of data that must be collected in order to allow the appropriate research ideas to be prosecuted.

It would appear that the first three Intensive Study Periods are essentially survey studies to provide the data on which research can be based..

Selected surveys in standardized format are the essential foundations of successful research of an ecological nature.

One can analyse the survey studies on the basis of the different groups:

(for all groups there were specific lectures and planned field work)

i) Forestry and Soils Group

3-30/3/1989

.Structural Characteristics

15/7-15/8/1988

Forest Structure:

.Species composition

.Stand profile

.Species zonation

.Stand density & stem volume

12-25/3/1989

Forest Structure:

->

->

.Phenology

.Growth

.Phenology of key species

Growth Studies

.Potential Net Primary Productivity

.Litter Fall and Decomposition

.Soil Characteristics

.Microbiology

Soil classifi­cation & profile ->

->

.Insect taxonomy & ecology >

- 48 -

While there is greater definition under "Structural Characteristics" in the second and third studies, it appears that the same parameters were measured in each of 3 study periods.

However, insects were not studied in the first study period.

ii) Fisheries and Fauna Group

3-30/3/1988 15/7-15/8/1988 12-15/3/1989 »

.Fish and Prawn Survey (Preliminary)

•Mangrove inter-tidal macrofauna distribution — • > >

.Tree fauna distribution > >

.Soil meiofauna sample > >

.Mangrove zoo-plankton sample collection (routine) > >

.Fish and Prawn larval survey > >

.Mangrove crab reproductive cycle (routine) > >

.Mangrove insect-leaf decomposition relationships (special study) — • > >

.Edible crab, Scylla serrata (special study) > >

.Water analysis preliminary surveys or birds and wildlife (species)

There is a systematic core to this study but not the rigidity of the first study group. One can expect that subsequent research may be disadvantaged if there is a lack of consistency in the topics of the surveys.

- 49 -

.Current measurements

.Landsat data analysis

.Numerical modelling

•Offshore water studies

.Water analysis

iii) Oceanography and Hydrology Group

3-30/3/1988 . 15/7-15/8/1988 12-15/3/1989

.Collection of water samples >

.Analysis of water samples >

.Use of mud probe (suspended sediments)' >

• Tide measurement >

.Meteorological measurements — >

preliminary surveys or birds and wildlife (species)

The study of oceanography and hydrology involves, in many places, expensive and intricate equipment. In the third stage of this study group, all tide and current measurements could not be made because of malfunctioning of some sophisticated equipment was brought into effect, and one has to balance the advantages and disadvantages of the most advanced electronic equipment in remote localities where expert back-up technology may not be readily available.

Such measurements are essential to long-term data sets and the problems of maintaining the necessary equipment in isolated areas requires special consideration.

Overall, the objectives of the three study groups resulted in core survey data which will be invaluable for future research.

The data gathered, as detailed in the different reports from the visiting experts, are both extensive and impressive. Such

- 50 -

a valuable data set must be maintained and expanded on a systematic basis.

To date visiting researchers have conducted basic studies, and it is not surprising that few research theories and projects have been developed to date. These will certainly come as » analysis of the extensive survey data proceeds in the future.

The methodology of essential data collection over long periods of time, at least on the scale of decades, and at least * at both dry and wet-season frequency, must be maintained.

2.3 The Nature and quality of the research being conducted as a consequence of the Project

There are no definitive reports to allow accurate assessment of this question. The assessor is aware of the interest of several countries outside the Project e.g. Senegal, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, USA, Columbia, Venezuela. These countries in general have recognised the advantages of the design and of the methodologies of the Project. In this regard the international benefit will be greatly enhanced in the longer term. Several of the countries external to the Project have the resources to ensure the provision of equipment and manpower to maintain the necessary surveys over the required long time scale and to participate in extended international collaboration.

The ASEAN - Australian Projects and other bilateral Projects are also producing high quality research. It is not clear that these have been conducted as a consequence of this UNDP Project, but they have certainly been encouraged by it.

2.4 Impact of the Project upon the Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems

The project has concentrated on looking at the total ecosystem and taken the emphasis away from the obvious, i.e. the trees. From these studies comes a much greater appreciation of the number of different animals and plants that occur in the mangrove ecosystems and, also, an appreciation of the value of habitat and physical protection offered by the complex mixture of different forest types; and of the importance of water flow and sediment transport.

There is now a firmer basis on which to develop reasons for mangrove ecosystem conservation.

Some countries have responded positively with establishment of protection mechanisms for mangrove areas, and others have given acknowledgement of the need to consider natural and traditional values as well as economic factors in determining whether a proposed development should proceed.

Some NATMANCOMs have played a significant role in bringing to the attention of policy-makers, the value of mangrove ecosystems.

-51 -

The full impact of the Project upon the decisions of the different governments is likely to be seen when the final report is released to all, countries.

2.5 Impact of the project upon the rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems

Based on the same factors as indicated in 2.4, the interest in mangrove ecosystem rehabilitation has been increased through the Project and through the NATMANCOMs.

Given that rehabilitation has been an ongoing practice in some countries, it can be expected that traditional and modern methods will be integrated more extensively in the future, provided there is effective communication among scientists and from scientists to decision-makers.

2.6 The Problems faced by the Mangroves

The problems faced by the mangroves represent all the challenges they have naturally met as an interface between land and sea, in periodically hostile natural interactions such as with floods and cyclones/tornadoes, together with the demands of human settlements that have developed over the centuries - what we may call the "traditional" societies, living largely in harmony with the natural resources. Additionally, in the last half century, the largely irreversible demands and impacts of the high energy society which has shown itself capable of modifications of the natural environment at a scale never before encountered, have become dominant.

Increasing human populations have challenged the sustainable viability and productivity of all natural systems and, in a world where about half of its total population lives in large cities, the majority of which are within 80 km. of the coast, the impact on coastal natural resources such as mangroves is at a very high level.

In several countries, mangrove areas have been removed or drastically changed to provide land for agriculture and ponds for aquaculture; other mangrove areas have been similarly modified to construct airports, harbours, industrial and urban areas, roads and tourist resorts of immense scale.

All of these activities have resulted in physical modifications of the land-sea interface, often with high economic cost consequences at times of floods and cyclones/tornadoes, and they have also produced by-products which can generally be classified as pollutants, which have adversely affected the biological productivity, water quality and aesthetic appeal of the coastal environment.

International attention has been drawn to the consequences of destruction of mangrove ecosystems by conservation groups. Their emphasis is mainly based on biological productivity, pollution control and the need to respect natural ecosystems.

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In a world where immediate economic considerations have been paramount in decision-making in the past 50 years, or perhaps even since the industrial revolution, one of the most powerful arguments for retention of mangroves in the eyes of decision­makers, may well be the sustainable physical protection they can provide to the coastline and the physical regulation they afford in maintaining the depth and quality of estuaries and coastal waterways.

On the east coast of the USA alone, it is estimated that the annual repair bill for man-made coastal structure exceeds US$ 500,000,00 (a 1988 estimate).

Knowledge of the biological productivity of, and of the physical protection offered by, mangroves is now better understood by scientists. A great challenge remains to have this knowledge effectively communicated to developers and decision­makers so that it can be taken into account, together with socio­economic and cultural factors in arriving at decisions which are both ecologically and economically rational.

Development must'proceed. Until Coastal Zone Management Plans are in place, which allow planned development, it is unlikely that mangrove ecosystems will receive their due recognition for their natural values of biological productivity and physical protection.

Their problem is largely related to the difficulty of assessing a long-term widespread value as opposed to a short-term focussed value of a concentrated development.

2.7 The Problems Faced by the Coastal Zone at large

The problems faced by the Coastal Zone at large have been long recognized by UNESCO and have resulted in the establishment of a "UNESCO Major Interregional Project on Research and Training leading to the Integrated Management of Coastal Systems". In short, it is UNESCO's major "Coastal Marine" initiative and COMAR is derived from these two words.

COMAR produces a brochure which identifies the problems of the coastal zone. It is worthy of careful reading and consideration.

As with mangrove ecosystems, knowledge of the Coastal Zone ecological interactions and their consequences, as well as the value of their different physical characteristics, will not be effectively considered in decision-making processes unless there is adequate and clear communication across the scientific, technological, socio-economic and cultural boundaries.

Emphasis must be given to the ecological values of different types of coastal features and interdisciplinary studies conducted using standardized methodologies comparable with those developed for mangrove ecosystems.

