Rescue and handling of Antillean manatees Trichechus manatus manatus in Venezuela 1992–2014

Int. Zoo Yb. (2016) 50: 1–10DOI:10.1111/izy.12109

Rescue and handling of Antillean manateesTrichechus manatus manatus in Venezuela1992–2014

E. O. BOEDE1 & E. MUJICA-JORQUERA2

1Fundaci�on para el Desarrollo de las Ciencias F�ısicas, Matem�aticas y Naturales, FUDECI,Palacios de las Academias, Edf. anexo. Av. Universidad Esquina La Bolsa, Caracas, Vene-zuela, and 2Asociaci�on Venezolana de Parques Zool�ogicos y Acuarios, AVZA, Urb. La Vi~naCalle Berm�udez # 142-60, Valencia, VenezuelaE-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Given the importance of the rescue and rehabilitationof confiscated manatees from illegal traffic or acciden-tal fishery entanglements, the handling and transport oftwo Antillean manatees Trichechus manatus manatusin the ‘Llanos’ of Apure state in Venezuela isdescribed. In 1992, two ♀ calves were confiscated inthe region of Arichuna in the Apure River and trans-ported to a lagoon at the Fondo Nacional de Investiga-ciones Agropecuarias, Biruaca, for rehabilitation. Dataabout age, size, weight and haematological values wererecorded. In 1994, one of the manatees was transferredto the Parque Zoologico y Botanico Bararida, Bar-quisimeto, in order to form a breeding pair and start acaptive-breeding programme. Successful reproductionwas achieved in 2007, 2011 and 2013. In 1995, thesecond ♀ Antillean manatee was released into a naturalenvironment in Santa Luisa Cattle Ranch, Apure state.The confiscation, rescue, rehabilitation and transport(by land and air) of these two ♀ Antillean manateeswere carried out satisfactorily.

Key-words: captive breeding; capture; confiscation;haematology; manatee; rehabilitation; transport.

INTRODUCTION

The Antillean manatee Trichechus manatusmanatus is Red Listed as Endangered by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nat-ure (IUCN, 2015), and in Venezuela, it is reg-istered as a species under a ‘hunting ban’ andin ‘danger of extinction’, according to Ordi-nances 1485 and 1486 (Gaceta Official No.36.059: Ejecutivo Nacional, 1996a,b). TheRed Book of Venezuelan Wildlife cataloguesthe Antillean manatee as ‘critically endan-

gered’ (Ojasti & Lacabana, 2008; Castel-blanco-Mart�ınez et al., 2012). The wildpopulation of the species is distributed in thetributaries of rivers in lower and middle Ori-noco, also in rivers of the eastern Atlanticcoast, the Orinoco Delta and to the west inthe Maracaibo Lake (Mondolfi, 1974, 1995;Mondolfi & M€uller, 1979; O’Shea et al.,1988; Correa-Viana, 1995; Linares, 1998;Castelblanco-Mart�ınez et al., 2005; Man-zanilla-Fuentes, 2007; Hoyt, 2011; RivasRodr�ıguez et al., 2012; Rodulfo, 2012).The first live Antillean manatee to be res-

cued and handled in Venezuela was a calfcaught in 1985 in the Portuguesa River andtransported to Acuario de Valencia (Boede& Mujica, 1995; Mart�ınez, 1995).In February 1992, the National Guard

and the Autonomous Service of Wild Fauna(Profauna) of the Ministerio del Ambientey de los Recursos Naturales Renovables(MARNR: Ministry of Environment andRenewable Natural Resources) confiscatedtwo ♀ Antillean manatee calves from localfishermen in the Arichuna region of theApure River (Plate 1). These manateeswere transported to Fondo Nacional deInvestigaciones Agropecuarias (FONAIAP:National Fish and Agricultural ResearchCenter), Biruaca, Apure state, for rehabilita-tion (Boede & Mujica, 1995; Bola~nos &Boher-Benti, 1995; Correa-Viana, 1995;

Int. Zoo Yb. (2016) 50: 1–10 © 2016 The Zoological Society of London

VENEZUELA: RESCUE AND REHABILITIATION OF MANATEES 1

Boede et al., 2013). In the past, the Ari-chuna region was an area of high popula-tion densities of this species, but theindiscriminate and careless historicalhunting and exploitation of the Antilleanmanatee as a source of meat, fat and skindrastically decimated the population (R€ohl,1956; von Humboldt, 1959; Mondolfi &M€uller, 1979; O’Shea et al., 1988; Mon-dolfi, 1995; Royero, 1995; Linares, 1998;Ojasti & Lacabana, 2008).

