Abstract:This research will discuss some major points that can affect the performance among police officers and make them more efficient in doing their job. We proceed through the following points.Main points:1- How to evaluate performance and the benefits of this evaluation?2- The need for more surveys.

3- Managing fatigue among police officers and how this will affect their performance.4- Usage of modern techniques (crime mapping technologies)Introduction:Individual performance evaluation is generally not well developed in police departments. The most common practice consists of an annual or semiannual subjective rating form filled out by police supervisors, where persons are rated with respect to global categories such as initiative and appearance. Many departments make no effort to assess performance at all. The self-protectiveness of the police subculture and the fact that little concrete depends on the evaluations mean that many departments have abandoned them, or they have become empty rituals, where almost everyone's performance is rated as satisfactory."Characteristics of measure" is the one that is most common discussions. For example, the measures now used by police tend to be internally rather than externally generated. They are done by supervisors rather than peers, self, or clients. They often involve conformity to bureaucratic standards that are only indirectly related to the actual means and ends of police work. They are based much more on subjective assessments, than on objective or quantifiable indicators, and when they are objective, they ask how much, rather than how well. Current evaluation instruments refer to general qualities, rather than to behavior-specific field-based situations and if they do involve the latter, they refer to law enforcement, rather than community service or conflict related activities. Performance evaluation is used more to punish failure, than to reward success and to make inter-individual, rather than inter-unit comparisons.Shrock and Geis (1999) insist that the purpose of an individual performanceevaluation is to act as part of a continuing system for monitoring, which guides andcorrects the quality control system of the organization. Other acceptable uses forindividual performance evaluations include sorting, grading, and rewarding as an aid indetermining an employees merit bonus. Companies also rely on the results of theemployee performance evaluation to serve as additional input for decision-makingpurposes in determining what type of marketing, advertising and training projects toundertake.Using the performance review as an intervention to improve performance isappropriate under the following circumstances:1. Employee needs feedback on their performance.

2. Employees dont know whether they are doing well.3. Employee performance is falling short of expectations4. Major changes in expectations are occurring, caused by changes inbusiness, the environment, and so forth (Langdon, 1999, 290).The focus of the performance review should ideally be on the employees behaviornot his or her attitude. Flynn (2001) recommends that managers discontinue the practiceof evaluating employees on an attitude like enthusiasm, and instead indicate thebehavior demonstrated by that employee. An employee who is considered enthusiasticmight be described as one who takes on extra tasks. By translating what the attitudeactually means in terms of behavior, managers are forced to evaluate on specific andconcrete things not just their impressions. Flynn (2001) reports that it is important not toignore an employees weaker traits during the appraisal because the employee may alsoignore the problem.The concept of performance management is not new; its been used in the business community for nearly 30 years. Performance management is a systematic, data-oriented process of managing people to achieve a high and steady rate of performance (Langdon,1999, 293).

Some methods of measuring performance:

1-The graphic rating scales are one of the oldest and most popular evaluationtechniques. In a typical graphic scale, a set of dimensions related to the successful jobperformance are listed and scored using a numeric scoring system (Ivancevich &Matteson, 1996). Dimensions relating to the job might include; attendance, knowledge of

the job, or willingness to accept responsibility. When applying this technique theevaluator is to use a numerical point scale to score the employees performance in eacharea. Typically a 5-point scale is used, but companies may change the system and useany numerical scheme. Total scores may also be compiled by adding up the individualscores from each category. The Southfield Police Department has adopted a form of thegraphic rating scale to evaluate its employees. See Appendix C for an example of theevaluation.

2-The checklist technique is widely used because of its simplicity. It requires that a listof job-related behaviors be compiled then compared to the activities of the employee.Some behaviors may be weighted differently than others, some higher or lowerdepending on the circumstances. This type of evaluation form is widely used byorganizations that have a large number of employees to evaluate

3- The critical incident technique focuses the evaluators attention on particularlysignificant behavior (Ivancevich & Matteson). The most important aspect of thistechnique is that it identifies specific behavioral events the can affect an employeesability to perform. These behavioral events can be positive or negative and require anongoing supervisory observation. Otherwise important data might be overlooked.

4- The last technique review was the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales or BARS, asit is also known. The BARS approach combines elements of the two previouslydiscussed techniques: graphic rating scale and critical incidents (Ivancevich & Matteson).BARS also require a numerical rating of individual dimensions similar to the graphicrating scale technique. The two techniques differ because the BARS require a moredetailed examination of the results obtain. Each dimension is then anchored with a seriesof equally specific behaviors representing a range of excellent to unacceptable levels ofperformance (Ivancevich & Matteson).And here are some recommendation about how to evaluate the performance in the most efficient way taken from the south field police department.RECOMMENDATIONSThe following are recommendations for improving the police performance evaluationprocess for the Southfield Police Department.Recommendation 1: Conduct an additional employee and management survey todetermine how others feel about the possibility of changing the evaluation process.Recommendation 2: Meet with management and employee teams to discuss theresults of the survey and how both groups might influence the potential change inpractice by offering their suggestions on different strategies.Recommendation 3: Consider a simplified scoring method for the semi-annualevaluations possibly using a five-point numeric evaluation scale. In addition to thenumeric evaluation, require documentation of critical incidents or significant activitiesthat may positively or negatively affect the overall rating.Appendix D has a simple version of a form that may be used to document either type ofincident.Recommendation 4: Develop and implement a performance improvement plandesigned to provide feedback to individual officers. This performance improvement planshould be useful in assisting with the development of individual training programs.Recommendation 5: Introduce divisional evaluation appraisals that most accuratelyreflect the major activities performed by officers working within that division.

