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EDUSEARCH(Bi-annual & Bi-lingual)

JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Volume 3 Number 2 October 2012

ISSN : 0976 - 1160

RESEARCHERS ORGANIZATIONBILASPUR (C.G.)

Flat - H/2, Vaishali Nagar, Ward-13, Bilaspur. (C.G.) Pin 495001

(Regd. No. 13554/11)

EDUSEARCHREGIONAL EDUCATIONAL EXPERTS/COORDINATORS

ANDHRA PRADESH : Dr. Avvaru Ramakrishna : Professor, IASE, OsmaniaUniversity Hyderabad. A.P. Mob. 9849036025e-mail : [email protected]

ASSAM : Dr. Geetika Bagchi Head & Associate Professor, Asssam University,Dorgakona, Silchar. Assam. 788011 Mob. 9435176394e-mail : [email protected]

DELHI : Dr. B. K. Panda Associate Prof, NUEPA, NCERT Campus, New Delhi.Mob. 981069829. e-mail : [email protected]

GUJARAT : Dr. Satish P. Pathak Reader, CASE, M.S. University, Baroda. Vadodara.Gujarat Mob. 9925270529e-mail : [email protected]

HARYANA : Dr. Raj Kumar Yadav, Principal, Rao Abhay Singh College ofEducation, Saharanwas, Rewari. Haryana Mob. 9896684901e-mail : [email protected]

JAMMU-KASHMIR : Dr. Surinder Kumar Sharma, Research Officer, StateInstitute of Education, Jammu. (JK) Mob. 9419655969e-mail [email protected]

JHARKHAND : Mrs. Vjiay Sharma, Reader, Loyola College of Education. TELCO,Jamshedpur. Mob. 9430381718. e-mail : [email protected]

KERALA : Dr. M.S. Geetha Principal, Govt. College of Education Thalassery,Distt. Kunnur. Kerala Mob. 9496257892e-mail : [email protected]

MADHYA PRADESH : Dr. Arun Prakash Pandey, Professor,Govt. College ofEducation, Ujjain. M.P. Mob. 9425380540e-mail : [email protected]

MAHARASHTRA : Dr. Suhas R. Patil, Principal, Govt. Secondary TrainingCollege, 3 Mahapalika Marg, Dhobi Talao, Mumbai-1Mob. 982222857 email : [email protected]

RAJASTHAN : Dr. Vikas Modi. Asstt. Prof., Shah G. L Kabra Teachers’ College,Near Geeta Bhawan, Jodhpur.Mob.9413742106e-mail : [email protected]

UTTAR PRADESH : Dr. Alok Gadia, Asstt. Prof. Faculty of Education BHUKamachha, Varanasi.Mob. 9415992434e-mail : [email protected]

UTTARAKHAND : Dr. Meena Manral, Asstt. Prof., Faculty of Education KumaunUniversity, Almora. Uttarakhand. Pin. 201005Mob : 9412223924. e-mail : [email protected]

WEST BENGAL : Dr. Shyam Sunder Bairagya, Reader in Education, Universityof Gour Banga, Distt. Malda. W.B. Mob. 9433256325.e-mail : [email protected]

From Editor’s Desk

Dear Friends,Thanks for the overwhelming response to the theme by the way of the researcharticles from the length and breadth of this country. We started focusing theresearch journal towards a specialized theme; perhaps it is a new practiceinitiated.Some one has greatly said, if you are rich, then you are intelligent, goodlooking, religious, generous and knowledgeable and even a good singer too.For the young researchers it was a fashion and now it has become a habit to

peep onto Westwards whenever they need to deal with a new theme. Almost

all of the article contributors exposed the work done by the American and

European philosophers in the field of constructivism in education, instead of

bothering to look into the work of ancient Indian philosophers. Regarding

‘Constructivism’, though this word seems to be new in the field of education,

but certainly it was a practice in India in ancient times.

Constructivism says that people construct their own understanding and

knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those

experiences. When we come across some thing new, we have to reconcile it

with our previous ideas and experience, may be changing what we believe, or

may be discarding the new information as irrelevant. Here it can be said that,

we are active creators of our own knowledge. Constructivists believe that

knowledge and truth are constructed by people and therefore do not exist

outside the human mind that has been discussed.

Swami Vivekanada’ in his philosophy of education clearly stated that–

‘Knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge comes from outside; as it is all

inside’. When we say a man ‘knows’ it should in psychologicallanguage be, what he ‘discovers’ or ‘unveils’. What a man ‘learns’ is reallywhat he discovers by taking the cover off his own soul, which is a mine of

infinite knowledge.

Shri Aurobindo suggested three principles of teaching, which are–1- Nothing can be taught.2- The mind has to be consulted in its own growth.

3- Education is to work from the near to far, from that which is to that

which shall be.According to Hindu mythology, knowledge is revelatory. Its function is to

manifest the object by removing from it the veil of unknown-ness, withoutaffecting it any way. It presents but does not represent. It is cogitation butnot cognition. The empirical situation of knowledge demands the distinctionof three factors cognizer, cognition and object cognized. If knowledge is heldto be constructive or interpretative only, then nothing can be known as it is.The Advaita School of Vednta, there are six distinct means of valid knowledge– Perception (external-by five sense organs and internal), Inference (basedon the sensible facts beyond the reach of senses), Verbal-testimony (usingauthentic words spoken or written). A man, who is free of all defects, becomescapable of acquiring knowledge from three more sources which are –

Comparing, Postulation and Non-apprehension.

Let us start our journey from the perceptual to non-perceptual and then to

transcendental level of knowledge.