In January 1994, Antillean manatee (A),a ♀ called ‘Biruaca’, was transferred to theParque Zoologico y Botanico Bararida(PZBB), Barquisimeto, Lara state, Vene-zuela, in order to form a breeding pair witha ♂ that had been confiscated from Mara-caibo Lake in September 1992. In 1995,the second ♀ Antillean manatee (B), called‘Arichuna’, was transferred and released inthe Arauca River Basin at Santa LuisaCattle Ranch (Boede, 2012).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Just after they were confiscated in 1992,both ♀ manatees (A and B) were measured,

sexed and blood samples were taken(Tables 1 and 2). Female B’s blood samplehaemolysed so for 1992 there were noblood-chemistry data recorded for thismanatee. No blood samples were collectedin 1994 when morphometric measurementswere taken for both ♀♀. In 1995, anotherblood sample was obtained from ♀ B andanalysed (Table 2). These ♀♀ were kept atFONAIAP, in a 200 m2 lagoon and fedad libitum with the grass Paspalum fascicu-latum and, occasionally, with Water hya-cinth Eichhornia crassipes. According tothe techniques described by White & Fran-cis-Floyd (1990) and Stamper & Bonde(2012), blood sampling was carried outusing a 5 ml syringe with a 37 mm-long 19gauge needle, inserted into the medial sideof the pectoral flipper reaching the brachialvascular plexus (Plate 2). Blood was keptin two test tubes, one with and one withoutethylenedinitrilotetra acetic acid (EDTA)anticoagulant, refrigerated in ice and evalu-ated (Wallach & Boever, 1983; Bossartet al., 2001; Vanoye Lara, 2002; Kahn,2005; Menezes de Oliveira, 2008; Harveyet al., 2009; Stamper & Bonde, 2012).

Plate 1. Handling a rescued Antillean manatee Trichechus manatus manatus, February 1992. E. O. Boede &E. Mujica-Jorquera.


2 THE DEVELOPING ZOO WORLD

Given the basic conditions at FONAIAP,where there was no water-exchange system,limited food supply and a lack of suitablestaff, Profauna-MARNR decided to transferthe manatees to better environments.Female A was transferred to PZBB after2 years and ♀ B was released into a naturalenvironment after 3 years.

In January 1994, when it was coolest at0700 hours, the ♀ Antillean manatees wereeach captured with a fishing net. They wereweighed using a stretcher on scales(200 kg) and various measurements weretaken, including straight-line total length(TL), distance from the tip of the snout tothe posterior edge of the tail fluke and dis-tance from the genital opening to theumbilicus and to the anus (for sexing)(Table 1) (White & Francis-Floyd, 1990;Reynolds & Odell, 1991; Bossart, 2001;Vanoye Lara, 2002; Reisfeld et al., 2010;Stamper & Bonde, 2012; Caribbean Strand-ing Network, undated).

Transfers

Female A was transported by pick-up truckto the San Fernando de Apure Airport,8 km away, and later to the BarquisimetoAirport by a Super Puma helicopter belong-ing to the Venezuelan Air Force. The Antil-lean manatee was placed in a plywoodtransport box, measuring 190 cm 9 90 cm9 60 cm wide, waterproofed on the insidewith fibreglass. The animal was placed in a

ventral–dorsal position, with the flippersclose to its body, on a 20 cm-thick foammattress, and its body was covered with ablanket exposing the face. The blanket andmattress were soaked with aqueduct potablefresh water and sprayed every 15 minutes,in order to prevent drying and overheating,using the same technique describe byJoseph et al. (1990) and Bossart (2001). Toavoid low temperatures and hypothermia,the 319 km journey took 1 hour flying at a

MEASUREMENTS

1992 1994

MANATEE A MANATEE B MANATEE A MANATEE B

Total length (straight-line tipof the snout to posterior edgeof the tail fluke) (cm)

170 187 178 200

Weight (kg) 80 119Base circle of the tail fluke (cm) 67 74Genital opening to anus (cm) 6 8Genital opening to umbilicus (cm) 35 37 40 43Approximate age (years) 1�5 1�5–2 3�5 4

Table 1. Morphometric measurements for two ♀ Antillean manatees Trichechus manatus manatus: Manatee A.‘Biruaca’; Manatee B. ‘Arichuna’.