2-THE NEED FOR MORE SURVEYSSurveying and understanding the publics opinion of policeperformance is important for several reasons: Public acceptance of police authority is essential tomaintain public order. Public confidence in police can lead to cooperationthat is needed for effective policing. Public support is crucial to maintaining and expandingpolice funding. Sensitive measurement of public opinion is an importantway to monitor local police activities. Exchange of information fosters police-communitypartnerships that can be tailored to specific communityconcerns.Perceptions of police activities, crime, and fear and theidentification of neighborhood problems and strengthsrepresent important aspects of the community contextof policing.Regular surveys are essential for understanding theseissues further. Such surveys should be conducted by independentorganizations to avoid biased responses. Conductingthe surveys over a number of years would allowfor greater comprehension of the publics opinion. Anannual survey with standard samples and procedurescrafted to examine trends would be most meaningful.Then, police officials and community representativeswould notice anomalies in the pattern of opinion as influencedby respondents experiences and the neighborhoodsense of community. Community stakeholders could trackindicators of issues that can be targets of intervention,such as neighborhood conditions or peoples lack of informalcontact with officers.Surveying community residents can provide valuableinformation about the publics assessment of police activities.As this study demonstrates, such a survey can providesurprisingly rich information about the relationshipbetween communities and the police. This information candirect police and community change and help monitor theeffectiveness of interventions. between local officersand residents.The findings confirm and expand on earlier studies that suggested informal contact raises public opinion of the police. In this survey, speaking to officers on patrol or at community events was associated with a positive opinion of police performance, whether or not the resident lived in a disorderly neighborhood. It could be that those predisposed to be more favorable are likelier to initiateinformal contact with officers. In any event, it seem likely that promoting informal social contact may favorably influence public opinion . Police departments may want to evaluate the waysthat they encourage or discourage informal contactwith residents. Police community partnerships aremore effective when they incorporate greater informal contact with residents. Although past literature relies heavily on demographic characteristics to explain public opinion, this study found thatthe most important factors influencing favorable opinionof the police were greater informal contact with police,less victimization, less fear of crime, lower perceivedlevel of violent crime.Role of the mediaPolice are particularly concerned about the mediasinfluence on attitudes toward them. Several Los Angelespolice supervisors who were interviewed before the surveywas conducted stated that they believed that a fewhighly publicized incidents might have a widespreadnegative influence on residents view of the police.In this survey, 65 percent of be the respondents indicatedthat personal experience(including respondents experiencewith other police agencies and their secondhandknowledge of the experience of others) most shapedtheir opinions of the egyptian police officers. Thirty-five percent were most influenced by mass media (including newspapers, radio ,and television). The study found that residents who relymost on the media did not report less favorable opinionsregarding the overall job performance and demeanorof the police than those most influenced by personal experience.Implications for police practiceAccording to this study, disorderly neighborhoods and neighborhoods with poor social cohesion and controlpresent a challenge for officer community relations. Localcommunity surveys can help police to identify and addressresidents situations and concerns(see The Need forMore Surveys). Communities also may benefit fromcommunity policing strategies that increase informal perceived disorder in ones neighborhood, and higher neighborhood cohesion and control. Race and ethnicitywere not shown to significantly determine public opinionof police performance once other factors (such as perceivedneighborhood disorder) were considered. Residentstrust in the police, however, was influenced by race andethnicity. Police and others often perceivethe media as having a significant effect on thepublics opinion of police performance. According tothis studys findings, the media did not appear to be asource of negative opinion of the . Instead of relyingon the media for their opinions, respondents appeared to react primarily to their own experiences and expectationsin forming opinions of their local police.

3- Managing fatigue among police officers and how this will affect their performance.Introduction:Fatigue among police patrol officers arising from departmental policies and practices may degrade individuals abilities and hence the performance of organizations. Few U.S. police departments have established comprehensive shift, work-hour, and fatigue management policies despite the well understood, long-standing, and profound influences that round-the-clock schedules have on worker health, safety, performance, job satisfaction, and family life. After reviewing the sources, costs, and impacts of fatigue as well as recent research into the prevalence of fatigue among police, the authors discuss policies and practices that police executives, managers, and supervisors can employ to minimize officer fatigue.Fatigueisamentaland/orphysicalstateresultingfrominsufficientgoodqualitysleeporfromprolongedorintensephysical,emotional,ormental effort that tends to decrease alertness, impair performance potential, worsen mood, and interfere with decision making. Thus, we can expect excess fatigue to adversely affect police officers performance, health, and safety; their relations with the public; and the quality of their discretionary decisions. Fatigue among police long has been a problem. Furthermore, as distinguished sleep researcher William C. Dement noted recently, policing is the one profession in which we would want all practitioners to have adequate and healthfulsleeptoperformtheirdutiesatpeakalertnesslevels.Notonlyisfatigueassociatedwithindividualmisery,but it can also lead to counter productive behavior.It is well known that impulsiveness, aggression, irritability and angry outbursts are associated with sleep deprivation. (quoted in Vila, 2000, p. xiv)The major administratively controllable culprits responsible for police fatigue are biologically insensitive shift rotation schemes, excessive mandatory or elective overtime assignments, frequent off-duty court appearances, and the use of extra and double shifts to cope with personnel shortages. Of course, officerspersonal choices, obligations, and activities also can cause fatigue,but even these can be influenced by proper training about the importance of managing fatigue and alertness.Overtime, the effects of one or more of these work-based or personal fatigue factors can be come especially problematic because chronic exposure tends to magnify fatigues effects. Chronically fatigued people tend to develop maladaptations1 that spill over into leisure time and in turn make recuperation even more difficult (Moore-Ede, 1993). Fatigue relentlessly exacts its human, community, and economic tolls. Ironically for the police, two recent research studies revealed that just 17 to 19hoursofsustainedwakefulnessthekindofsleeplossroutinelyexperienced by officers in many departmentsimpaired participants performance as much as having a 0.05% blood alcohol content(BAC).Extending wakefulness to 24 hours produced impairment equivalent to a 0.10%BAC.