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2.8 The question of homogeneity of the problems - Is a regional approach to the problems justified?

Mangroves represent complex ecosystems. Their value for biological productivity and for physical protection varies from place to place. Species diversity is not the same as one moves from north to south or from east to west.

Their value in isolated harsh tropical and in sub-tropical areas may be equally as high as it is in the lush tropical areas.

To understand such complex ecosystems and to allow comparisons among these ecosystems from the scientific viewpoint, the important regional constant is the methodology which must be applied to the understanding of the different mangrove ecosystems.

Regional standards must be adopted for all the essential monitoring and measurement studies, thus ensuring that the results of studies in one area can be directly compared with those from any other area.

Such standardized procedures are equally important within a country as they are within a region.

The basic major grouping adopted in RAS/86/120, viz.:

Forestry and Soils Group Fisheries and Fauna Group

- Oceanography and Hydrology Group

are essential components of all studies or mangrove ecosystems and the specific projects and relevant methodologies must be standardized.

Additional to the scientific studies there is an equally important regional approach on the practices and strategies necessary to communicate knowledge to all sectors of society. The format and wording of different communications must be targeted to the needs of the different receiver groups. Exchange of experiences in this key aspect, among regional partners, should lead to an enhanced performance in the region as a whole. Relevant communications should be directed to groups such as: politicians, government officers, planners, developers, the tourist industry, mangrove dwellers, teachers and the media, which will most effectively reach the general public.

A regional approach to the problem is not only justified -it is essential.

2.9 Relevance of the Project Studies to Management Decisions facing the Countries of the Region

Management decisions facing the developing and developed countries of the region, with respect to all natural resources, appear to have been heavily biased towards economic factors which

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relate directly to the high energy consumption of the most developed countries.

Dealing with the formally participating countries of the region as a group, because none of these countries is a major "economic power", the Project studies can be expected to provide * the following results:'

improved exchange of scientific information, methodologies ^ and expertise among the countries of the region

increased cooperative research and training among the countries of the region

an enhanced capability of about 134 scientists, technicians and resource managers with respect to mangrove ecology

increased awareness among participants of the need to manage mangroves for sustainable productivity and for coastal protection

training, e.g. a-number of people from different countries in the important ecological considerations to be taken into account in planning for apparently conflicting development proposals

production of general principles for the sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems (recognizing these will require periodic updating as knowledge increases).

In this way, the Project has trained people from some 19 countries within the region, developed standard methodologies of investigation, produced general guidelines on immediate actions that can be taken to minimize damage to mangrove ecosystems, and generally set the pattern to develop a knowledge base on mangroves, which allows for assessment of their value . for biological resources and in physical protection of rivers, estuaries and coastlines.

The "Relevance to Management Decisions" lies in the opportunity to better consider the values of the existing systems and to remove any sense of validity to the claim that "mangroves are wastelands".

Provided the managers can be made aware of the Project outcomes and provided they take note of the findings, relevance * can be claimed; however, "relevance" is not necessarily synonymous with a situation where the scientific results must be taken into account in management decisions.

To ensure that the relevance of the Project studies becomes an essential factor in management decisions, political action and development of enforceable regulations must follow from the Project results.

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2.10 Main achievements of the Project

Several of the direct achievements of the Project have been listed in 2.9.

Among the major achievements must be the demonstration of the benefits of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies on mangrove ecosystems.

Additionally, the Project reports and other publications arising from the studies are significant, not only by reason of their content but also because of the number of authors involved. In excess of 100 publications and reports have been read in this assessment. Together they attest to the work undertaken and to the realization of the importance to have the reports available within the shortest practicable time after completion of the relevant studies.

The true value of the reports will emerge, firstly, as a result of the analysis and synthesis which will come from the Chief Technical Adviser, Dr. Vannucci, and secondly, as they are progressively accessed to provide fundamental data for research projects of the future. Many theories have to be proposed and tested on mangrove ecosystems. The data base represented in these reports and other publications will be invaluable.

Other achievements include the attention given by countries outside the Project, e.g. Senegal, USA, Saudi Arabia, and the acknowledgement by these countries of the design and conduct of the Project.

It appears that recognition of the need for international action on mangrove ecosystem research has also been achieved as an outcome of this Project: in December 1989, at a conference in Okinawa, an International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) was established.

Other achievements, such as the recognition by Governments of countries in the region of the need to protect mangrove ecosystems, should become obvious as communication of the results of the Project are achieved, and as NATMANCOMs are progressively strengthened in their advisory role to Government.

2.11 Practical Results from the Project Activities

One would have to recognize the establishment, operation and on-going research activities of the Ranong study site as an outstanding practical result, representing national level commmitment by the National Research Council of Thailand; clear evidence of the capabilities of the CTA and of Thailand's NATMANCOM in organizing and facilitating the different activities in three major periods of intensive research activities; preparation of the study sites; and the conduct of accident-free research in difficult conditions.

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Exchange of information with the Asian and Pacific countries was seen as ongoing from the practices established in RAS/79/002, and particularly through research training activities planned as an integral part of RAS/86/120.

The fourth and fifth Regional Task Force Meetings (1987 and 1988) were used as powerful means of interaction among countries for exchange of information and advice. On these occasions special attention was given to matters such as: legislation concerning different aspects of management (for instance, land and water use practices), traditional ownership and land use rights; width of the mangrove green belt etc.

Several NGOs in many countries, notably in India, Indonesia and Japan, are concerned about the fate of mangroves and have sought the advice of this Project enquiring about how best to influence legislators and decision-makers to adopt management practices adequate for a healthy eco-development of the tropical coastal zone.

Some of the most active are The Defence of green Earth Foundation, Japan; * Japan Tropical Forests Action Network (JATAN), Japan; Al-Gurm Research Centre, Japan; the Gujerat Narmada Valley Fertilizers Company Limited, India; Godrej Foundation, India; The Institute of Rural Management, Anand (IRMA), India; The Behavioural Science Centre, St. Xavier's College, Ahmedabad, India.

Universities, museums, research laboratories and institutions and individuals also sought advice and support from the Project, mainly for carrying out mission orientated research that may be useful to planners. In this context the Indian Association for the Advancement of Science (IAAS)) have published a book by the CTA, entitled "The Mangroves and Us", which is meant to popularize, among decision-makers and the public at large, the current state of knowledge on mangrove ecosystems and their use. The CTA and author is Dr. Marta Vannucci.

The CTA also contributed a synopsis to AMBIO, entitled "The UNDP/UNESCO Mangrove Programme in Asia and the Pacific".

Dr. Vannucci proved an inspired CTA, reaching all segments of society in many talks and public lectures, and reaching leaders of country governments to convey the message of the mangrove ecosystems.

Chairpersons and members of NATMANCOMs, in their respective countries, were also active to some degree in improving communication on mangroves. This activity varied greatly from country to country. NATMANCOMs chaired by leading political figures appear to have been most influential.

One must anticipate a time lag from scientific awareness to Government action. During this time-lag, communication based on the Project's findings must not be diminished.

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The many Reports and Publications received to date are a very direct practical outcome of the Project.

Another practical result is the attention now given by planners and by Governments of several countries to traditional practices, customs and "land rights" in mangrove areas.

ISME is another practical result. Its effectiveness will be watched with interest.

2.12 Training, research and extension activities and innovations

The 134 participants in the Ranong component of the Project involved 69 Senior Scientists from 16 different countries, from whom the younger scientists and technicians derived great benefit and experience.

There has been some extension of training opportunities by staff from Thailand moving to the laboratories of senior investigators in other countries to undertake follow-up studies.

Several other examples exist of inter-country exchange of scientists for training.

Research activities have been well organized and supervised by Dr. Vannucci and day to day operations have been facilitated by excellent collaboration from local authorities and agencies.

Extension activities have not been fully implemented. These will take time, special training and special people. Stories, books and scientific papers must be written. Films must be made for TV and for schools. Although not discussed with Dr. Vannucci, there are obvious advantages to UNDP, UNESCO and to all concerned if Dr. Vannucci could be retained for 1 year specifically to archive the results of the Project and stimulate further extension work.