VALUES1992 1995MANATEE A MANATEE B

HAEMATOLOGYHaemoglobin 14 g dl�1 9�9 g dl�1

Haematocrit 37% 30%MCHC 37�8 g dl�1 33 g dl�1

Leucocytes 18 800 mm�3 6300 mm�3

Neutrophils mm3/% 5600/30% 3780/60%Lymphocytes mm3/% 10 716/57% 2205/35%Eosinophils mm3/% 2256/12% 0�315/5%Monocytes mm3/% 0�188/1% 0/0%Basophils mm3/% 0/0% 0/0%

BLOOD CHEMISTRYGlucose 57 mg dl�1

Blood urea nitrogen 20 mg dl�1

Creatinine 1�2 mg dl�1

Uric acid 5�4 mg dl�1

Total proteins 7�7 g dl�1

Table 2. Haematology and blood-chemistry valuesfor two ♀ Antillean manatees Trichechus manatusmanatus: Manatee A. ‘Biruaca’; Manatee B.‘Arichuna’; MCHC. mean cell haemoglobinconcentration.



low elevation of 800 m a.s.l. and an aver-age temperature of 26°C. The manatee’srespiratory rate (RR) was monitored con-stantly, and no antibiotics or corticosteroidswere administered (Sandoval-Bavaresco,2000; Antrim & McBain, 2001; VanoyeLara, 2002; Reisfeld et al., 2010; Wonget al., 2012). From Barquisimeto Airport,the ♀ manatee was transferred in a coveredpick-up truck to the PZBB c. 9�2 km away.Once at PZBB, which has no quarantinefacilities for this species, the ♀ Antilleanmanatee was placed in the exhibition tank,next to the resident ♂ but separated by agrille. After a month of getting used toeach other, the ♂ and ♀ were allowed toinhabit the tank together, without furtherseparation. No problems or incidents wererecorded when introducing these twomanatees.

In February 1995, ♀ B was transferred toSanta Luisa Cattle Ranch, located 12�8 kmsouth of FONAIAP, into a natural environ-ment with a small river and calm waters. Aprovisional area was fenced off to complywith the quarantine regulations and to allowthe manatee to adapt to its new location.Female B remained in the partitioned areafor 1 month before she was released intothe open river system. The techniques usedfor capture, blood sampling (Table 2) and

transport were carried out following thesame methodology as before. Once ♀ Bwas released, she was not monitoredbecause there were no radiotelemetry facili-ties available at that time.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The growth rates recorded at FONAIAP for♀ A and ♀ B over 23 months were 8 cmand 13 cm, respectively (Table 1). In Mex-ico, Vanoye Lara (2002) reported a growthrate of 30 cm per year for a ♀ calf of thesame subspecies in captivity. Data providedby C. Silva (unpubl. data) revealed that ♀A grew in length by 52 cm after 14 monthsin the more favourable environment offeredat PZBB, indicating a significant improve-ment in nutrition and recovery of health. Infact, after only 6 months, ♀ A had gained40�7 kg, reaching a total weight of120�7 kg (C. Silva, unpubl. data). There-fore, the decision to transfer the rescuedAntillean manatees from FONAIAP tomore suitable locations was the correct one.Sexing was achieved by measuring the

distance between the genital opening andthe anus and umbilicus, respectively(Table 1). In ♀♀, the distance from thegenital opening to the anus is very short,when compared with the distance to theumbilicus (White & Francis-Floyd, 1990;Reynolds & Odell, 1991; Menezes deOliveira, 2008).