(B. V. Ramana Rao)

Sub Theme - 1 Constructivist Pedagogy & LearningConstructivist Pedagogy : Teaching for Knowledge Construction 1

Mrs. Bharati. B. Ganiger & Prof. D. R. Goel.Vadodara (Gujarat)

Constructivism: Teaching the way Children Learn. 10Mukesh Tanwer. New Delhi

Constructivism: Future Implications for Teaching and Learning 17Dr. Raminder Singh. Bathinda (Punjab)

Constructivism and Pedagogical Strategies 22R. Pushpa Namdeo. Bhopal (M.P.)

Constructivism Based Teaching : Making Learning Inclusive 28Dr. Kundalini Mohanty. Darjeeling (W.B.)

Constructivism Based Teaching and Learning 32Dr. Jagannath K. Dange. Shimoga. (Karnataka)

Constructivism: A New Paradigm in Education 37Dr. Savita Sharma. Dharamshala. (H.P.)

Constructivist Classroom – Characteristics and Teacher’s Role 42Ajit Mondal & Dr. Jayanta Mete. Kalyani. (W.B.)

Constructivist Approach in Pedagogical Practices 49Kusum Lata. Barwala. (Haryana)

Practicing Constructivism in the Era of Neo-Liberalism:Challenges for Evolving a Critical Pedagogy 53Dr. Kamaljeet Singh. Bathinda (Punjab)

Innovative Teaching for Effective Learning 59Dr. Happy P. V. Thrissur. (Kerala)

Constructive Teaching Strategies and Evaluation Methods 63 Dr. Meena Manral. Almora. (Uttarakhand).

Constructivism: A Learner – Centered Education 68Vandana Chouhan. Bhilai, (Chhattisgarh)

Sub Theme - 2 Constructivism ApplicationProblem-Based Learning as a Constructivist Method of Teaching 71

Mrs. Gurkirat Kaur, Patiala (Punjab)Constructivism and Formative Assessment: An Overview 77

Rima Dutta. Bilaspur. ChhattisgarhAttitude of Secondary School Teachers towards Teaching through

Constructivist Approach 81Pranab Barman * & Dr. Dibyendu BhattacharyyaKalyani. West Bengal.

CONTENTS

Volume 3 Number 2 October 2012

ISSN : 0976 - 1160

(Bi-annual & Bi-lingual)EDUSEARCH

JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Sub Theme - 3 Cooperative LearningCooperative Learning as a Constructivist Teaching-Learning Strategy 86

K. Karthigeyan * & Dr. K. NirmalaSalem, (Tamilnadu)

Effect of Computer-Supported Cooperative Learning on Achievement ofSecondary School Students in Biology 92Ms. Beena. Tonk, (Rajasthan)

Sub Theme - 4 Practicing ConstructivismEffect of Constructivism-Based Teaching Strategy on Academic

Performance of Students in Chemistry at Secondary Level 97Dr. Satvinderpal Kaur. Moga (Punjab)

An Innovative Inquiry-based Approach for Science-Teaching withreference Constructivism 102Dr. Shazli Hasan Khan. Hyderabad (A.P.)

Constructivism : Examining its Applications in Science Education 107 Rakshinder Kaur. Bathinda (Punjab)

Constructivism: A Student-Centred Approach in TeachingSocial Science 112Sandeep Kumar. Vadodara (Gujarat)

Critical Inquiry Pedagogy in Social Science Classrooms 118Dr. Beena K. Kannur. (Kerala)

Constructivist Lesson Planning: Theory and Practice 121Dr. A. Ramakrishna & Ms. Sonia SawhneyHyderabad (A. P.)

Teaching of History through Constructivism 128Ajit Kumar Bohet. New Delhi

Constructivist Learning Approach for Enhancing AcademicAchievement of Seventh Class Students in Science 133Dr. S. Pany & Ms. Gayatri Mandi. (H.P.)

Teaching Economics through Constructivist Approach 139Dr. Kartar Singh New Delhi

MiscellaneousE-Learning : Concept, Meaning and Scope 144

Dr. Vidya S. Bharambe * Nagpur. (M.S.)Impact of Music-Fused Teaching on the Performance in Mathematics

of Students at College Level 148 Kirupa Kani, J. & Dr. William Dharma Raja, B.Tirunelveli. (Tamilnadu)

Hindi SectionfufeZroknh vf/kxe i)fr;k¡ ,oa mudh izklafxdrk 152

MkW- jkd¢”k dVkjk ,oa /kzqo dqekj feÙky vtesj ¼jktLFkku½oSfnd xf.kr fof/k o ijaijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k dk 9oha d{kk ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh xf.kr esa

miyfC/k ds ifjizs{; esa rqyukRed v/;;u 156MkW- vpZuk nqcs ,oa vkjrh “kkD; bUnkSj ¼e/; izns”k½

EDITORIAL BOARD

AdvisorProf. Yagyavrat Srivastava

Infront of Allahabad Bank,Kumhari,

Distt. Raipur (C.G.)Mob: 9584506675

Chief EditorDr. B.V.Ramana Rao

Asstt. Professor,Govt. College of Education (IASE),

Bilaspur. (C.G.) Pin. 495001Mob: 9425548135. e-mail : [email protected]

Editors of this Issue

Cover Page DesignMiss. Boney Sharma

EXECUTIVE MEMBERS OF R.O.B.