Both of the studies tested hand-eye coordination, and the more recent study also tested cognitive performance, motor speed, task accuracy, and alertness(Dawson&Reid,1997;Williamson&Feyer,2000).Reaction time on some of the tests in the more extensive study was 50% worse in the sleep deprived condition than in the alcohol condition (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). As a matter of public safety, it seems appropriate to ask whether fatigue-impaired officers should tackle the tough job of policing, particularly because they may at times be as impaired as the drunken drivers they arrest. Fortunately, police executives and managers can minimize officer fatigue by developing appropriate shift scheduling and work-hour policies and by educating officers about sound sleep habits and the importance of coming to work alert and well rested.This article discusses how appropriate shift scheduling and work-hour policies can be used in conjunction with fatigue and alertness management programs to minimize officer fatigue. First,however,wewillbrieflyreviewthesources,costs,andconsequences of fatigue for police, as well as indications of its prevalence.SOURCES, COSTS, AND CONSEQUENCES OF FATIGUEPolice officers long have had to deal with fatigue arising not merely from shift work but also from lengthy and sometimes erratic work hours and other aspects of working conditions.2 From its inception, modern policing wasa24-hourserviceprovidedsevendaysaweek.Asaresult,19th-century police in the large cities often bunked at their precinct stations to provide a reserve force for emergencies or to fill staffing shortages. Like most workers of that era, it was not uncommon for officers to work 12 hours a day, 6 to 7 days a week. Shiftwork is an important source of fatigue for police an do their workers because their natural circadian3 rhythms enhance alertness during daylight hours and encourage sleep at night. Highest alertness for most people occurs during the morning and in the late afternoon/early evening hours when energy levels are elevated, eyes focus more easily, and physical abilities and coordination peak. When circadian rhythms dip as evening wears on,wavesofsleepinesswashoverus;appetitesdiminish,recollectiondulls, reaction times slow, and we fall asleep (see Dement & Vaughn, 1999; Monk&Folkard,1992).As a consequence, officers on night shifts struggle to stay awake when their bodies want to sleep and then later try to fall asleep at home when they naturally are primed to be most alert. So, this affect greatly their performance in the morning.

It seems obvious that police managers should develop policies and programs that help improve officer health, safety, performance, and interactions with their communities.PREVALENCE OF FATIGUE IN POLICE AGENCIESScientific evidence presented elsewhere in detail (Vila, Kenney, Morrison, and Reuland,1999)is further summarized below, but first let us emphasize that almost all of the hundreds of officers, supervisors, and managers that the authors have conversed with during the past 9 years report personal experiences with fatigue and exhaustion. Our personal experiences as police officers reveal similar circumstances.