Haematology: Female A

The leucocyte values for ♀ A reflect slightleucocytosis (Tables 2 and 3), when com-pared with the white blood cell counts ofan Antillean manatee kept in captivity,which had a reference range of 4200–14 800 mm�3 (C. Bonar, unpubl. data),manatee calves in captivity with values of3000–14 600 mm�3 (Menezes de Oliveira,2008), and reports from captive Floridamanatees Trichechus manatus latirostris ofup to 14 200 mm�3 and up to 13 500 mm�3

in Florida manatees in the wild (Harveyet al., 2009). There have been other reports

Plate 2. Blood collection (for analyses) on the med-ial side of the pectoral flipper of a rescued Antilleanmanatee Trichechus manatus manatus calf. E. O.Boede & E. Mujica-Jorquera.



on leucocyte levels that range from 8000 to10 600 mm�3 for captive manatees (Wal-lach & Boever, 1983; Medway & Geraci,1986), as well as leucocyte levels up to13 970 mm�3 in a captive Antillean mana-tee calf (Vanoye Lara, 2002) and up to11 000 mm�3 in an Amazonian manateeTrichechus inunguis undergoing a transport(Reisfeld et al., 2010). Leukocytosis is con-sidered severe in manatees when the valuesare around 25 000 mm�3, and at thoselevels, it is very important to monitorchanges in the count differential of leuco-cytes (Bossart et al., 2001). The relativevalues of lymphocytes and eosinophilsreported for ♀ A and ♀ B are about averagefor those reported for captive healthy adultmanatees (Wallach & Boever, 1983; Med-way & Geraci, 1986). The absolute valuesof lymphocytes for ♀ A (10 716/57%), justafter confiscation in stressful conditions, areabove the top range, when compared withthe values reported by C. Bonart (unpubl.data: 900–10 200 mm3), Bossart et al.(2001: 960–8 560 mm3) and Reisfeld et al.(2010: 2200–5200 mm3). The absolute val-ues of eosinophils for ♀ A in 1992 showover the top range of 56–804 mm3 reportedby C. Bonart (unpublished data) and300–600 mm3 reported by Reisfeld et al.(2010). The manatees present a highernumber of circulating lymphocytes whencompared with cetaceans, but the eosino-phils in the blood are not clearly differenti-ated from the neutrophils, when consideringroutine coloration (Bossart et al., 2001).Harvey et al. (2009) report that youngmanatees have a tendency to show greatervalues of leucocytes, lymphocytes andmonocytes than adults and that in somemanatees, the values of basophils might below. Adverse factors, such as capture andhandling for transport, produce high levelsof temporary stress, increasing the gluco-corticoids and catecholamines, which causea transitory leukocytosis with neutrophilia,monocytosis and lymphocytosis, affectingthe number of circulating leucocytes,thereby increasing the values of these. Inchronic stress conditions, the lymphocytes

proliferate and become active (Fowler,1986; Bossart et al., 2001; St. Aubin &Dierauf, 2001; Vanoye Lara, 2002; Harveyet al., 2009; Reisfeld et al., 2010). Eosino-phils generally increase when there is aparasitic infection, although the function ofthis is not fully understood in mammals(Bossart et al., 2001). As recommended byStamper & Bonde (2012), caution shouldbe used when comparing values generatedby different methods, and proper interpreta-tion of the values should always be basedon experience. No tests were carried out onthe faeces of ♀ A.

Haematology: Female B

The haematological values show that thehaemoglobin is slightly below the averageof the values reported by Medway &Geraci (1986: 14�5 g dl�1) and Wallach &Boever (1983: 14�5 g dl�1) but within therange of 8�1–14�4 g dl�1 reported byVanoye Lara (2002) and C. Bonar (unpubl.data), and of 7�3–18�2 g dl�1 reported byMenezes de Oliveira (2008) (Tables 2 and3). Leucocytes values are within the normalrange when compared with average valuesreported for captive manatees and those inthe wild by Wallach & Boever (1983:9300 mm�3), Medway & Geraci (1986:8800 mm�3), Menezes de Oliveira (2008:5980 mm�3), Harvey et al. (2009:6640 mm�3) and C. Bonar (unpubl. data:8592 mm�3). The neutrophils, lympho-cytes, eosinophils, basophils, monocytesand the values of blood chemistry are alsowithin the normal range of absolute valuesaccording to Reisfeld et al. (2010) and C.Bonar (unpubl. data). Vanoye Lara (2002)reports that glucose values have a widerange and vary with each manatee, andbroad ranges (from 20 to 179 mg dl�1)have been reported, depending on age, sex,feeding and handling (Menezes de Oliveira,2008; C. Bonar, unpubl. data). Uric acidvalues are unstable and present seasonalvariations in manatees, with reports ofranges in young captive manatees of 0�5–2�2 mg dl�1 (Menezes de Oliveira, 2008;