Dr. Kshama Tripathi. President (mob.9424165555)Dr. Siddhartha Jain Vice President (mob.9300291564)Dr. B. V. Ramana Rao Secretary (mob.9425548135)Dr. A. K. Poddar Treasurer (mob.9425536474)Dr. Anita Singh Member (mob.9827118808)Dr. P.L.Chandrakar Member (mob.9977048840)Mr. Ulhas V. Ware Member (mob.9893335015)Mr. Sanjay M. Ayade Member (mob.9425546803)Ms. Payal Sharma Member (mob.9993250772)Ms.Akanksha Gupta Member (mob.8109258257)Dr. Eshmat Jahan Member (mob.9893062305)

Dr. Kshama TripathiAsstt. Prof.,Govt. College of Education (IASE)Bilaspur. (C.G.)Mob : 9424165555

Dr. Siddhartha JainPrincipal,D.P.Vipra College of EducationBilaspur. (C.G.)Mob: 9300291564e-mail : [email protected]

AboutRESEARCHERS ORGANIZATION, BILASPUR (C.G.)

(Regd. 13554/11)

It is an association of like minded people consisiting of research scholars,teachers, teacher educators and professors. It was formed with an aim totransform research into reality and mass applicability.The prime objectives of this organization are -Ö To promote research in the area of school and higher education and

to extend academic and technical support to the young researchers.Ö To extend support in the implementation of the government policies in

the area of education, social-welfare and environment.Ö To provide a platform to the young writers for publication of their books.Ö To publish research journals in various subjects.Ö To develop and publish various research tools, scales of measure-

ment in various subjects.Ö To conduct research experiments in education and other subjects.Ö To provide consultancy services to young researchers.Ö To organize national and state level seminars, conferences, work-

shops etc.Ö To conduct various projects in school and higher education fields in con-

sultation with the apex bodies of the country.

Secretary

Researchers Organization, Bilaspur (C.G.)

CONSTRUCTIVIST PEDAGOGY : Teaching..........by Mrs. Bharti B. Ganiger & Prof. D. R. Goel 1

CONSTRUCTIVIST PEDAGOGY :Teaching for Knowledge Construction

Abstract

EDUSEARCHISSN : 0976 - 1160

Vol 3. No. 2. October-2012

Mrs. Bharati. B. Ganiger * & Prof. D. R. Goel **

The latest catchword in educational circle is constructivism which is applied to both learningtheory and epistemology. Constructivist approaches to learning based on distinctly differentepistemic and pedagogical assumptions than classical approaches to instructional design. Herethe role of teacher is as a facilitator who encourages learners to reflect, analyze, design anddevelop the process of knowledge construction and the learners are active agents who engagein own knowledge construction by integrating new information into their schema. Learning canbe seen as a process that of understanding and contextualizing socially, culturally, historicallyand politically relevant issues. Hence it is important that the teachers’ role has to be revitalizedand the teacher education system has to inculcate the culture of germination of new ideas,incubation, innovation, creation and construction.

Introduction:“In order for any discipline to survive, itmust accommodate changes in theoryand practice and do so in a way that addsvalue to the discipline” (Kuhn, 1972).Pedagogy is a collaborative, interactiveprocess between teachers and learnersand other members of the community.Pedagogy evolves progressively in the ebband flow of context and conditions.Teachers are always curious to design,develop and deploy the most compatiblepedagogy.A distinction is often made betweenPedagogy and Education. This is morethan mere semantics, although the wordsdo have different Greek and Latinderivations. Pedagogy comes from theGreek paidagogos (the leading of the

child), where as education comes from theLatin educare (to bring up/nourish). Thediscipline and discourse of education ismore likely to be descriptive andnormative, whereas pedagogy is relativelycreative and constructive. Pedagogy ismore than the accumulation oftechniques and strategies, more thanarranging class-room, formulatingquestions and developing explanations.It is informed by a view of mind of learningand learners and the kind of knowledgeand outcomes that are valued.Learning is a social process. This view ofleaning takes a broad view of learners’trajectories through the world- theirsense of self, where they are coming from,where they think they are going, what sortof person they want to be. Pedagogy must

Sub Theme - 1Constructivist Pedagogy & Learning

2 EDUSEARCH - ISSN : 0976 - 1160 Vol. 3 No. 2 Oct. 2012

build the self-esteem and identity oflearners, developing their sense of whatthey believe or indeed hope themselvesto be capable of. Developing habits ofmind that are questioning and critical iscentral to pedagogy. The latest catchwordin educational circle is Constructivism,applied to both learning theory andepistemology. Constructivist pedagogy isthe link between theory and practice.Instruction that is based on constructivistprinciples is extremely demanding for theteacher.Pedagogical constructivism views theindividual learner as the only locationwhere knowledge is generated andmaintained. Knowledge is bound to theperson who generates it. And a person’sknowledge always depends on how aperson approaches a learning experience,what he or she actively does during theexperience, and how the resultingknowledge is integrated into what theperson knows. Interactions with othersand with nature may influence thelearner’s construction of knowledge. Thenotion of constructivism with its roots inancient philosophy has been informedover time by wide range theories. JeanPiaget and John Dewey were the firstmajor contemporaries to develop a clearidea of constructivism as it might beapplied to childhood development andclassrooms. That major tenet of allaspects of constructivism is thatknowledge is constructed, not transmittedor absorbed.Although constructivism embraces manytheoretical perspectives on learning anddoes not itself suggest particularpedagogy. This view takes learner agencyas a given and has spawned a wide rangeof pedagogic strategies by which learnerscan be encouraged and enabled to selectand transform information, constructtheir own hypotheses and can be activein their own learning.This approach to learning impacts strongly