suggestthatnonsupervisorypatrolofficersinlargeurbandepartmentstend to average between 15 and 40 hours of overtime work per month (Vila, 2000;Vila&Kenney,inpress;Vila&Taiji,1999),some officers average 80 or more hours of overtime per month and,or more hours per year.This is an enormous amount given that the typical 40-hour, 50-week schedule results in2,000 hours per year.the researchers examined reports of accidents, injuries, misconduct, and citizen complaints. To obtain an objective measure of fatigue at the start of each work day, the FIT Workplace Safety Screener (www.pmifit.com), a computerized tabletop device that looks somewhat like a division of motor vehicles vision tester, was used. The FIT measures a persons fatigue-related impairment by comparing four eye-performance measures with their usual performance. The measures are pupil diameter, amplitude of pupil constriction and delay in pupil response to a flash of light, and the velocity with which the eye tracks a moving light.In total,Vilaetal.(1999)collected and analyzed data from 379 officers and evaluated nearly 60,000 workdays. Subjective information about the impact of fatigue on officers and the causes of officer fatigue was obtained from interviews and focus groups involving officers and their spouses as well as surveys. The surveys (see Vila, 2000, Appendix B) asked officers about their sleep quality, their attitudes about their own fatigue levels and those of their peers, how much of the fatigue they experienced could be attributed to various occupational sources,and how fatigue affected their health, safety, job performance, and family life. Taken together, data from these sources provided some of the first solid information about the effects of fatigue on patrol officerswork performance, physical and emotional well-being, and personal lives.MANAGING FATIGUEPolice executives and the jurisdictions for which they work have a clear and compelling interest in ensuring that officers are not overly fatigued on the job and that they are sufficiently alert to perform their duties properly. Regardlessofwhetherofficerfatiguestemsfromjob-relatedfactorsorfrom outsidethejobforexample,fromfamilyandsocialactivities,moonlighting,personalhabits,orphysicalfitnessmanagementshoulddoallitcanto ensurethatofficersarefitfordutywhentheyreporttoworkandthroughout their work shifts because overly fatigued officers are more likely to put themselves,theirfellowofficers,andtheircommunitiesatrisk(seeVila& Kenney,inpress;Vila,Kenney,&Morrison,2001).Anagencythatfailsto takereasonableprecautionstomanagetherisksassociatedwithfatiguemay thereforeincursubstantialcivilliabilityforavoidableaccidents,injuries,or misconduct. It also may face more staffing shortageswhich can, in turn, require more overtimebecause officers who are chronically fatigued are morevulnerabletoahostofphysicalailmentsandstress-relateddisorders. There is a great deal that police executives, managers, and supervisors candotominimizejob-relatedfatigue.Inparticular,sourcesoffatiguecan be effectively addressed by managers who developandimplementsoundpoliciesaboutexcessworkhours,shiftscheduling,and shift length;12 POLICE QUARTERLY (Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2002) educate subordinates about fatigue and involve them in alertness assurance programs;6 and encourage officers to report for work well rested and alert.We discuss several potential lines of action for managers to pursue.WORK HOURSManaging work hours is critical for fatigue control because the number of hours an officer works in a day, week, month, or year can contribute a greatdealtohowfatiguedoralertheorsheis.Twoofthestudiescitedpreviously suggest that as little as 17 to 19 hours of sustained wakefulness can impairperformanceasmuchashavinga0.05%BACandthatbeingawake for 24 consecutive hours may produce impairment equivalent to a 0.10% BAC (Dawson & Reid, 1997; Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Repeatedly workingexcessiveamountsoftimeislikelytoleadtochronicfatigueandits attendant problems. Thus, one of the key issues that departments need to address is how much work officers are allowed to do in a given period of time.And,tobemeaningful,work-hourpoliciesmustincluderegularshift length,overtime,andmoonlighting.Itdoesnogoodtocapovertimeat,for example, 15 hours per week, then allow officers to work an additional 25 hoursperweekatasecondjobwhilealsoattendingschool3nightsaweek. Ofcourse,work-hourpoliciesneedtoincludeprovisionsforemergencysituations in which longer work hours are unavoidable to protect the public safety.Evenduringprotractedemergencies,however,officerperformance, health,andsafetycouldbeimprovedbycallingpeopleinforanapwhencircumstances permit. Butcappingworkhourscanmakeitdifficulttomeetadepartmentsobligations.Asidefromtakingtheobviousstepofworkingtoensurethatstaffing levels match demand for services, many departments could substantially reduce overtime by minimizing off-duty court appearances. The courtshistorical monopoly of the docket, prosecution and defense delays, and case rescheduling ignore the impact that these more typically 8-to-5 members of the justice system have on police working a 24/7 schedule. In manyjurisdictions,officersspendhourswaitingaroundcourttobecalledto testify,althoughtheyrarelyarecalledtothestandacommonestimateby officersisthattheytestifyfewerthan5outofevery100daysthattheyspend sittingaroundthecourthouse.Somedepartmentsdealwiththisproblemby givingofficerselectronicpagerssotheycanbenotifiedwhentheytrulyare needed to testify. Other common arrangements include maximizing onVila et al. / OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY 13duty court time, situating court-based coordinators at precinct stations, increasingaccesstonotificationprogramsviaremotecomputerterminal,or even providing sleeping quarters for off-duty officers who are waiting to testify (Vila, 1996; see also Boorstein, 1986; Duggan, 1993; Harriston, 1993).SHIFT LENGTHShift lengths fall into two basic groups: 8-hour shifts worked 5 days a weekandcompressedshiftsinwhichapproximately40hoursareworkedin fewer than 5 days (e.g., four 10-hour or three 12-hour shifts). Although there is no clear consensus among sleep and fatigue researchers about which type of shift is preferable, most administrators seem to prefer either 8-or12-hourshiftsbecausetheydivideevenlyintoa24-hourday.Mostof the officers we have discussed