C. Bonar, unpubl. data). No tests were car-ried out on the faeces of the Antilleanmanatee ♀ B.

Physical assessment during transport

During land and air transport, ♀ A and ♀ Bremained calm throughout. The transport ofSirenia is less complex than that of ceta-ceans and Pinnipedia because they are ableto tolerate warmer temperatures. Manateescan be transported out of water, both byland and by air, with controlled tempera-tures ranging between 17 and 23°C (Josephet al., 1990; Sandoval-Bavaresco, 2000;Antrim & McBain, 2001; Vanoye Lara,2002; Reisfeld et al., 2010). The manateesmust be kept moist and in the shade, withenvironmental temperatures ranging from22 to 26°C. Spraying their bodies withfresh water avoids skin dryness and increas-ing body temperatures: in manatees, bodytemperature tends to be between 34 and36°C (Sandoval-Bavaresco, 2000; VanoyeLara, 2002; Stamper & Bonde, 2012; Wonget al., 2012).

During transport, the out-of-water respi-ratory rates of ♀ A and ♀ B were monitoredconstantly and recorded at an average ofaround one breath every 2–4 minutes. The

normal respiratory rate range for manateesbeing transported and handled averages onebreath per 2–3 minutes (Reynolds & Odell,1991). An out-of-water respiratory rate ofone breath per 2–3 minutes has beenrecorded in two adult Antillean manateestransported by air from the ZoologicoMetropolitano del Zulia, Maracaibo, Vene-zuela, to the Dallas World Aquarium, TX,USA (Sandoval-Bavaresco, 2000; Boedeet al., 2013). An out-of-water respiratoryrate of one breath per 3–5 minutes has beenrecorded in 2 year-old Antillean manateecalves during capture and handling, and anaverage of 5�4 breaths per 5 minutes inadults (Vanoye Lara, 2002; Wong et al.,2012). In the wild, manatees normallysurface to breathe every 5 minutes, but in-water respiratory rates in adult Antilleanmanatees in the Orinoco River have beenrecorded as one breath per 10–21 minutes(Castelblanco-Mart�ınez, 2004; RivasRodr�ıguez et al., 2012), although these maybe resting animals. Active and/or smallermanatees breathe more frequently (Rey-nolds & Odell, 1991).

Breeding

Acclimatizing ♀ A to her new enclosureand with the resident ♂ at PZBB occurredwithout incident. Female A was housed inthe same tank as the resident ♂ for amonth, although separated by a grille, toallow the manatees to become accustomedto each other. Once the grille was removedthe pair adapted well to the enclosure.Female A started to breed 13 years later,giving birth to a ♂ on 2 September 2007, a♀ on 13 October 2011 and a ♂ on 3December 2013, with interbirth intervals of4�2 and 2�2 years, respectively (Boede,2012; Ovalle & Silva, 2013) (Plate 3).Mean age of first reproduction in ♀♀ inFlorida has been reported as 5 years, withan average age of sexual maturity of3�2 years (Rathbun et al., 1995; Reynolds,1999). Interbirth intervals of 2�5–5 yearshave been recorded in other manatees(Rathbun et al., 1995; Reynolds, 1999;

REFERENCEVALUES n MALES (n = 3); FEMALES (n = 4)

HAEMATOLOGYHaemoglobin 96 11�39/7�30–18�20 g dl�1

Haematocrit 97 41�17/23�40–86�60%MCHC 96 28�77/13�10–37�69 g dl�1

Leucocytes 97 6260/3000–14 600 mm�3

BLOOD CHEMISTRYGlucose 69 57�49/30�00–133�00 mg dl�1

Blood ureanitrogen

64 17�76/3�00–47�00 mg dl�1

Creatinine 67 1�91/0�50–3�90 mg dl�1

Uric acid 58 0�98/0�40–2�60 mg dl�1

Total proteins 76 4�34/2�20–8�20 g dl�1

Table 3. Haematology and blood-chemistry valuesfor orphaned Antillean manatee Trichechus manatusmanatus calves (Menezes de Oliveira, 2008):MCHC. mean cell haemoglobin concentration.