on view of the teachers’ role. Byemphasizing the interaction between thelearner and the activity, the focus movesaway from the teacher and the content tolearning mechanisms and learners’cognitive processes. From a constructivistperspective, teachers need to adopt therole of facilitator.The constructivist studies investigatechildren’s scientific thinking, that is, theirintuitive conceptualizations of naturalphenomena (Brumby, 1982; Gilbert et al.,1982; Muthukrishna, Carnine, Grossen,& Miller, 1993). When the elementarychild arrives in science class he or shehas successfully experienced ways ofobserving and interacting with the worldoutside of school. In order for the child tosuccessfully learn new science ideas, itis necessary to bring to light their alreadyexisting ideas about natural phenomena.This information provides the teacherwith an understanding of ways in whichthe old ideas may interfere with thepresent interactions.Principles of constructivist pedagogy:1. Construction of knowledge is an active

process involving mental action of thelearner. Constructivism needs activeengagement of learning in social setting.It involves enquiry, debating,questioning, application and reflectionleading to theory building and thecreation of ideas. Piaget, as reported byKamii (1974) says that good pedagogymust involve presenting the child withsituations in which he himselfexperiments and tries to see whathappens, manipulating symbols, posingquestions and seeking his own answer,reconciling what he finds one time withwhat he finds at another, comparing hisfinding with that of other children.

2. Intellectual activity based on actualexperiences occupies priority inconstructivist pedagogy. Constructionof knowledge takes place when mindactively reacts and interacts with


physical and social world ofexperiences. Design for anyexperiments, their results,interpretations of their findings allresult from sharing, thinking anddecision making. To create socialinteraction researches have called forthe creation of “communities oflearners” within classrooms (Brown &Campione,1994). Learning communitiesencourage students to takeresponsibility for their own learningthrough cooperative ventures. Vygotsky(1986) believes that the learning ismeaningful to children when it builds(scaffolds) on experiences they havealready with them. Children are morelikely to retain knowledge that theybuild or generate themselves ratherthan which they simply receivepassively.

3. The critical dimension of constructivistpedagogy is structuring learningaround primary concepts and “big”ideas (Brooks & Brooks 1993). Whendesigning curriculum, constructivistteachers organize information aroundconceptual clusters of problems,questions and discrepant situations.Students are most engaged in learningwhen problems and ideas are presentedholistically rather than in separate,isolated parts.

4. Constructivist focus on children’s’ability to solve the real life practicalproblems and constructivist methodscall for students to construct knowledgethemselves without receiving it fromteachers. In contrast to directedinstructions, where a teacher sets thegoal and delivers most of theinstructions, the job of the teacher inconstructivist is to arrange requiredresources and acts as a guide tochildren while they set their own goalsand learn themselves.

5. Constructivism believes on theprinciple of unstructured knowledge

domain which bears significance fordesigning curriculum for constructivistclassroom. Papert (1980) feels thatlearning activities should be fairlyunstructured and open ended with nogoal in mind other than discovery ofpowerful ideas. In the similar line, Spiroet al.,(1991) call for the variedopportunities for exploration whenlearning takes place in ill-structuredknowledge domains, through advocatefor at least acquisition of some specificskills and information. Experiences andactivities to be selected for engaginglearners for knowledge constructionprocess in construction process inelementary school should be relevantfrom social and individual points.

6. Constructivist pedagogy is based onprinciple of problem oriented activities.Constructivist method focuses onproblem posing and persuasion of peers(Jungck, 1991). Problems may be posedin terms of specific goals as ‘what…if’questions, open ended questions.

7. Constructivist pedagogy centers on theprinciple of assimilation when it is heldthat learners construct knowledge byrelating new information to the existingknowledge which they already possess.Fundamental knowledge originatedfrom ones’ own culture serves as a baseupon which new knowledge is built byassimilating new incoming informationinto it meaningfully.

8. Seeking and valuing students’ pointsof view is also essential constructivisteducation. These are windows into astudents’ reasoning. It helps teacher tochallenge students, making schoolexperiences both contextual andmeaningful. Each student’s point ofview is an instructional entry point.Teachers who operate withoutawareness of students’ points of viewoften doom students to dull, irrelevantexperiences and even failure.


Nature of KnowledgeKnowledge as constructivist believed issituated in the real world. Constructivistsargue that knowledge is activelyconstructed by learners and that anyaccount of knowledge makes essentialreferences to cognitive structures.Knowledge comprises active systems ofintentional mental representationsderived from learning experiences. Eachlearner interprets experiences andinformation in the light of their extantknowledge, their stage of cognitivedevelopment, their cultural background,their personal history. Learners use thesefactors to organize their experience andto elect and transform new information.It is essentially dependent on thestandpoint from which the learnerapproaches it. It recognizes theconstruction of new understanding as acombination of prior learning, newinformation and the readiness to learn.Individuals make choices about newideas to accept and how to fit them intotheir established views of the world.Immanuel Kant elaborates this idea byasserting that human beings are notpassive recipients of information.Learners actively take knowledge,connect it to previously assimilatedknowledge and make it their owninterpretation (Cheek, 1992).Constructivist View of Learning:Learning takes place not only adoptingnew ideas, but also ... modifying orabandoning pre-existing ones” This is theconstructivist sense of constructingmeaning and Learning. Students makesense of their experiences via a Piagetianaccommodation.• It is necessary to take into account what

is already in the learner’s mind for theycome into the classroom with a pre-established worldview.

• Individuals construct their own meaningof events which is filtered by priorbeliefs and experiences.

• The construction of meaning is acontinuous and active process; learningmay involve conceptual change, that is,a kind of a radical re-organization whichrequires effort and purposeful activity.

• Learners have the responsibility for theirlearning.