shift issues with around the country during the past 6 years appear to favor compressed shifts, primarily because they canreducetotalweeklycommutingandprovidemoreconsecutivedaysoff for recreation and family activities as well as for recuperation. Fewer, longershiftsreducethenumberofcommutingdaysandenableofficerstolive farther from the large urban centers in which many of them work. This added distance can help them avoid perceived work-related threats to their families and afford better housing. Compressed shifts also have been used to attract qualified recruitsand to lure experienced officers from departments with less desirable shift arrangements.7 Some police executives doubt that the real and perceived advantages associatedwithcompressedshiftsoutweightheirdrawbacks:Foronething, on the face of it, the 12-hour workday seems more likely to leave officers morefatiguedbyshiftsend,especiallyduringthethirdorfourthconsecutive12-hourshift.Longershiftsalsotendtomagnifytheimpactofanyovertime. For officers who have only 12 hours to eat, sleep, see their families, and commute, even an extra hour or 2 spent on arrest reports or waiting to testify in court can make it impossible to get enough sleep.SHIFT ROTATION, DIRECTION, AND PATTERNThere are three general shift rotation options: nonrotating, forward (with the clock), and backward (against the clock). Not rotating remains the best scheme, because almost any change in our daily sleep routines tends to increase fatigue over the short run by running afoul of circadian14 POLICE QUARTERLY (Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2002)rhythms. For a variety of reasons, however, many managers find it necessary to change shift assignments periodically. Among the shift change or rotation options, backward shift rotation is the hardest to adapt to biologicallybecausethebodyscircadianrhythmintervalisslightlypredisposedto rotating forward, that is, from day to evening shifts (Dement & Vaughn, 1999).Itthereforetakesabout8daystoadjusttoachangefromanevening toamidnightshiftbutabout12daystoadjusttoachangefromdaystomidnights (Monk & Folkard, 1992). Forward rotation schemes can be slower (i.e., monthly, quarterly, annually) or fasterwhere employees spend 1 or 2 days on each consecutive shiftbetweentheirdaysoff.Therationalebehindfastrotationistosharethe misery of shift work while preventing officersbodies from attempting to adapt to nondaytime shift work. One advantage of fast rotation is that employees can socialize normally on their days off and thereby avoid the commonproblemofnight-shiftworkerswhogetlittlerecuperationondays offbecausetheyreturntodaytimeschedules.Themaindisadvantageisthat employees often are very tired while working night shifts unless they conscientiouslyworkatpayingbackthesleepdebttheyaccrueondayswhen theydonotgetsufficientgood-qualitysleepwhenevertheyhavethechance. Otherwise, these shift workers are more vulnerable to problems such as shift maladaptation syndrome. Ingeneral,longershiftrotationintervalstendtohavefewernegativebiologicaleffectsatleastforofficerswhoarereasonablywell-suitedtotheir current shift and who practice good sleep hygiene. However, staying on a shift longer obviously is not better for those who are ill-suited for it, who never allow themselves to adapt properly, or who make little effort to get sufficient recuperative sleep. Researchers disagree about the ideal rotational scheme, but one thing seems certain: It is almost impossible for the body to manage weekly shift rotation because it takes about that long to adapt to an 8-hour schedule change (Monk & Folkard, 1992; ONeill & Cushing, 1991).PERSONNEL ASSIGNMENTAnother important shift-work issue has to do with how people are assignedtovariousshifts.Fromafatigue-reductionstandpoint,itwouldbe idealtoletemployeesworktheshifttheychoosesimplybecausesomepeople are biologically more well-suited than others to working nights; night owls can tolerate evening and midnight shifts better than those whoVila et al. / OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY 15naturallyriseearlyeachday(so-calledmorninglarks).Andthismeansthat nightowlsarelesssusceptiblebutnotinvulnerabletofatigue-inducing factorsassociatedwithnightshifts.Inaddition,howwellanofficercantoleratesleepdisruptionandrecoverfromsleepdebtisafunctionofage,physical and emotional health and fitness, diet, and innate ability to adapt to changesinsleepandwakecycles.Butbiologyisnottheonlyoreventhe primaryreason for giving employees a say about which shift they are assigned. Employeeinvolvementinschedulingandshiftassignmentdecisionsalso is critical because an officers attitude and overall level of emotional stress affect his or her ability to deal with fatigue. The number of hours officers work and the time of day they are assigned to work affect almost every aspectoftheirpersonal,social,family,andprofessionallives.Officerswho areexcludedfromdecisionsaboutshiftworkandschedulingbecomepowerless in some of the most important dimensions of their lives. Powerlessnesscorrodestheirself-imageandincreasesstress.Stressreducestheirability to deal with fatigue, which in turn tends to diminish their job performance and ability to deal with stress. Thus, excluding officers from scheduling and shift assignment decisions can trigger a vicious cycle that causes more fatigue and job stress. Although organizational imperatives require managers to distribute human experience, talent, and problems across the day, it still makes good sense to accommodate individual preferences to the extent possible. Department policies that take individual differences and preferences into accountwhenschedulingworkwillhelpreducefatigueanditsnegativeside effects.OFFICER EDUCATIONShift-workandfatigueeducationenablesmanagerstoaddresssourcesof fatiguethatariseoutsidethejobaswellasthosearisingfromthejobitself. Officersshouldbeeducatedaboutthehazardsoffailingtocopewithfatigue and encouraged to think about alertness as an important aspect of being fit for duty. Officers need to be taught how to minimize fatigues impact on their professional performance and personal lives, just as they are taught firearms safety, arrest techniques, and field tactics. At a minimum, they needtolearntothinkoffatigueasacriticalsafetyissue.AsFigure1shows, on average, as many officers are killed each year by accidents as by gunfights, family disturbances, arrest situations, ambushes, and traffic stops.