A Working Group was convened to meet in Apia, Western Samoa, where representatives of sub-Pacific Ocean countries were present, After exchanging information on the status of their mangroves and of development needs, the members of the Working Group considered that a separate earmarked sub-project for the Pacific Ocean countries was necessary because:

a) it will effectively and efficiently address the problems of small island countries;

b) a coordinator from the region will be in a better position to define problems and needs to formulate training and research programmes adequate to satisfy those needs;

c) the ecological and socio-economic problems unique to small island countries will be considered from a meaningful perspective;

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d) the linkage with the mainstream project will be maintained to ensure taking full advantage of the experience gained through the implementation of these projects. There will be an active exchange of scientists and managers, participating in each others' ^ meetings, with exchange of reports and scientific papers.

2.13 Promotion of Research t

Project RAS/79/002 was largely concerned with training and it was recognized that RAS/86/120 would have to include a strong research component: The Ranong study site was established to allow "training by research for research".

Fundamentally, what has been achieved is reliable identification of the major fauna and flora, macro- and micro-, and the measurements of water and sediment transport, to give initial monitoring data for future expansion and evaluation in interdisciplinary studies relating mangrove ecosystems to biological productivity to physical protection of coastal features and to water"quality and movement.

This philosophy has promoted similar methodologies in other countries and will, hopefully, lead to many long-term comparative studies within and among countries.

Research methodology has been established and research training has been effectively promoted and carried out. However, it is only the beginning and the period beyond 1989 must build on what has been achieved in RAS/86/120.

The benefits of this aspect of the outcome of the study should continue, because research interactions have been established between different groups in different countries.

The concept of transfer of knowledge outside the Project is one that merits attention and relates to extension-type activities such as those mentioned in 2.8.

2.14 Promotion of Policies

Within the project RAS/86/120, the NATMANCOMs were the instruments for promotion of policies in their respective countries. In most countries there has been an interest in developing policies to protect and rehabilitate mangroves sometimes at a very local level, sometimes at state level and sometimes at National level.

Several participating countries have given obviously increased attention to the need to consider the "value" of mangrove ecosystems and other countries may also be developing policies. All countries must be encouraged to state, and put into effect, enforceable policies on mangrove ecosystem management.

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One can expect that NATMANCOMs will be in a stronger position to influence policy development, after the final report of the Chief Technical Adviser is received, because that report will clearly identify the reasons for NATMANCOMs to become more active in influencing policy-makers.

2.15 Improvements in transfer of knowledge and information exchange

At the scientist level the transfer of knowledge and exchange of information has been excellent. This is obvious in the Reports published, not only because so many are multi-authored but also because results from one study have been made available to those conducting another.

2.16 Participation by women

Women played a significant part in the Project, at all levels. The acceptance of the skills and wisdom of the lady Chief Technical Adviser, Dr. Vannucci were never questioned and the determinant of role and function was not on the basis of gender but on the skills, commitment and involvement of each individual.

2.17 Strengthening of Regional and International Cooperation

Throughout RAS/79/002 and RAS/86/120 the emphasis of the Projects has been to enhance regional and international involvement in interdisciplinary studies on mangrove ecosystems. There is clear evidence of increased cooperation and collaboration. The reports which are jointly authored will lead to papers which are also jointly authored.

The personal interactions in field studies have strengthened awareness of each other's capabilities and of the problems faced' in remote localities. Such understanding has increased the drive to work together and to share facilities as well as knowledge and information.

Regional and international cooperation have been facilitated by the Projects. One of the challenges arising "post-Project" is how to maintain and enhance this cooperation, not only among scientists, but among countries.

2.18 Influence on legislation, land tenure, agricultural . practices

Although one may anticipate that change in legislation would take a considerable period of time to implement, in some cases, for example Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand, changes have been made to legislation as a result of information available from these Project.

In Indonesia a number of management regulations and schemes for mangrove protection have been implemented: e.g. areas of mangroves have been protected and designated as conservation

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areas, silvicultural practices have been regulated and greenbelts have been declared in coastal areas which include mangroves.

In many other countries, the heightened awareness of the biological productivity and physical protection offered by mangroves has resulted in reviews of coastal developments and t consideration of coastal zone management plans.

This influence is not confined to the participating countries. It applies also to countries which have been »• enthusiastic observers of the projects. The recent interest in many "non-member" Pacific countries, and in Nigeria, reflects increasing government concern as to the wisdom of modification of coastal mangroves.

However, the Government reaction is by no means uniform. Enhanced effort at all levels of society is necessary to extend this influence in decision-makers.

Many Pacific Island countries have well-established land tenure over mangroves, based on traditional practices and culture. Whereas these tenures have protected the mangrove areas from destruction in some cases the major previous consequence of land tenure practices was their relevance when estimating the dollar value of the area for compensation purposes, in case of development.

In the future the traditions of land tenure may be an important factor in .planning coastal zone development and management.

With respect to influence on agricultural practices, it is appropriate to also consider aquacultural practices, because both are intensive-use practices dependent upon significant input of food (or fertilizer), nutrients and, in land practices, pesticides. These intensive use practices are associated with periodic discharge of pollutants into natural systems.

In general, the use of mangrove areas for clearing for aquaculture has been shown to be uneconomical, and the construction of walls to retain tidal waters for eventual land-farming is often a long-term and uneconomic investment because of acid soils and high salt content.

Whereas the Project has not directly addressed in depth the question of these intensive use practices, the enhanced understanding of the long term value of mangrove ecosystems should ensure that destruction of mangrove areas for agriculture or aquaculture does not occur.

An interesting outcome of the work of these mangrove projects was the FAO workshop in Bangkok in June 1986, on "Strategies for the Management of Fisheries and Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems".

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The workshop identified the need for: Coastal Zone Planning; improved communication at international and national levels; information exchange; increased public awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystems; reduction of non-sustainable uses, degradation and destruction; zoning for different sustainable uses; and restoration of mangrove areas.

The FAO workshop findings are timely reminders of the multiple and sustainable value of mangrove ecosystems.

2.19 Any Unforeseen Results

In the total 7 years of the two projects, there has been a remarkable change in national, regional and international attitudes to mangrove ecosystems and recognition of their value.

A number of enlightened policy-makers have been instrumental in influencing this change in attitude.

Although their contributions could not have been foreseen, they were greatly appreciated.

Other unforeseen results were the high levels of interest from many countries outside the project group, and from international agencies such as FAO and IDRC.

More will be seen as the Project results are circulated and translated for extension to specific user groups.

2.20 Difficulties in implementing the activities of the project

The interest of scientists and a core group of decision­makers was stimulated through Project RAS/79/002. Their continued involvement and interest, together with the omnipresence of Dr. Vannucci facilitated the implementation of RAS/86/120.

Thailand was a gracious and considerate host to the Project enlarging and strengthening the Mangrove Forest Research Centre of the Royal Forest Department of Thailand at Ranong. Thailand contributed both directly and indirectly to the success of planning, development and operation of the Project. The logistical problems were significant, but they were overcome by careful planning and wise choice of staff.

Implementation of the Project activities in the Pacific Islands may not have met expectations. There are distinctive problems to be overcome in these countries of great geographical separation and, in many cases, less adequate frequency of transport services than in the Asian region.

The needs of these countries for coastal zone understanding and wise management are great, particularly if there is to be a sea level rise, and must be given special consideration in the system which follows RAS/86/120.

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2.21 Lessons learned

Recognition of the different types of mangrove ecosystems and of the different needs of the member countries has been an important lesson and a driving force to establish accepted methodologies and standardised field practices, which can be reproducibly performed in different countries and regions.

Additionally the importance of long term data bases cannot be overestimated in understanding change and the significance of change in natural ecosystems.

Scientists react well to difficult challenges when they see clearly their place and their significance in an overall carefully developed plan. Therefore the clear outline of the plan for RAS/86/120 was an essential factor in its success.

Identification of, and commitment by, key scientific leaders and enlightened decision-makers have been decisive factors in the Project development and in the translation of its results in different countries.

2.22 Other Aspects of Assessment

Reading of such an immense amount of material to have come from 2 3/4 years of directed study has caused one to appreciate the timeliness of the effort relative to the world's current needs. As mentioned earlier, eight years ago mangroves attracted little public attention and few laboratories, apart from AIMS in Australia, had systematic intensive programs of study.

Dr. Marc Steyaert of UNESCO was a persistent champion of the need for training and research in mangroves. His efforts dating from about 1972 largely resulted in the funding coming from UNDP at a time which must be emphasized as not one in which many could see benefit in such studies.

The harmonious yet relentless pursuit of the objectives of Projects RAS/79/002 and RAS/86/120 required the special skills of Dr. Marta Vannucci who has carefully led the Projects not to an end, but to a successful launching stage for long-term international involvement and commitment.