The child’s active action is necessary forthe learning process, as a problem canonly emerge in an action. A problem inthe action is a prerequisite for anindividual to learn new things. Accordingto Mead (Rucker 1968, p. 151), the humanbeing has qualities that enable ‘‘creativefaculties of imagination’’ and, further, theemergence of thinking. Mead suggeststhat three different levels can be foundin the construction and development ofthinking. On the first level, the child‘‘awakes’’, becoming conscious of his/herown possibilities to make selections andcombinations of objects in the actionenvironment instead of blindly followingthe organs of sight and hearing. In thisway the child can tell apart differentobjects in the action environment andkeeps these objects under examination.The second level of creative imaginationis the ‘‘logical state’’, in which the childbecomes conscious of his/her resourcesfor combining things and ideas. thencomes the ‘‘philosophic stage’’, at whichtime the child chops his/her world upinto pieces and tries to reassembleeverything as it was before and absorbseverything into his/her own thinking.Dewey describes the experiences asfollows: ‘‘When we experience somethingwe act upon it, we do something with it;then we suffer or undergo theconsequences.’ ’ The ‘ ‘educativeexperience’’ produces ways of action thatmake it possible to control and predictaction. Learning refers to a situation inwhich the results of an individual’s actioncan be identified and it can be establishedthat a new result of action has arisen asa result of the action(Dewey, 1955).


Learning also means that the new modelor way of action arising as a result of theaction is a combination of different waysof action. According to Dewey (1966, p.323), the image is a factor that enableslearning. The nature of an image is suchthat it represents some fact of reality. Animage can be understood as therealization of an immediate experienceand as a mediating factor that enablestransition from one experience to another.Constructivist classrooms:A constructivist classroom mustobviously operate in the backdrop ofconstructivist learning environments andkey principle of constructivism. Here thefocus will be on students, this classroomis no longer a place where the teacherpours knowledge into the passivestudents, and instead students areactively involved in the learning process.According to Brooks and Brooks (1993),student’s autonomy and initiative areaccepted and encouraged, the teacherasks open-ended questions and providesample time for discussion and responses,higher level thinking is encouraged,students are engaged in dialogue with ateacher and with each other, students areengaged in experiences that challengehypotheses and encourage discussion.The class uses raw data, primary sources,and manipulative, physical andinteractive materials. Constructivistclassrooms are based on the theory ofCollaboration, Cooperation, Interaction,and Project based activities. Theclassroom environment is in such a waythat full freedom is given to the learnersto think freely in multidirectional wayson single idea. Providing rich experiencesto the learner will relatively help him toconstruct the knowledge and meaning.Constructivist Teacher:In the context of constructivist pedagogythe teacher is a facilitator who encourageslearners to reflect, analyze, classify,predict, create and interpret in the

process of knowledge construction (NCF,2005). Constructivist teachers recognizethat what the learner already knows is acritical factor affecting learning and thatit is incumbent upon teachers toascertain the understandings held bytheir students (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).In regular teaching learners’ priorunderstandings are frequentlydiscounted, and learning paths are notwell designed to lead to newunderstanding for students (Duit &Treagust, 1998). Teachers with aconstructivist orientation believe that thelearning opportunities they plan are themediating processes that help studentsmove from their current understandingto a new understanding. They can reflecton what learning experiences can beprovided to encourage the developmentof conceptual understanding.The teachers own role in children’scognition could be enhanced if theyassume a more active role in relation tothe process of knowledge construction inwhich children are engaged. Allowingchildren to ask questions that requirethem to relate what they are learning inthe school to things happening outside,encouraging children to answer in theirown words and from their ownexperiences, rather than simplymemorizing and getting answers right injust one way. Intelligent guessing mustbe encouraged as a valid pedagogic tool.Quite often, children have an idea arisingfrom their everyday experiences orbecause of their exposure to the mediabut they are not quite ready to articulateit in ways that a teacher might appreciate.It is in this zone between what you knowand what you almost know that newknowledge is constructed that ismetacognition. Such knowledge oftentakes the form of skills, which arecultivated outside the school, at theirhome or the community. Constructivistteachers provide time for students to


construct relationship and createmetaphor. A sensitive and informedteacher is aware of this and is able toengage children through well-chosentasks and questions, so that they are ableto realize their developmental potential(NCF, 2005). Teachers require aconceptual framework to guide groupactivities in which students cooperativelyconstruct new knowledge. They musthave a clear picture of the desired goalsof the overall concept and nurturestudents’ natural curiosity throughfrequent use of learning cycle model.Teacher’s role should be like guide on theside.Constructivist Instructional Strategies:Constructivist Instructional Strategiesshould be mainly based on threeelements (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).1. Students Prior Knowledge which affects

future learning because what a learneralready knows interacts with the newconception to which the learner hasbeen exposed.

2. Students construct meaning throughinteraction with others, with materialsand by observation and exploration ofinteresting and challenging activities.

3.Students should constructunderstanding around core conceptsand big ideas.

So constructivist teachers ascertain theunderstanding of their students, planmediating events that assist students inmoving from a current understanding toa more scientifically acceptedunderstanding and provide time fordiscussion on any needed additionalexperiences for students to constructdeep conceptual understanding.Many learning designs based onconstructivist assumptions are availablein the literature of constructivism.Constructivist pedagogy is not attachedto a single model or strategy, but it willprovide a view of various strategies thatsuggests specific instructional principles

that can be a great use to createconstructive learning environment in theclassroom. The important worthmentioning designs which have drawnattention of educators in the past severalyears are,Constructivist learning cycle design:Exploration, Concept/Skill Developmentand Concept/Skill Application

Fig. 1Constructivist learning Cycle

5E model Proposed by Bybee in 1997which include,Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate andEvaluate.