DEVELOPING FATIGUE OR ALERTNESS MANAGEMENT PLANSWHAT MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS CAN DO Encourage employees to treat sleep like a safety and performance issueit is! Involve employees in scheduling and work-hour decisions whenever possible. Schedule appropriately to meet organizational obligations while minimizing shiftwork disruption. Minimize shift changes and maximize work-hour regularity. Never use weekly shift rotation, and always rotate shifts forward. Ensure adequate staffing. Developanovertimepolicythatminimizesmandatoryovertimeanddiscouragesexcessive work hours. Develop policies that promote a physically and emotionally healthy lifestyle among employees. Provide clinical support for shift workers suffering from sleep disorders. Provide a bright, stimulating night-work environment wherever possible. Provide shift workers with opportunities to eat healthful food. Educateemployeesabouttheimportanceofthefatigueandalertnessissuesandpractices listed below.WHAT EMPLOYEES CAN DO Practice good sleep habits and make getting enough quality sleep a high priority for yourself and your family/household. Use naps as a stopgap measure to help catch up when you have not gotten enough sleep. Doyourbesttoadapttoashiftandstayadapted;donotkeepdifferenthoursondays off. Try to pick a shift that matches your biology. Be aware of the hazards of fatigue impairment on and off the job. Watch your diet by avoiding junk foods and fatty foods, favoring complex carbohydrates, lean meats, low-fat dairy products, and fruits and vegetables. Drink lots of water and limit caffeine and alcohol consumption.THE MANAGEMENT PLANAchieving these objectives requires careful planning. As with any other planning activity, sound fatigue and alertness management plans are more likely to be developed if managers take the following steps in sequence: Assembleaplanningteamthatincludeskeystakeholderssuchasmanagers,supervisors, and perhaps even collective bargaining representatives and clerical personnel.Vila et al. / OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY 19 Conductaneedsassessmentthatreviewsshiftwork,scheduling,andwork-hourpolicies and practices as well as fatigue training and education. The assessment also should identify the extent of fatigue-related problems and their likely causes by reviewing records, administering surveys, taking objective measurements using devices such as the FIT Workplace Safety Screener, and/or hiring a team of specialists to evaluate fatigue-related problems and offer recommendations. Brainstormalternativecoursesofactionthatmightbetakentomanagefatiguewithout taking cost into consideration. Analyze probable costs and benefits associated with various alternatives and decide whicharelikelytoworkbestoverthelongrungivenrealisticestimatesoffiscaland human resources. Draftfatigue/alertnessmanagementplansandcirculatethemwidelyforcommentand review. Revise and repeat the review process until a workable plan is developed. Implement the plan, being sure to set clear goals and objectives and remembering to keep it flexible enough to handle unanticipated problems. Monitorandrevisetheplanasneededusingtheplanningteamorasimilargroupasa permanentemployee/managertaskforcethatwillberesponsibleformonitoringprogress toward goals and identifying problems and opportunities.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSPolice fatigue is a widespread problem that can seriously degrade officers performance, health, and safety. Evidence from many different sources points to high levels of fatigue among patrol officers in the United Statesand there is no contrary evidence. No harm is likely to come from anyofthesuggestionsmadeinthisarticleand,basedonwhatweknowwith good confidence about the effects of sleep loss and disruption on people, muchgoodcanbedone.Policeprofessionalsandresearchersneedtowork togethertominimizethethreatthatfatigueposestoourcommunitiesandto ourofficersjustaswehavedevelopedstandardsandproceduresforother complexproblemslikevehiclepursuits,theuseofdeadlyforce,anddomestic violence. Manyofthechangesrequiredtomanagepolicefatiguewillbedifficult. Forexample,wewillhavetoacknowledgethat,contrarytothemachoculture that pervades policing, officers cannot overcome the effects of fatigue andsleepdeprivationthroughmotivation,discipline,orforceofwill.Managingfatigueandalertnessalsowillmeanmakinghardchoicesaboutstaffingpoliceagencies.Atthesametime,whendepartmentsacrosstheUnited States are expanding their role in the community and struggling to counter terrorist threats, economic pressures and demographics are making it increasingly difficult to recruit qualified officers. Agencies that attempt to constrain overtime in the face of expanding demands for service and a20 POLICE QUARTERLY (Vol. 5, No. 1, March 2002)contracting labor force will have to use their officers more efficiently and makethejobmoreattractive.Butthepay-offformanagingthesechallenges successfully will be safer, healthier, and more competent officers and, as a consequence, safer and healthier communities.