Weber-Rosas & Pimentel, 2001). The birththat occurred in 2007 represented the firstAntillean manatee born at any zoologicalfacility in the region of the Orinoco Riverbasin and the Caribbean coast of SouthAmerica. In 2011, an Antillean manateewas born at Barranquilla Zoo, Colombia;however, this neonate did not survive (D.Wehdeking, pers. comm.). In Brasil, at theCentro Mam�ıferos Aqu�aticos (CMA) of theInstituto Chico Mendes de Conservac~ao daBiodiversidade (ICMBio), Antillean mana-tees from the eastern Atlantic Coast arebred (Menezes de Oliveira, 2008).

Ex situ activities can improve the demo-graphic and/or genetic viability of a wildpopulation by ameliorating the impacts ofprimary threats on the population. Smallpopulations that are vulnerable to primarythreats and stochastic processes mayrequire some form of intensive manage-ment of individuals and populations, toimprove demographic and genetic viabilityand avoid extinction (IUCN/SSC, 2014).The 2005 World Zoo and Aquarium Con-servation Strategy describes strategies forextending viability, including increasingbreeding spaces, expanding from regionalto global programmes, increasing the

intensity of genetic management, improv-ing care practices through research andimporting founders from the wild or otherregions (WAZA, 2005). Population man-agement involves demographic manage-ment (e.g. age, sex, social structure andcontrolled population numbers), geneticmanagement, veterinary care and hus-bandry. Genetic management involvesverifying taxonomic identity and avoidingthe deleterious effects of inbreeding andloss of genetic diversity.At the time of writing, seven Antillean

manatees are maintained at two Venezuelanzoos: an adult pair with their three offspringat PZBB and an adult ♂ and young ♀ atZoologico Metropolitano del Zulia (Boedeet al., 2013).

CONCLUSIONS

Using the techniques and methodsdescribed by other authors, the confisca-tion, rescue, rehabilitation and transport(by land and air) of two ♀ Antillean mana-tees were all accomplished without seriouscomplications. The haematological assess-ment from blood taken from the two ♀Antillean manatees just after confiscation

Plate 3. Breeding pair of Antillean manatees Trichechus manatus manatus with calves at Parque Zoologico yBotanico Bararida, Barquisimeto, Venezuela, in October 2013. Note that the ♀ manatee on the right of pho-tograph is pregnant, although visual diagnosis of late pregnancy is relatively difficult (Rathbun et al., 1995).E. O. Boede.



and just before relocation provided impor-tant baseline data about these individualsduring handling and while under stressfulconditions. This made it possible to dis-count any physiological problems or ill-ness during the process of capture,transport and rehabilitation. Monitoringrespiratory rate of both manatees duringtransport, a time at which the manateeswere out of water and on the move,revealed that they both took approximatelyone breath every 2–4 minutes.

Based on these two individuals and ifappropriate conditions are provided, growthrates (length increase) for manatees in zoo-logical institutions could be around 52 cmover a 14 month period, and body masscould increase by approximately 40 kg over5 months. The management experienceswith manatees at PZBB over 22 yearsresulted in successful reproduction 13 yearsafter the arrival of a suitable ♀ to be pairedwith the resident ♂. Three births occurredbetween 2007 and 2013, with interbirthintervals of 4�2 and 2�2 years. Even withthe recent birthing success, it is essentialthat the manatee exhibit at PZBB beimproved, including the addition of a filtra-tion system to maintain recirculation andimprove water quality, as well as provideaccess to fresh water.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe thank the former Servicio Aut�onomo de FaunaPROFAUNA-MARNR and Jos�e Manuel Pernalete,who organized the transport to Parque Zoologico yBotanico Bararida; Lu�ıs A~nez, Christopher Bonar, Leo-nel Ovalles, Carlos Silva, Edgard Yerena and DaveWehdeking for providing valuable references and data;Nancy de Boede and Omar Hern�andez for the revision,and Karina Boede for the English translation of thedraft.

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Manuscript submitted 16 April 2014;revised 14 September 2015; accepted 11November 2015



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Rescue and handling of Antillean manatees Trichechus manatus manatus in Venezuela 1992–2014

Environment

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