Fig. 25E model Proposed by Bybee

Exp

lora

tion

Sk

il

l

Developm

ent

Skill Application

Engage

Explore

Explain

Elaborate Evaluate

7E model Proposed by Arthur Eisenkraftin 2003 include, :Elicit, Engage, Explore, Explain,Elaborate, Evaluate, and Extend


Fig. 37E model Proposed by Arthur Eisenkraft

Constructivist view of Assessment:Assessment in the class should be anopportunity for the students to revealtheir changed conceptual understandingof the course content. In constructivistperspective, assessments are made usingportfolios, rubrics, teacher’s rating,observation, interview and challengingquestions to solve complex real worldproblems. Since learning is largely selfmotivated in this pedagogy, learners selfassessment of their own learning can beused to help students to assessthemselves about what they have learnt.Brown (1985) has suggested methods,like, use of learning journals by studentsto monitor progress and highlight anyrecurring difficulties and analyze studyhabits. Student discussions andobservation of discussions provides theteacher with valuable information aboutall aspects of student achievement,conceptual understanding, and logicalquality of arguments. This helps theteacher to modify the instructionalplanning. When the teachers’ plans arewell matched with the students’ previouslearning, the prediction is that students’future achievement will be enhanced. Intoto, it should be an ongoing process,evaluation of student learning should not

be judged only on the specific knowledge,but whether the student can solve theproblem posed with viable solution.Conclusion:The constructivist view of the world givesnew status to the learner as the activeconstructor within the learning activityinstead of being the passive respondentto externally determined world ofeducation. Constructivism developsthinking skills, Communication skills andsocial skills; encourages alternativemethods of assessment; helps studentsto transfer skills to the real world; andpromotes intrinsic motivation to learn.Their implications on educational practiceare enormous. Constructivist pedagogyoffers a bold departure from traditionalclassroom strategies. The goal is for thelearner to plan an active role inassimilating knowledge into one’s existingcognitive structure. The constructivistapproach requires the teacher torelinquish one’s role as sole information–dispenser and instead to continuallyanalyze one’s curriculum planning andinstructional methodologies. Constructi-vist argues that knowledge is activelyconstructed by the learners and that anyaccount of knowledge makes essentialreferences to cognitive structures. Eachlearner interprets experience informationin their light of their extant knowledge.Study topics could include theconstructivist implementation ofcooperative learning, scaffoldingtechniques, problem-based learning, ormulti faceted assessment strategies. Atthe same time there are various newdemands on the part of teachers;Constructivism is a culture - not afragmented collection of practices.Crafting instruction based onconstructivism is not as straightforwardas it seems. It could be developed as aculture of the class.

Evaluate

Elicit Engage

Explore

Explain Elaborate

Extend


REFERENCES

Brooks, J. G. and Brooks, M. G. (1993, 1999). In search of understanding: The casefor constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision andcurriculum Development.

Brown, A. L. (1985). Motivation to Learn and Understand: on taking charge of One’sOwn Learning. Cognition and Instruction, 5 (4), 311-322.

Brumby, M. (1982). Students’ perceptions of the concept of life. ScienceEducation, 66(4), 613- 622.

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Senapathy, H. K. (2009). Constructivist Learning Situation. Developmental challengesand Educational Determinism, CASE, Faculty of Edu. & Psy. The M. S.University of Baroda. Pp. 27-38.

Sharma, S. (2001). Constructivism, Paradigm shift, In Perspectives in Education, 17(2), 78-88.

Spiro, R. J. Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1991b). Knowledge representation, content specification, and the development of skill in situation-specific knowledge assembly: Some constructivist issues as they relate toCognitive Flexibility theory and hypertext. Educational Technology, 31 (9), 22-25.

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* Mrs. Bharati. B. Ganiger : UGC-Junior Research fellow, Centre ofAdvanced Study in Education, (CASE), Faculty of Educationand Psychology, M. S. University of Baroda. Vadodara.Gujarat. Pin. 390002 e-mail id: [email protected]

** Prof. D. R. Goel : Professor of Education, Centre of Advanced Studyin Education, (CASE), Faculty of Education and Psychology,M. S. University of Baroda. Vadodara. Gujarat. Pin-390002


CONSTRUCTIVISM: Teaching the wayChildren Learn

Abstract



Mukesh Tanwer *

Constructivism is basically a theory; based on observation and scientific study — about howpeople learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world,through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.This article describesconstructivist teaching, highlighting some of its essential elements. It demonstrates how aconstructivist approach to teaching calls on teachers to be learners themselves. It also paysfocus on the importance of constructivist teaching methods and the assessment patterns withthe changing roles of students and teachers in the class room.

Introduction :The last several decades in our nation haswitnessed growing concern aboutpreparing citizens to develop the skillsand knowledge they need to live and worksuccessfully in today’s complex society.Call for the change has centered on theneed to provide opportunities forstudents to engage in activities thatpromote in-depth understanding, criticalthinking, creative problem solving, andthe ability to use knowledge in real-lifesettings.In response to these concerns schoolimprovement efforts have proliferated,aimed at all aspects of the educationalsystem - school structures, organization,governance; family and communityinvolvement; as well as curriculumcontent, instructional methods,individual and system-wide assessmentsand National Curriculum Framework,

2005 is the best example of these reforms.However, various commissions (Kotharicommission, 1964-65), National Policy onEducation, 1986 and Report of NationalAdvisory Committee, 1993 (YashpalCommittee) also showed their concerntowards the quality of education,inappropriate curriculum and pedagogy,passive and submissive role of thelearner, traditional behaviorist practicesof the teacher, non-supportiveatmosphere in the school and in theeducation system, but Nationalcurriculum Framework proposes thesolution to these problem as it clearlydefines the role of the teacher and thelearner and what should be theinstructional practices in the classroom.NCF, 2005 favors the role of student asan active constructor of knowledge,teacher’s role as a facilitator, guide andclassroom as an atmosphere for active