This assessment could not have been achieved without the full cooperation of Dr. Vannucci and her staff.

3. ASSESSMENT OF NEEDS AT BOTH NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS

3.1 The productivity and protection offered by mangrove ecosystems

Mangrove ecosystems are an important element of low profile coastal areas most well known in the tropical regions, but also significant in temperate waters. They occur especially in coastal lagoons, estuaries and deltas of major rivers. Mangroves

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are also called tidal or flooded forests (alagados or pantanos of old Portuguese maps) and many products of economic importance were recognized by, European explorers and settlers. These same resources were known to local populations since humans came in contact with the mangroves, mangrove soils and waters. Scientifically we can now say that mangrove ecosystems are among the highest of any system in terms of biological productivity.

The ecological significance of mangroves, however, was not confirmed until recently. Because of their unawareness of an ecosystem new to them. "Westerners" built sea walls, changed the course of rivers and creeks, reclaimed mangrove areas first for agriculture and later for other uses or simply bulldozed down mangroves which they saw as useless wastelands. This destruction of permanent wealth took place for the sake of immediate gains in the name of modernization, development and/or industrialization.

The mangrove ecosystem programmes, supported by UNESCO and UNDP were planned for the purpose of acquiring a balanced perspective of the significance of mangrove ecosystems, aiming at a rational use of the ecosystem without causing ecological degradation. The knowledge acquired was meant to be useful for planners and policy-makers in governments and for "big" and "small" users of the mangroves and their products.

The mangrove ecosystems occupy a key place at the land/sea interface and play a prominent role as a link among land, brackish and sea water ecosystems. They receive, process, recycle and export nutrients and toxic wastes, including heavy metals. As an open-ended ecosystem the mangroves have been unadvisedly considered to be fit for treated or untreated sewage disposal and as dump sites. Depending on geographic, topographic and climatic characteristics of the site, mangroves may temporarily or permanently function as sinks for minerals and nutrients. More often, however, mangroves are net exporters of particulate and conservers of dissolved organic matter.

The peculiarities of mangroves, well accessed by resident and traditional populations around the world, were until recently, poorly known to scientists, planners and administrators, a situation that has led to frequent mismanagement, although some clear minded foresters of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries perceived the potential of mangrove forests and developed sound management practices that ensured sustained exploitation without causing degradation of the ecosystem.

The mangrove waters were not equally fortunate in that, in his eagerness for quick monetary returns, modern man has haphazardly built aquaculture ponds for prawns and fish in mangrove areas totally converted to open ponds. Ecological disaster occurred in many places, shrinking production of both capture and captive fisheries.

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The perception that aquaculture must go hand in hand with rational multiple sustainable use of the mangroves as an ecosystem was the main achievement of the first Project (1983-1986).

More recent studies in mangrove systems have illustrated the physical protection they afford in times of flood and cyclone or hurricane impact. They also have an important role to play in keeping waters of coastal streams clear of sediment.

As such knowledge comes to hand, the need to communicate the results to policy-makers and to industry, remains a high priority.

Awareness of the new perspectives for the management of mangroves was communicated to decision-makers by the National Mangrove Committees (NATMANCOMs) of each country. The formulation of new laws and the reformulation of old ones has taken place in some countries. In few countries is there a clear ability to enforce the law.

3.2 Essential links- from Research Results to Management Requirements

To date the Project has properly emphasized the need for research training in scientific methodology and in reproducible monitoring techniques.

Managers have been brought into Ranong, Thailand, to observe what is being done, and this is valuable introduction of managers to the ecological value of mangrove systems. They must not see mangroves as a forest of tees, or as a muddy area between land and sea. They must appreciate the mangrove ecosystem for its enormous diversity and high general productivity, as well as for the physical protection it affords.

To derive maximum benefit, the results of the research have to be transferred to managers in a format which makes them understandable in terms of development decision-making.

Scientists have not been effective communicators to decision-makers and developers or to socio-economic analysts. Methods must be developed to improve these communication skills.

3.3 Areas of on-going needs

3.1.1 Communication

On several occasions "communication" has been identified as a key factor, in different formats for different interest groups. Section 3.2 gave emphasis to the need for scientists to improve their skills in this aspect.

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On-going monitoring

Monitoring has often been shunned as being non-science in a similar way that taxomony has been sadly discredited as not intellectually challenging. However, unless we understand what animal and plant species are present and can reliably monitor changes with time, the more detailed and intricate interdisciplinary research projects can never be completed. Monitoring must be maintained at Ranong and at other study sites in all countries.

Definition of research projects

Scientists have almost always been disadvantaged when asked to comment on a development proposal in a mangrove area because the site chosen has almost certainly not been the subject area of intensive interdisciplinary study, if of any systematic study at all.

The changes which will occur as a result of different types of development on mangrove areas can, to a large extent be predicted and some "un­natural" impacts be foreseen. For example, a tourist development may require partial clearing of mangrove trees, construction of a marina, dredging of an entry channel and, after completion, result in discharge of nutrient-rich waters, insecticides, and anti-foulants into the ecosystem.

In a study area one could design appropriate research to evaluate the ways in which the development could proceed and to propose ways in which adverse effects of subsequent pollutants, could be minimized.

Obviously, these studies cannot be performed in all possible areas.

Therefore scientists should be prepared to participate in development of coastal zone management plans and then concentrate research in areas likely to be "developed" in, say, the next 10 years.

In such a procedure the science of understanding different mangrove ecosystems is no less challenging, and the results of the research will be much more relevant to the need to establish the practice of "development with concern for the environment".

The concept of "rolling 10-year planning" for coastal development (as mentioned in 2.1) allows

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for progressive refinement of plans as scientific knowledge increases.

The concept may appear most relevant to countries which currently have large areas of mangrove (or other) coastline undeveloped. However one could argue that the concept is equally applicable to highly populated coastlines where progressive rehabilitation of mangrove areas is required as a National or State priority.

Rehabilitation

Many scientists believe that rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems is a new concept. There are, however, areas where it has been practiced for centuries.

The combination of studies of such traditionally established areas of rehabilitation in combination with modern ecological knowledge and methodologies should be-highly valuable.

Good Management Practices

A key to sustainable utilization of mangrove resources and to sustainable benefit from the physical protection they offer, is good management practices.

Research results should be interpreted to mangrove dwellers and users, as simple lists of "do's" and "don'ts" with respect to practices in mangroves. Such lists could be progressively updated as research based knowledge increases.

Dr. Vannucci and her colleagues in Project RAS/86/120 have already derived some basic guidelines, viz.:

for the developers and managers

recognize the tourist potential of mangrove ecosystems for their natural features

recognize mangrove areas as ecosystems which provide a home for animals and plants, giving unique habitats and great physical protection to many species as well as to the. river banks and coastline

avoid dumping dredged material, mining tailings and treated or untreated sewage in the mangroves

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conserve the tidal regime in the mangroves

design coastal structures so as to avoid excess sedimentation or erosion

keep a green belt of mangroves between river (or sea) and a proposed development, and recognise that the width of the green belt may vary from width of a few to 100 metres, depending on conditions

ensure that in road construction, drains be placed frequently and be of such size (capacity) to guarantee rapid water exchange by tidal and land runoff

introduce, the biosphere reserve concept in mangroves in areas adjacent to them

construct elevated walkways to allow tourists to experience the mangrove ecosystems at all tide levels

minimize the likelihood of oil spills and encourage the use of water craft that are not powered by combustion motors

encourage well-managed silviculture as a reliable mangrove-based industry.

encourage alternative uses of mangroves, e.g. for apiculture, fodder production, etc.

be prepared to change management plans either on the basis of experience or on scientific advice, if existing practices are shown to be damaging or threatening to the ecosystem

talk to the scientists

DON'T

use mangroves as dumps for any materials

build dams upstream that will stop or restrict the flow of fresh water into mangroves - they need brackish water for maximum and sustainable diversity of animals and plants

locate aquaculture or mariculture ponds in the mangroves (rather, locate them landward and take care where the effluent waters are discharged, because they will be nutrient rich)

establish Nypa palm plantations unless there is a regular and abundant fresh water supply throughout the year

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restrict water flow, fresh or salt, to or from the mangrove area

For the scientists there are also some DO's and DON'Ts

DO

continue to monitor mangrove ecosystems exposed to different types of development

set up experimental plots close to developments so people- can see how scientists work and be encouraged to ask questions

explain how mangrove ecosystems function to tourists, managers, developers, school groups -both in the mangroves and away from them

use the mangrove walkways as educational platforms; label and name the trees; establish signs to indicate -what can bee seen at high and low tides

be pro-active in planning for sustainable mangrove ecosystem use

explain seasonal differences in the life of the mangrove swamps

DON'T

stay apart from developers, decision-makers, etc.

explain function in scientific terminology which will stifle potential high interest in the complex interactions of mangrove animals and plants

4. FUTURE PLANNING

When one reads of the different country situations with'^angroves", one is impressed with the obvious recognition of the value of traditional practices in harmony with the ecosystem, and distressed at the equally obvious consequences of unwise destruction (for coastal development) , over-utilization (tree-felling), ill-directed discharge of high nutrient waters (e.g., sewage)the changing of water courses or water supply (both fresh and salt); the impact of high sediment yielding activities (mining; marina and channel dredging) and the ill-planned modification (for aqua- and agri-culture).