4- Usage of modern techniques (crime mapping technologies)

CRIME MAPPING:-What is crime mapping?Most crimes and incidents have an inherently geographicalquality. Understanding why a crime or an incidenthappens where it does can offer vital intelligence thatcontributes to improving responses to crime/incidentproblems. This geographical quality of crime/incidentsalso extends to, Identifying where offenders and victims live Analysing how offenders have travelled to thecrime/incident location Identifying emerging neighbourhood issues Profiling the characteristics of areas and howthese contribute to the causes of crime/incidents Identifying why crime/incidents may have occurredin one location and not anotherCrime mapping can support a number of policingfunctions. These include, Responding to calls for service Collecting data at crime locations Targeting responses and deploying patrols Analysis and the generation of intelligenceproducts Information sharing with partnerships Reassuring the public.The use of crime mapping is also supporting newpolicing functions such as neighbourhood policing andperformance review.-Putting it on the map?When a crime/incident is reported, the address orlocation details of the crime/incident are recorded.This may sound like a simple process but if the addressor location details are not recorded in a standard wayit can create many future problems that affect how crimemapping can be used.For a crime/incident to appear on a computer map itrequires the crime/incident record to be assignedgeographical grid coordinates a process known asgeocoding. These coordinates are based on the addressor location of the crime/incident.Levels of geocoding vary by police force, from 25% to100%. That is, some forces can only view 25% of theircrime data on a map. Very few police forces currentlyachieve high geocoding levels. This means that manypolice forces often present an incomplete picture of crimein their computer mapping systems, restricting howcrime mapping can be used across the police service.Regardless of the size of the police force, ensuring thataddress and location data for crime records are of goodquality relies on the same basic principles.When Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary began mappingcrime data they realised that a large number of theircrime records were being geocoded into the Irish Sea!In a drive to improve the efficiency and accuracy ofcapturing information, Dumfries and Galloway integratedGIS and a comprehensive gazetteer of property and nonaddressablelocations (e.g. car parks and other areasof open space) into their recording system. This hasmeant that the capture of address and location data ofwhere crimes happen has significantly improved; The quality of recording the address/location detailsof crimes is now extremely precise and accurate geocoding hit rates have reached 100% The process for capturing address/location detailsof crimes is quicker The cost of ensuring data is of adequate quality andmaking amendments is much now reduced (DataCleaning)Using this approach, Dumfries and Galloway estimatecost savings of over 70% in comparison to their oldapproach of address data capture.Several other police forces such as Hertfordshire havemade a similar investment in the gazetteer that is usedin all their information systems. Hertfordshire employ adedicated team of three staff to maintain the gazetteer,populating it with new records when they are required,including sourcing from their local authorities theaddresses of new building developments. This meansthat nearly 100% of their crime records possess ageographic grid coordinate.

-How can I use crime mapping?

1. Using crime mapping forresponding to incidentsPin pointing the location of an incident and ensuring that it is identified with minimal ambiguity is vital for a quick and direct response. Many police forces use gazetteers that are integrated into their mapping systems to search for and view the location of an incident when a call comes in to their command and control centre. Several police forces utilise Global Positioning Systems(GPS) to provide a real-time link to the command centreto show the location and details of response teams thatare on patrol.The use of mobile computing technology also helps policeforces and their partners organise responses to incidents.In North London an alliance between the MetropolitanPolice and its CDRP partners in Enfield, Haringey, Barnetand Waltham Forest uses mobile GIS technology for theaccurate and timely capture of environmental crime data(e.g. fly tipping, abandoned vehicles, graffiti). Not onlydoes the use of the technology help to improve thequality of data that is captured, but the data are collectedmore quickly enabling response times to be much morerapid. In the case of abandoned vehicles the responsetime to remove these vehicles has improved from fourdays to a matter of hours. This enables community safetypartner response teams to recover these vehicles beforethey may become burnt out, reducing the recovery costfrom 5000 to just 30.2. Using crime mapping to generateintelligence productsCrime mapping forms an integral subset of analysis.Crime mapping plays a useful role in not only helpingto visualise the geographic patterns of crime throughthe use of hotspot maps, but in being used as a moreintegral tool in analysis by helping to understand whycrime happens. It can play a role in a broad range ofintelligence functions from the more immediate bysupporting operational requirements to the strategiclevel, by identifying areas that need a more consideredresponse.A. Integrating intelligenceLancashire Constabulary is finding that crime mappingis useful for helping to link their disparate datasetstogether (such as crimes, incidents, stop and search, andyouth referral data) by using the common geographictheme that is held in data records on their informationsystems (i.e. all records are referenced to a place).As a result, Lancashire is not simply using crime mappingas a final step to produce a map for a report, but isusing crime mapping as an integral tool for visualising,interacting, exploring and understanding crime.Lancashire is finding crime mapping techniques to beuseful tools to drill down into areas to identify problemsthat are not constrained by artificial geographic administrativeboundaries around which resources would typicallybe allocated. Their use of crime mapping allows them toexplore crime at a level that helps get into the specificsof crime problems and breakdown the mechanisms thatinitially created the problem.Making crime mapping more integral to analysis hasmade our intelligence products more innovativeSenior Analyst Mark Dallison, Lancashire Constabulary.B. Tactical analysisAn example of one particular tool that supports tacticaland investigative analysis is the West Midlands PolicesForce Linked Intelligence System (FLINTS). FLINTS is adynamic crime fighting tool that incorporates GIS technologyto help combine and present data about peopleand places. The data held on FLINTS is up-to-date andpresented in a user friendly environment to allow quickretrieval. For example, data from a range of informationsystems can be easily searched by names, addresses,vehicles and telephone numbers, and combined inseconds to produce immediate analyses of crime trendsand links between people. All of these data can bevisualised on crime maps.FLINTS gives officers the ability to build a graphicpattern of links between crimes and criminals whichwere previously thought to have no connection. It cansearch the whole of the West Midlands square metreby square metre to identify crime hotspots and caneven tell officers who is likely to have been committingcertain crimes. Discovering these links has resulted inthousands of hours saved, and hundreds of crimessolved and criminals convicted.ACC Nick Tofiluk, West Midlands Police.Information sharing andpartnership workingPolice forces and their local CDRP partners are makinguse of GIS-based information sharing systems to supporttheir core business service roles. Partnership systemssuch as Amethyst (Devon and Cornwall), CADDIE(Sussex), COSMOS (Birmingham), GMAC (GreaterManchester), JUPITER (East Midlands GO region) andNERISS (North East GO region) use crime mapping asa fundamental tool to support the following businessfunctions, Delivering timely management performancereporting information Operating a scanning facility to identify communitysafety problems. This scanning role also includesidentifying and allowing easy access to data that isfit for purpose to begin a detailed problem analysis Analysis of crime and community safety problemsin a multi-agency environment Providing the public with facts and reassuranceabout community safety.6. New developments incrime mappingCrime mapping is a continually evolving field. Theseexamples describe new and developing uses of crimemapping; Catching serial offenders: a technique known asgeographic profiling has been used by the SeriousCrime and Analysis Section at NCOF for a numberof years to support investigations on serious serialcrimes. Geographic profiling is an investigativemethodology that uses the locations of a connectedseries of crimes to determine the most probable areawhere an offender lives. Its application is also beingexplored for other serial crimes such as distractionburglary and robbery. Prospective crime mapping: Existing methods ofpredicting and mapping the future locations of crimeare intrinsically retrospective. Recent research demonstratesthat the risk of burglary is communicable.By using this understanding of burglary, new mappingtechniques have been developed and pilot testedto reveal that a prospective mapping approach ismore accurate in predicting future burglary hotspotsthan existing hotspot mapping techniques. Mapping street crime risk: A study in Westminsterexplored patterns in the risk of robbery and theftsnatch by using new techniques that modelpedestrian traffic to generate accurate counts ofpedestrians at the street level. Combining pedestriancounts with street crime data identifies areaswhere the likely risk of being a victim of robbery ortheft snatch is high. The analysis has helped tounderstand that the street crime responses to anarea of high crime volume and high risk requiredifferent attention and design to those responsesrequired in areas of high crime volume and lowrisk, and low crime volume but high risk.