CONSTRUCTIVISM : Teaching the way.........................by Mukesh 11

exploration and further states that theteaching and assessment methods shouldbe constructive.Constructivism“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember.I do and I understand.” - ConfuciusThese words of Confucius clearly stateswhat constructivism means. In contrastto the transmission-of-knowledge modelof teaching, newerunderstandings of how people learnpresent a conception of teaching thatfocuses on developing “thinking” studentswho understand and can use what theylearn. This conception is termed“constructivist” because it sees learning asa dynamic internal process in whichlearners actively “construct” knowledge byconnecting new information to what theyalready know, rather than as a processin which learners are passive recipientsof information transferred to them fromexternal sources.This newer conception’s emphasis is ondeveloping students’ capacities foranalysis and problem-solving, rather thanon having them “cover the curriculum”in the most efficient manner possible.Rooted in the assumption that all humanbeings have a deep drive to make senseof the world (Carini, 1987), constructivismsees learning as motivated by interest andshaped by individuals’ cultural andlinguistic backgrounds as well as theirdifferent learning styles and strengths(Gardner, 1983). From the perspective ofthe constructivist view, learning issupported by multiple experiences andsocial interactions, rather than by solitarydrill and rote memorization (Dewey, 1916,1956; Piaget, 1973, 1980; Vygotsky,1978).It is a nonlinear process that requiresextended periods of time to visit andrevisit ideas until they are organized intocoherent, stable, and generalizableunderstandings (Bruner, 1966; O’Brien,1987).

Teaching-Learning ProcessIn the classroom, the constructivist viewof learning can point towards a numberof different teaching practices. In the mostgeneral sense, it usually meansencouraging students to use activetechniques (experiments, real-worldproblem solving) to create moreknowledge and then to reflect on and talkabout what they are doing and how theirunderstanding is changing. The teachermakes sure she understands thestudents’ preexisting conceptions, andguides the activity to address them andthen build on them.Constructivist teachers encouragestudents to constantly assess how theactivity is helping them gainunderstanding. By questioningthemselves and their strategies, studentsin the constructivist classroom ideallybecome “expert learners.” This gives themever-broadening tools to keep learning.With a well-planned classroomenvironment, the students learn How toLearn. For example: Groups of studentsare discussing a problem in science.Though the teacher knows the “answer”to the problem, she focuses on helpingstudents restate their questions in usefulways. She prompts each student to reflecton and examine his or her currentknowledge. When one of the studentscomes up with the relevant concept, theteacher builds upon it, and indicates tothe group that this might be a fruitfulavenue for them to explore. They designand perform relevant experiments.Afterward, the students and teacher talkabout what they have learned, and howtheir observations and experimentshelped (or did not help) them to betterunderstand the concept.The constructivist teacher provides toolssuch as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with whichstudents formulate and test their ideas,draw conclusions, and convey their


knowledge in a collaborative learningenvironment. Constructivism transformsthe student from a passive recipient ofinformation to an active participant in thelearning process.A. Constructivist classrooms-Constructivist classrooms operate on thepremise that learning in school need not,and should not, be different from themany rich natural forms of learning thatstudents have experienced before theyhave ever entered the corridors of aschool. Real-life situations form the basisfor learning. Classrooms provideopportunities for students to activelyexplore, inquire, discover, andexperiment. These classes offer a varietyof learning situations and instructionalformats - projects, trips, readings, reports,discussions, field work, and internships.They challenge students to reason,question, draw connections,communicate, evaluate viewpoints, frameproblems, acquire and use evidence, andcreate new knowledge, understandings,relationships and products.Constructivist learning environments areorganized to include ample opportunitiesfor students to collaborate and toexchange ideas with peers and adults.Classrooms are set up to includecooperative learning and peer teachingsituations so that students can talktogether freely as well as question andargue with each other about ideas.To enhance this exposure to differentideas and perspectives constructivistclassrooms are structured to includestudents of different ages and abilities aswell as students of different cultural andlinguistic backgrounds. The more diversestudent groupings are - and the moreopportunities that are provided forexchange of ideas among this diversity -the better students are prepared to reachbeyond their own frames of reference, toappreciate a range of ideas, and tounderstand the viewpoints of others.

NCF, 2005 also states that “our childrenneed to feel that each one of them, theirhomes, communities, languages andcultures, are valuable as resources forexperience to be analyzed and enquiredinto a school; that their diversecapabilities are accepted”. Thecurriculum in constructivist classroomsis generally interdisciplinary in nature.It provides opportunities for students toextend the continuity of their thoughtsthrough inquiry into big ideas organizedaround generative themes.

Students are not blank slates upon whichknowledge is etched. They come tolearning situations with alreadyformulated knowledge, ideas, andunderstandings. This previous knowledgeis the raw material for the new knowledgethey will create. The teacher coaches,moderates, suggest, but allow thestudents room to experiment, askquestions, try things that don’t work.Learning activities require the students’full participation (like hands-onexperiments). An important part of thelearning process is that students reflecton, and talk about, their activities.Example: In a history class, asking