One also suspects that there is, in many countries, an accepted situation where regulation of those practices which are over-exploiting the natural mangrove ecosystems, is not seen as justifiable. The economic mastery over decision-making appears to have influenced our attitudes even though the scientific

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evidence (admittedly in no way complete) clearly demands complete bans on proven destructive activities. Obviously, scientists have a responsibility to communicate beyond the scientific journals.

The collected information of this report, in the context of * the declared 1989 concern of world leaders about threats to the

global environment, may be considered adequate to place a complete ban on any further mangrove modification by humans,

„ direct or indirect, in all countries. Of course this will be seen as extreme; therefore a balance

must be sought. This balance can only be achieved on the basis of Coastal Zone Management Plans which are in place in all countries and where penalties for abuse and misuse are at such a level as to deter even the richest companies.

On land we are generally law-abiding people, and we have become accustomed to living by "the laws of the land" - a phrase in common use.

What is our reaction as we move to the water?

I suggest that the further we go from the land into the water, the less is our regard for rules and regulations, species and environment. Perhaps this attitude in the western world dates back to ancient times when the resources of the oceans were interpreted as being open to all people.

Even now, in only a few countries do we see recognition and respect for traditional ownership of portions of the sea.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was the outcome of a very lengthy series of meetings and is not yet embraced by all countries. It has nothing like the force of land laws even in "State Fishing Zones" or "Exclusive Economic Zones".

The world is now at a stage where its concern for the sea (and for the atmosphere) must be as great as its concern for the land.

The great natural conveyors and communicators of human actions are "the air" and "the waters". Whereas land-practices may have been assumed to be localized, they are potentially, nationally or internationally transportable either by the

^ volatiles that emerge to the air or by the water run-off leaching and eroding the land.

Our local traditional laws and regulations are inadequate to responsibly meet the challenges of the now closely integrated international community of countries which have become mutually interdependent as a result of industrialization, world economic policies and expectations, and our past disregard for the limits of the natural ecosystem to absorb the "development fallout",

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without causing damaging changes in air quality and atmospheric composition, or water quality and productivity.

We have seen considerable efforts to influence Government and Industry on the need for a balance in development. In the 1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development ("Our Common Future") it was proposed that there must be a common pursuit of "sustainable development", that is, development "that meets the needs of the present without compromising the abilities of future generations to meet theirs."

There is adequate evidence in the country situations and in the reports of study programmes of NATMANCOMs and of RTFs (Regional Task Forces) within this UNDP Project to exert national and international pressure for Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMP) to be developed, based on the knowledge derived from mangrove ecosystems.

The proposal within the assessment is for a rolling CZMP for each country, initially for a 10 year period, with review in the first instance after 7 years, the review to be complete within 2 years, and the second 10 year CZMP to be available 1 year before it is implemented. The process would then be on-going.

How would such plans help the countries which have either been members of this Project or closely associated with the Project?

There is no doubt that the plans for the different countries would themselves be different because the mangrove ecosystems are not the same and the country demands are not the same.

All countries with mangrove ecosystems have experienced some level of degradation or destruction of these areas by such practices as clear-felling of trees; firewood from trees; fresh water diversion; restriction of water flow and exchange; land reclamation for salt works, agriculture, aquaculture, ports, harbours, city dump sites, tourism, urban or industrial development; increased sediment load from mining or dredging operations; and/or impact of chemical pollutants, most often from domestic,farming or industrial practices.

Control over such practices has been difficult to justify because of the dominant past opinion that "mangroves" were largely wastelands.

There is now adequate scientific evidence to remove that impediment: however, the evidence itself is not enough: the evidence must be translated and communicated to all levels of society, not only in written form, but also in oral presentations to and by people influential in the local community, the State, the Nation and the World.

No one country stands out as an exemplary in its actions to resolutely support the recommendations of NATMANCOMs. Many Project countries have shown enlightened actions only to see

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these impeded by other political or development forces. However, the support increases and countries such as Fiji,. Papua-New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan and Singapore could quickly move to illustrate the benefits of concerted plans to protect mangrove ecosystems.

The Philippines represents an interesting case. Devastation of mangrove areas 15 to 20 years ago was on such a scale that the physical evidence and economic costs are clear. The country, however, faces enormous challenges in progressive rehabilitation of mangrove areas and, although the country leaders may support the protection of mangroves in the future, the country's legacy of neglect in the past will result in lengthy time periods before the benefits of good mangrove ecosystem husbandry . can be illustrated in increased productivity and higher water quality. The NATMANCOM of the Philippines has been particularly active in gaining Government support for mangrove ecosystems protection.

Vietnam presents a unique situation where vast areas of mangroves were defoliated in a war-time action and many of the areas were subsequently converted to paddy rice fields. Over time, the soils have become more acid and the rice productivity greatly reduced. The Government of the country may be expected to be supportive of plans to replant mangrove areas.

Of the Pacific Countries (apart from Fiji, Papua-New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand) most have joined the Project recently and little regional attention has been able to be given to their needs.

It is evident that a special effort must be made for the Pacific countries, perhaps looking at the mangroves, sea grass beds, algal beds and coral reefs as interacting ecosystems. Some existing research institutes would be well placed to assist in such projects.

The case of Japan also bears special mention. Japan, like Australia and New Zealand, is certainly a donor country and its mangrove areas are relatively small compared with those of many other countries. Japan is, however, a major user of mangrove ecosystem products both directly and indirectly, because of its influence on coastal modification in tourist developments in the Asia-Pacific region.

The concept of an International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) was "established in May 1988 during a symposium in Thailand", and the proposal made to have the head office in Okinawa was formally established through the RMCC in Okinawa on 5 December 1989.

In October 1988 the President of Ryukyus University proposed the establishment of the Okinawa International Mangrove Association (OKINAM) to study mangroves and their protection.

It was established on June 8, 1989.

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Japan also planned to develop other agri- and aqua-governmental activities in Okinawa, including marine ranches; aqua-recreation; enlargement and maintenance of aqua-cultural resources (this plan including reforestation of mangroves); and a high standard fishery in Itoman City.

In August 1989 it was announced that the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs would spend 300,000,000,000 (US$ 2.000.000.000) over 3 years on "environmental protection, with a proportion of the money to be spent on research on mangroves". >

In a related activity the Japanese International Association for Mangroves (JIAM) was established in Tokyo on September 6, 1989, with one of the main purposes of JIAM being "to have ISME Head Office established in Okinawa" at the December 5, 1989 meeting.

Therefore OKINAM, JIAM and ISME will be Japanese initiatives in mangrove research and protection, all accomplished in 1989. The word "International" in all 3 organizations may be worthy of reconsideration. ISME would appear to be truly international organisation and merits equal support form all countries.

Such initiatives . in Japan and in other countries, have certainly resulted from awareness of the work and success of RAS/86/120 and RAS/79/002, in illustrating the multiple and sustainable value of mangrove ecosystems.

The Japanese institutions indicate a way ahead in both national and international commitment. However, they do not guarantee either on-going research or on-going regional and international collaboration at the scientific or sustainable development planning aspects.

The commitments of other countries must be ensured.

Obviously NATMANCOMs and the RMCC (or its successor) must work internally with appropriate agencies, industries and decision-makers, and externally with ISME.

At the international level the on-going research and monitoring at Ranong must be continued and the UN agencies must maintain their watching brief to ensure that all the good work to date is not progressively eroded and subsequently lost.