How do I make full use ofcrime mapping?The guide has described how crime mapping can supportpolicing, intelligence development and performanceimprovement. To take advantage of the benefits offeredfrom crime mapping requires certain principles to bein place.Most police forces and constabularies already possessthe core infrastructure for crime mapping. It involvesfour elements; hardware; software; data; and properlytrained people; GIS software can already be found in all policeforces in England and Wales and most police ITsystems are adequate to run desktop GIS software.Depending on the existing infrastructure, someinvestment in technology and software is usuallyrequired to take advantage of web-based andmobile GIS Police records need to contain good qualitygeographic grid coordinates All police forces have a licence to use OrdnanceSurvey mapping and address data, and Census dataand Neighbourhood Statistics are free to downloadfrom the internet. Many other forms of data can besourced through local partnerships Analysts and other key staff need to have the skillsto maximise its use.The guide describes a number of actions at the end ofeach section that can be used as tips to help developcrime mapping. At present there is no single nationalfacility or single contact whose role is to directly supportand provide advice on how to develop crime mapping.This requirement is currently under review. A number ofcontacts are provided at the back of this guide and whoare available to provide advice. We encourage you touse these contacts. The following recommendations dohowever identify how forces and constabularies can beginto improve their use and develop crime mapping; Recommendation 1: Champion crime mapping at the senior level: Each force/constabulary shouldidentify a senior officer to actively champion andlead on the development of crime mapping Recommendation 2: Create a geographic datamanagement and support team: Create a centralteam responsible for gazetteer maintenance, geographicaldata management (including the managementof data sourced from CDRP partners), analysissupport and servicing specific mapping requests.Organisations such as the Jill Dando Institute ofCrime Science at University College London canprovide advice on how to create this team Recommendation 3: Maintain high levels ofgeographic data quality: Implement systems andprocesses that ensure that data held on policeinformation systems is geocoded to levels that arefit for purpose for geographical analysis. This not onlyincludes crime records, but also data on incidents,offenders, victims, and stop and search. PITO,Ordnance Survey and organisations such as the JillDando Institute of Crime Science can provideadvice on how to achieve and maintain high levelsof geographical data quality Recommendation 4: Develop skills in crimemapping: Invest in a training programme that willdevelop analysts skills specifically in geographicalcrime analysis. Training should also be available toall decision-makers to raise their awareness of crimemappings potential. This training and awarenessraising should be directed to ensure, The better integration of crime mapping into thegeneration of intelligence products, makinggeographical crime analysis a core theme inanalytical techniques That GIS technology is taken advantage of tosupport policing services, such as supportingresponses to incidents, problem-analysis,performance review, reassurance, neighbourhoodpolicing and partnership working.NCPE can provide some advice on the content requirementsof these training courses. Organisations such asthe Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science and GIS softwareproviders can provide dedicated crime mapping training and consultancy support.Some screen shots from crime mapping guide( Crown copyright 2005. Published by Home Office, Communications Directorate, April 2005. 100018368)

References:1- EASTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF POLICE STAFF AND COMMANDSgt. Tina L. Alexander Southfield Police Department Southfield, MI2- IMPROVING SHIFT SCHEDULE AND WORK-HOUR POLICIES AND PRACTICES TO INCREASE POLICE OFFICER PERFORMANCE, HEALTH, AND SAFETYBRYAN VILA University of Wyoming GREGORY B. MORRISON Ball State University DENNIS J. KENNEY John Jay College of Criminal Justice3-Police operations chapter 44-Crime Mapping: Improving Performance A good practice guide for front line officers5- Management of Stress and Coping Behaviour of Police Personnel through Indian Psychological Techniques Randhir Singh Ranta Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla6-www.Academia.edu