¿

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Annex G

Executive Report of the International Multidisçiplinary Study and Research Programme

of the Ranong Mangrove Ecosystem (Abridged)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE „ RESEARCH PROGRAMME

OCEANOGRAPHY AND HYDROLOGY

General Findings

1. The main findings from the océanographie and hydrological work at Ranong endorse and extend an important concept' about mangroves, but one which is often ignored by coastal planners and developers. This is that mangroves are open systems, interacting with and influenced by both marine (mainly tidal) processes and riverine or other freshwater sources from the land. It follows that any study of a mangrove area must consider the source and significance of these interactions. Similarly, planners and policy-makers must be made aware of the likely consequences of disturbing or otherwise interfering with the scale or nature of these interactive processes.

2. The physico-chemical studies conducted in Klong Ngao showed that the Ranong mangroves serve two key functions in the coastal ecosystem (i.e. in addition to their biological functions):

(a) The mangroves trap fine sediments carried into the coastal zone by flood waters.

(b) There is a significant net export of nutrients from the mangroves into the coastal zone, which acts as a source of enrichment for the marine environment.

Specific Conclusions/Recommendations

Climatic and Tidal Effects

1. Klong Ngao and the mangroves it supports are strongly influenced by the wet tropical monsoon climate prevailing at Ranong. There were 172 days of rainfall in 1988. The presence of a pronounced wet season of eight months and a four months' "dry

<~ season" with only intermittent rain, has a dominant effect on the other physical processes in this extensive mangrove-estuary system.

* 2. The Klong Ngao estuary is influenced by local floodwater run-off and also by plume waters of the Kra Buri River. Local run-off is small (seldom exceeding 100 m3/s) compared to river floods from the Kra Buri, which are also of much longer duration.

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A plume of freshwater from this major river penetrates the Ngao estuary during the wet season. Consequently, even if there was no local freshwater into Klong Ngao, salinity in this estuary would still be very low.

3. Klong Ngao has a deep, self-scouring tidal channel due to tidal asymmetry (ebb current stronger than flood). The area of mangrove wetland and its vegetation density determine the depth and width of such a channel. The effect of mangrove thinning or forest conversion to tin mining or prawn ponds, is to decrease the tidal asymmetry and hence increase siltation in the channel. The previous effects of tin-mining in the middle-reaches of Klong Ngao show this very clearly.

4. It was demonstrated that the bulk of fine sediments washed into the Klong Ngao mangroves by local floods, settled rapidly and were trapped by the mangrove vegetation. Only about 12 hours was required for sediment-laden water in the estuary to become clear (indicating the settling out of transport sediment) .

5. It follows that in high rainfall areas with significant sediment displacement, mangroves act as natural sedimentation tanks, protecting other coastal environments from the harmful consequences of sediment discharge. In areas suffering from inland deforestation and soil erosion, this role of the mangroves becomes even more vital.

6. In combination, felling of inland forest and mangrove forest under the climatic and hydrological conditions prevailing at Ranong will crate a risk of severe soil erosion, leading to the discharge of large quantities of sediments into coastal waters. It is concluded that in Ranong this would have an adverse effect on fisheries (by reducing light penetration and therefore primary production in the sea) . In other coastal areas the increased sedimentation beyond the mangroves could smother sensitive marine communities such as sea grasses and coral reefs.

Water Nutrients

7. Nitrogen to phosphorus ratios in the mangrove water were generally high (16:1 to 33:1) compared to the average ratio of 16:1 (the Redfield ratio) for organisms in the sea. This appears to confirm the observations on mangrove litter export into Klong Ngao indicating that mangrove detritus is the main source of organic matter in the water. Assuming that phosphorus is not limiting, marine phytoplankton have a lower Redfield ration of about 16:1.

8. Mangrove water nutrient chemistry evidently is sensitive to organic waste and chemical inputs from human settlements, as even the small numbers of homesteads along Klong Ngao generate large differences in total phosphate levels and N:P ratio in the water. Compared to the average N:P ratio of 16-33:1 noted above, 2km upstream from the mouth of Klong Ngao organic wastes and phosphate (mainly from domestic use of detergents) from Had Sai

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Khao Village result in a N:P ratio in the mangrove water there of 6:1.

9. There is án estimated annual yet yield of nutrients from the mangroves into the coastal waters. Nutrients derived from non-mangrove sources upstream accounted for less than 10% of the total nutrients exported. Consequently 90% of nutrients are believed to come from mangrove sources.

10. Total loss of mangrove forests for development purposes therefore would significantly deplete (i.e. by about 90%) this nutrient supply to the coastal zone. Land based activities would not normally compensate for this loss, or would risk seriously altering the balance of nutrients entering coastal waters. This would apply especially to agriculture development, to human settlements and to some industrial activities.

11. Water nutrients may show a strong seasonal variation in concentration and in their net uptake or release by the mangroves. Also mangrove water nutrients cannot be assumed to behave similarly with respect to seasonal factors. For example, phosphate in Klong Ngao is apparently released by the mangrove in both wet and dry seasons, whereas silicate nitrite and nitrate are generated in the mangrove in the wet season but are taken up only in the dry season.

12. Determination of sediment and chlorophyll distributions in water using Thematic Mapping (TM) images shows promise for mangrove ecosystem research/classification provided the environmental gradients are well marked. However, regions like Ranong with high rainfall and extensive cloud cover give limited opportunity for clear satellite images. This should be a consideration when planning mangrove surveys using remote sensing technology.

SOILS AND FORESTRY

General Findings

1. Data from several components of the Ranong Study indicate that the mangrove forest is under considerable stress. Net primary productivity, mean annual stem incremental growth, and photosynthetic rate, are somewhat lower than have been reported for some other mangroves in the Asia Pacific Region. The main reason is concluded to be due to soil salinity, which is high (35-45 ppt) in the Ranong mangroves, even in the wet season.

2. The present condition of the mangrove forest also reflects the effect of past exploitation, particularly tree felling and tin mining, in addition to natural environmental stress, It follows that the Ranong system may not easily withstand continued or increased exploitation, or activities which further adversely affect the environmental conditions for mangroves.

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3. A management plan for the Ranong mangrove ecosystem is urgently required.

Specific Conclusions

Forest Status

1. The distribution and stand density of mangrove trees in the Klong Ngao area does not follow any recognizable trend with respect to environmental gradients or soil parameters. Taking the Klong Ngao study area to be representative of the Ranong mangrove ecosystem as a whole, its forest structure reflects the fact that much of the mangrove has experienced considerable disturbances through logging (mainly for charcoal production) and inadequate re-afforestation practices. Thus, while high average mangrove tree densities (stems > 4cm diameter) of 2,255 and 2,135 stems/ha occur in the forestry reserve areas of Study Sites 5 and 2 respectively, in which logging is prohibited, much lower densities (1,150 and 1,070 stem/ha) exist in the concession forest areas represented by Sites 1 and 4 respectively.

2. The key concerns for forest management are therefore: (a) To what degree do current felling pressures

represent over-exploitation of the resource?

(b) What management practices are required to improve the overall productivity of the system?

(c) Under optimum management conditions, what is the maximum sustainable yield of mangrove timber per unit area of forest?

Soil Conditions

3. The study demonstrated that generally the mangrove soils at Ranong have very high salinity, a high cation exchange capacity (with Na+ as the chief cation associated with exchange sites) , and a high sulphide and organic content. This is particularly the case in the peaty, back-swamp areas such as at site 1. These mangrove soils contrast with the seaward facing sandy beach flat soils which have lower salinity, organic content and cation exchange capacity.

4. Broad management guidelines can be drawn from these observations:

(a) The Ranong soils would be very poor for agriculture, because they become strongly acidic on exposure to air and remain highly saline at deeper levels. The same would also apply to their potential for aquaculture pond development.

(b) The effects of other activities on the soil are more difficult to categorize, but an example of the harmful effects of tin-mining is provided by Study Site 3. Here, mining- activities have redistributed the finer

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soil particle fractions, leaving a weak soil formation with a lower organic content and cation exchange capacity.

(c) Mining of this type on a large scale in mangrove systems would release large amounts of silt and clay normally bound by the mangroves (the hydrology studies show how rapidly freshwater borne sediments settle onto the mangrove substratum in Klong Ngao ) . This would put downstream environments sensitive to sedimentation, e.g. seagrass, coral reefs, at high risk and could adversely affect fish populations.

5. The Ranong Study confirmed that soil pH is an important indicator of the potential acid-sulphate condition of mangrove soils. It also showed that soil salinity is a key parameter influencing growth and production of mangrove trees. Both of these parameters should be measured in situ. Digging of a soil pit is recommended to provide easy access to different depths in the soil. Soil pH and salinity can tell much about a soil's suitability for plant growth and its potential for development into, for example, aquaculture ponds. Repeating a pH measurement on fresh soil after it has been dried can indicate its potential to become acidic through oxidation of sulphides. Many mangrove areas that have proved unsuitable for pond culture because of acid sulphate conditions may not have been developed had this simple test been conducted at the site selection stage.

6. In conclusion, the Ranong coastal soil conditions are tolerable for mangroves, despite the high salt content, but are not suitable for conversion to agriculture or aquaculture. It follows that the management policy for the Ranong mangrove ecosystem should concentrate on improving the condition and resource value of the mangrove forest. Developments which propose clearing the forest would be environmentally harmful, particularly to the soil conditions, which are potentially acid-sulphate.

Production of Rhizophora

7. The extremely' low production of Rhizophora apiculata, one of the most important timber trees in Ranong and other mangrove forests, is a constraint on the forestry management of this species. Only 1-3% of flower buds may survive to form fruits, so that propagule production is severely limited. The study found that flowers were produced by R. apiculata in Ranong from October 1987 to February 1988 and mature propagules from April to June 1988. Budding on the other hand occurs year-round, but there is a high rate of abortion. The complete cycle from bud to mature propagule takes about 32 months, with 61% mortality through abortion before anthesis. Contrary to previous views, no evidence was found that insects contribute to loss of buds. Once planted however, insects may damage propagules and foresters should be aware of this.

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8. In the case of R. mucronata, budding is seasonal in Ranong and propagules were noted to mature from March to May 1988. Such data, built up from long-term weekly or fortnightly monitoring of selected trees, as described in this study, is important if forestry management is to benefit by knowing in advance when Rhizophora propagules will be most abundant.

Forest Management Needs

9. The present forest structure in the Ranong mangroves is basically the result of previous disturbances, mainly logging activities for charcoal production which has affected the whole area. Rhizophora apiculata is the preferred species for charcoal, not Bruguiera (mainly B. cylindrica) replaces Rhizophora apiculata in felled areas because of the latter's comparative failure to regenerate.

10. The study has shown that the lack of regeneration by Rhizophora is due primarily to its low reproductive success (high flower abortion rate).. Consequently there is a poor production rate of Rhizophora propagules to support forest regeneration.

11. In the absence of any replanting programme in the Ranong mangroves (except in the former tin mining area), the limited rate of natural regeneration will lead to continuing deterioration in the productivity of the forest and greater colonisation by less economic species at the expense of Rhizophora apiculata.

12. As the current mangrove forestry practices in Ranong are operating without planning or effective management, a comprehensive forest management plan for the Ranong mangrove ecosystem is urgently required.

13. In preparing this plan, consideration must be given to its purpose. It is assumed here that the main objective of forest management at Ranong will be to increase the supply of wood for charcoal on a sustainable basis. However, socio­economic studies of other uses of the mangrove forest should be commissioned to ensure that other management needs are not overlooked.

14. The forest management plan should:

(a) Bring to a halt the present level of tree felling as an immediate conservation measure. (The case for timber concessions can be reviewed again once forest productivity has recovered.)

(b) Introduce a replanting programme instead of relying on natural regeneration. The replanting of the main economic species in Ranong, Rhizophora apiculata, could succeed - despite its low natural productivity, but further research into the factors controlling its reproductive biology should be supported.

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(c) Evaluate the comparative advantages and disadvantages of replanting the forest as a monoculture of Rhizophora apiculata. This can be done by monitoring the performance of monoculture and mixed culture plantations.

15. To assist with formulation of a management plan for the Ranong mangrove ecosystem, it is recommended that management practices similar to those adopted in the managed mangrove forests of Matang (Perak, Malaysia), the Bangladesh Sunderbans, and managed mangrove ecosystems elsewhere, be considered for adaptation to the Ranong conditions, particularly with respect to tree planting and thinning techniques. Nor should the valuable lessons which can be learned from traditional systems of mangrove utilization be overlooked in gathering information pertinent to the development of an overall mangrove ecosystem management strategy for Ranong.

16. As part of the forest management plan, other species not currently exploited, e.g. Xylocarpus and Sonneratia should be considered for future possible economic use. In areas where Rhizophora trees could grow, these lower value species should be selectively removed to give greater opportunity for production of Rhizophora.

17. The study showed that the maturation time for propagules of Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata is extremely long at Ranong (about 32 months from flowering) and there is a high percentage of abortion. Therefore, to ensure sufficient seedlings to achieve an effective forest replantation programme seedling nurseries for Rhizophora must be established.

18. Based on the current situation regarding exploitation of the Ranong mangrove forest, a programme of public education is strongly recommended. This programme must educate the local population on the importance of mangroves and the reasons for the management plan that is instituted. Such a programme could be of considerable value in reducing the incidence of illegal cutting. In addition, public awareness campaigns must be supported by rigid enforcement efforts to minimize illegal cutting, which in the past seems to have contributed to the low productivity of mangrove forests in the Ranong area.

FISHERIES AND FAUNA

General Findings

1. Intertidal animals and insects are extremely important to the ecology of the Ranong mangroves. Burrowing crabs and mud lobsters are particularly abundant and contribute significantly to the condition and topography to the mangrove soil. Although generally regarded as pests, these crustaceans, other soil organisms and insects also play other key functions, e.g. in converting mangrove vegetation to detritus; in the pollination biology of mangrove trees; in mangrove wood decomposition; and

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as a food supply for aquatic consumers, especially fish and shrimp.

2. The fisheries component of the study demonstrated that the Ranong mangrove ecosystem is an important nursery ground for juvenile fishes and shrimps of many commercial species. Large amounts of food in the form of detritus and Zooplankton, as well as shelter from predators, are available to these young stages in the extensive system of mangrove-fringed creeks bordering Klong Ngao.

3. There is an urgent need to conserve the mangrove habitats in Ranong used by fish and shrimp as nursery sites and to introduce legislation to control the over-exploitation of edible mangrove crabs (Scylla serrata) and shrimps which are extremely important to the economy of the local fishermen.

4. There is a high potential to encourage the local people to improve their livelihood through involving them in non­destructive forms of aquaculture, such as caged fish culture, mollusc rearing and crab rearing.

Specific Conclusions

Fisheries Resources

1. The mangrove fish community of Ranong, despite heavy fishing pressure, is both abundant and diverse. More than 100 species were identified during the study which is comparable to tropical mangrove sites elsewhere (e.g. Florida, Malaysia, Australia) where important mangrove-fish relationships have been demonstrated.

2. The Ranong fish community is dominated by several common genera (Plotosus, Secutor, Leiognathus, Stolephorus, Otolithes, Ambassis) which are closely associated with mangroves and which provide an important source for larger, predatory fish. Of greatest commercial importance are Leiognathus, Ambassis, Stolephorus, Clupea & Liza. Fish larvae and juveniles are abundant in Klong Ngao, whereas larger commercial species are relatively scarce, which may reflect overfishing in the Ranong area. This is borne out by the large distances now travelled offshore by the fishing fleet based at Ranong.

3. The study has demonstrated that the Ranong mangrove ecosystem is an important nursery ground for young fishes and shrimps of many commercial species. It is recommended that mangrove vegetation be protected along the banks of rivers and creeks to maintain shelter to support this nursery function of mangroves. This policy can be assisted by rigorously enforcing the decree that in Thailand at least a 20 metres wide belt of mangrove should be retained along rivers. Additionally, at least a 10 metres wide continuous fringe of mangrove vegetation should be maintained along .smaller waterways such as creeks and channels.

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Mangrove Crab Fishery

4. There is an important fishery for mangrove crabs (Scylla serrata) in Ranong which should be regulated to prevent overexploitation of the crab stock and eventual economic loss to local fisherman. The value of this resource can be increased by introducing culture methods in the villages to fatten crabs caught by the fishermen. Abandoned shrimp ponds could be considered for conversion to crab rearing units.

5. At present an estimated 109 tons of mangrove crabs are sold annually by fishermen (this does not include subsistence fishing or domestic consumption) from 2 villages at Klong Ngao; this generates income of 2.53 million baht and employment for 70 fishing families plus 10 crab dealers. "

6. Female crabs should be totally protected from fishing pressure in the mangroves when they are carrying eggs (July to October) and from fishing pressure offshore when they are spawning (September to December).

7. Young crabs (< 10cm) should also be protected so that they have an opportunity to spawn at least once before they are caught. This can be achieved through legislation banning completely the catching of mangrove crabs less than 10cm carapace width. These measures would yield a substantial increase of young crabs entering the fishery within one year of implementing the regulations. Based on other mangrove studies, crabs reach 8-12 cm width at the end of their first year. Regulatory measures would therefore rapidly benefit the fishery, but this would have to be explained to the fishermen before any regulations were introduced.

8. Fattening techniques should be introduced to enable the crab fishermen to increase their income by rearing "thin" (underweight) crabs to greater weight; females can also be fattened to promote egg development, which greatly increases their market value. Well established methods for rearing Scylla serrata which are operated in other parts of Thailand (e.g. Surat Thani) should be modified as necessary to suit conditions at Ranong. In Surat Thani fattening crabs for one month on a diet of trash fish and horse mussels increases their value from 70 baht/kg to 115-135 baht/kg.

9. A fisheries monitoring system for mangrove crabs should be introduced at Ranong plus'technical support to local families to promote fattening of crabs as a new income-generating activity.

"Acetes" Fishery

10. Heavy fishing pressure by indigenous mangrove fishermen is presumed responsible for the low numbers of Acetes shrimp recorded. This could be a contributing factor to the poor abundance of larger penaeid shrimp, which are known to be heavy consumers of "Acetes". Diversification of activities for

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indigenous fishermen is recommended, such as non pond-based aquaculture (e.g., caged-fish rearing, mollusc culture) to help reduce fishing pressure on the shrimp stocks.

Aquaculture Recommendations

11. With the exception of the seaward zone of Ngao Estuary which has a marine sandy soil, the common soil type at Ranong is clay, silty clay or loamy in texture with a pH of 7-8. At first sight these soils appear suitable for aquaculture pond development (structurally they are ideal). However, samples analysed from every study site revealed a potential acid sulphate condition which would result in acidic conditions if these soils were exposed to air. The pH drop when soil samples were oxidised chemically (with hydrogen peroxide) was up to 5 units, which would have serious consequences for pond culture. Largely for this reason, ponds already constructed for shrimp culture have not been successful.

12. Conversion of the Ranong mangroves into aquaculture ponds is to be strongly discouraged with the exception of very small ponds (maximum-. 0.5 rai = 800 m2) for mangrove crab fattening. These ponds would not affect the ecology of the surrounding mangrove.

13. Other forms of aquaculture, involving non destructive use of the mangrove ecosystem, should be encouraged, however. These should involve principally cage culture of fish and/or crustaceans and mollusc farming. Cage culture has already started commercially in Ranong and there is an experimental programme for oyster culture. These activities should be promoted and backed by greater technical support to the local people.

Timber Boring Insects

14. Timber beetles (Coleóptera, families Plotypodidae and Scolytidae) attack mangrove wood, particularly freshly cut timber; in serious cases this will cause economic losses in wood yards where cut timber is stored.

15. The study could not investigate the effectiveness of possible control measures, but barrier spraying with insecticides would probably be justified on economic grounds in affected yards. But if timber' is collected for fuel wood, as at the charcoal kilns in Ranong, control measures are not regarded as necessary.

16. It is recommended that mangrove forest managers and commercial timber dealers be made aware of the potential problem posed by timber beetles. It would be useful for managers to keep a record of damage levels and the species involved, so that an overall assessment of economic losses can be made.

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Insect Pests and Pollination

17. Herbivorous insects attack mangrove vegetation and many species were identified with leaf damage in Ranong. The chrysomelid beetl,es, Rhyparid and Monolepta are the most conspicuous pests damaging Rhizophora. Although no firm recommendations can be made regarding insect control on mature plants, the possibility that Rhyparida, which is most damaging to seedlings of Rhizophora in plantations, may breed at the landward mangrove margin needs to be investigated further. (If true, this suggests that seedling beds might suffer less damage if mangrove managers sited them further into the swamps.)

18. If evidence provided from the Ranong study that bees are involved in mangrove pollination can be proved, an experimental introduction of honey bees should be considered as a management measure to promote pollination.

Intertidal Fauna

19. The Ranong mangrove ecosystem supports a rich and productive fauna which the study has shown is important to the physical structure of the mangrove soil. Biologically, this fauna, which is dominated by brachyuran crabs, mudlobsters and gastropod snails contributes significantly to energy flow by feeding on and converting mangrove organic matter.

20. The mangrove fauna of Ranong shows standing biomass per unit area comparable to other mangrove sites studied (which are considered productive)'. Tree fauna (mainly gastropod snails) occur at densities of 2-4g/m2, and burrowing crustaceans (crabs and mudlobsters) up to 55 g/m2. From other mangrove studies, a biomass of 15-30 g/m2 has been shown to indicate a significant physical and biological role by the macrofauna in structural development of the mangrove habitat and in energy flow and nutrient cycling.

21. A relationship was demonstrated between the high densities of mangrove crabs and abundance of crab larvae in Klong Ngao. The latter provide food for many fish larvae & juveniles utilizing the mangrove ecosystem as a nursery ground.

22. The soil conditions at Ranong explain much about why the mangrove fauna is dominated by burrowing crustaceans. Surface conditions in the wet season are strongly affected by rainfall and freshwater run-off, yet soil salinities 40 cm below the surface remain very high, around 40-50 ppt. Few animals can tolerate such a wide salinity difference with depth over transient time periods, but brachyuran crabs are one group which have an extremely high osmotic regulatory ability. Similarly, mudlobsters like Thalassina and Upogebia are exceptional in their capacity to tolerate virtually anaerobic, sulphide conditions deep below the soil surface. Physiologically they have respiratory adaptations allowing them to accumulate an oxygen depth under such conditions.

23. In view of the suitability of the Ranong mangrove forest habitat for crabs, some of which damage mangrove leaves

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and seedlings, it is not considered feasible to eradicate crabs completely from mangrove plantation areas.

Soil-Fauna Interaction

24. Clearance of mangrove trees in many areas, notably behind the seaward zone around Had Sai Khao, has resulted in areas of very soft, almost fluid mud. The fauna in these areas is very different to that in undisturbed areas, snails dominate and the normal soil infauna is greatly reduced. The observed reduction in numbers of detritivorous crabs is considered a negative feature of tree-felling, leading to poor soil aeration and lower organic turnover by the soil infauna.

25. Similarly, the presence of a levee, or raised bank, along much of the river margin along Klong Ngao and its feeder canals, is believed to be an important structural feature of the mangrove. The levee is presumed to protect the inner mangrove from erosion and to maintain productivity of the vegetation. The adoption of protective legislation to safeguard the levee zone is recommended.

26. The benefits of selective planting of mangrove on denuded or disturbed parts of the levee should be tested and if successful, this could be adopted into the mangrove management policy for Ranong. This recommendation would also promote the conservation of the riverbank and creek habitats identified as important nursery areas for young fish and crustaceans.

FINAL CONCLUSIONS

1. The study provides further proof of the importance of mangroves for coastal protection, as a source of biological productivity in the tropical coastal ecosystem, and as a vital habitat for inshore fish stocks, especially in providing nursery sites for juvenile fish and shrimp. To protect these vital functions, it is essential that a "green belt" policy for mangroves is followed and enforced. Thus the Thai governmental decree, specifying that at least a 75 m wide belt of mangroves should be retained along the coast and at least 20m along rivers, must be rigorously enforced in the Ranong mangrove ecosystem.

2. Protection of these key fringing mangrove areas must be supported by an integrated management policy for the Ranong mangrove forest as a whole, and by regulations covering fisheries activities to ensure sustainable production of those species of high economic importance.

3. Specific recommendations for implementation through forestry and fisheries management plans for the Ranong mangrove ecosystem have been provided above. These recommendations emphasize the importance of (a) replanting mangrove trees to ensure adequate regeneration of the main economic timber species Rhizophora apiculata; (b) fishing regulations to help conserve the valuable stocks of edible crabs and shrimps in Ranong waters,

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coupled with mangrove habitat protection to conserve the vital mangrove nursery areas for commercial fish and shellfish species.

4. The local people living within the Ranong mangrove ecosystem must be assisted, through a programme of public education, to help them understand that by cooperating to ensure the success of the mangrove management plan they are safeguarding their long term economic livelihood and quality of life.