Fig. 1 Characteristics of Constructive Classroom


students to read and think about differentversions of and perspectives on “history”can lead to interesting discussions. Ishistory as taught in textbooks accurate?Are there different versions of the samehistory? Whose version of history is mostaccurate? How do we know? From there,students can make their own judgments.The main activity in a constructivistclassroom is solving problems. Studentsuse inquiry methods to ask questions,investigate a topic, and use a variety ofresources to find solutions and answers.As students explore the topic, they drawconclusions, and, as explorationcontinues, they revisit those conclusions.Exploration of questions leads to morequestions.Role of the Learner in the ConstructiveClassroomStudents in a traditional classroom arepassive. They listen and react to theteacher’s direct instruction. NCF, 2005articulates that “children’s voices andexperiences do not find expression in theclass. It further says that children willlearn only in an atmosphere where theyfeel they are valued and our schools stilldo not convey this to all children”.Therefore, NCF strongly recommends forthe classrooms and teaching-learningenvironment where learner can be placedat the core of the process and learner canplay the role of active explorer andconstructor of his/her own knowledge. Ina constructivist classroom, students areactive. They exchange ideas with theteacher and with one another. Studentsin a constructivist classroom are expectedto connect all learning to prior knowledge.This leads to greater internalization andcomprehension of facts and concepts.Learner in the constructivist classroomis self-directed, creative, and innovative.It is important to take into account thebackground and culture of the learnerthroughout the learning process, as thisbackground also helps to shape the

knowledge and truth that the learnercreates, discovers and attains in thelearning process. Von Glasersfeld (1989)emphasized that “learners construct theirown understanding and that they do notsimply mirror and reflect what they read.Learners look for meaning and will try tofind regularity and order in the events ofthe world even in the absence of full orcomplete information”.Another crucial assumption regarding thenature of the learner concerns the leveland source of motivation for learning. Thislinks up with Vygotsky’s “zone of proximaldevelopment” (Vygotsky 1978) wherelearners are challenged within closeproximity to, yet slightly above, theircurrent level of development. Byexperiencing the successful completionof challenging tasks, learners gainconfidence and motivation to embark onmore complex challenges. Thus, learneris at the core of the constructivist learningtheory.Role of the Teacher in the ConstructiveClassroomThe role of the teacher in the teachinglearning process is to give the studentscenter stage in the classroom, providinga setting in which the students play an

Fig. 2Role of the learner in the constructivist

classroom


active, inquiring role in their learning.Teachers act as guides, coaches, mentors,and advisors, building bridges betweentheir students’ individual interests andunderstandings and the common skillsand knowledge society expects them toacquire. Questioning is an important partof the teacher in constructivist setting.Teachers use questions as a scaffold forlearning, asking questions that help theirstudents to become good questionersthemselves: Have you seen anythingnew? What do you think happens if...?Can you find another way? How might wefind out? Can you give me an example?How does this relate to what weconcluded yesterday? Questions likethese call for analysis, synthesis, andevaluative judgment. They have no one,obvious right answer. They help studentsto understand differing perspectives andto differentiate between opinions andfacts (Wiggins, 1987).Mistakes are greatly valued in thisprocess. They not only reveal informationabout students’ thinking but provideimportant opportunities for students torethink their ideas. Constructivistteachers try to incorporate as many aspossible of student’s interests andstrengths in their curriculum. They dothis because they know that no motivatorfor learning is as powerful as deep andcompelling interest in something (Eisner,1991).Assessment that supports Teaching &-LearningIt is very necessary to use properassessment techniques because it helpsthe students to identify their strengthsand interests. Constructivist paradigmprovides a wide range of assessmenttechniques which also help teachers togain insight into students’ differentstrategies for learning and to determinestudent progress and achievement.Teachers can keep documentedobservations of their students, skills

Fig. 3,Role of the Teacher in the Constructivist

Classroom

inventories, checklists anddevelopmental scales that provide themwith information about what they canappropriately expect from their studentsat different ages and stages. Teachers canalso keep portfolio collections of studentwork that are compiled over time and thatinclude selected “best works,” as well asproducts and processes that reveal theidiosyncrasies of each individual learner.Teachers can also incorporate students’self-assessment of their own learning.Some can even involve the families of thestudents in commenting on andevaluating student work. Following aresome points to think about evaluating thestudents’ learning:1. Evaluating student progress byexamining the thinking process of thestudent. This can be done in a number ofways. By asking the students to developa solution to a problem and then to defendtheir decisions. For example, after a studyof animals and their habits, teacher mightpresent a new set of animals to the class.Then offer the following problem: Choosethree animals from the set and construct


a habitat that will support all of them.2. Telling students to document theirlearning through journal or diary-likeactivities and reflect on their learning.Then students will see how theirunderstanding has progressed and howit connects to other topics and learning.3. Prompting students to create newproblem-solving environments.These kinds of assessments provide richerinformation than traditional paper andpencil types of tests. They are flexibleenough to recognize and allow fordifferences in the ways that studentsdemonstrate knowledge.How do I as a Teacher applyConstructivism in the ClassroomAfter discussing all the important areasof the constructivism, now it’s the timeto know how constructivism can beapplied to the classrooms. A teacher canfollow some basic principles to applyconstructivism in his/her classroom.These are:1: Pose problems that are or will be

relevant to the students and they willapproach it sensing its relevance to theirlives.

2: Structure learning around essentialconcepts- Encourage students to makemeaning by breaking wholes into parts.Avoid starting with the parts to build a“whole.” Essential concepts can belinked to other subjects also. Thus, itwill be interdisciplinary in nature.

3: Be aware that students’ points of vieware windows into their reasoning- Thechallenging of ideas and the seeking ofelaboration threatens many students.Constructivist learning environmenthave open-ended, nonjudgmentalquestioning. Students also need to havean opportunity to elaborate and explain.4: Adapt curriculum to addressstudents’ suppositions anddevelopment- Presentingdevelopmentally appropriate work is aplace to start.

5: Assess student learning in the contextof teaching- Authentic assessmentoccurs most naturally and lastinglywhen it is in a meaningful context andwhen it relates to authentic concernsand problems faced by students.

Thus, it’s not difficult to incorporateconstructivism in the regular traditionalclassroom but it strongly requires thepositive and always learning attitude ofthe teacher with the in-depth knowledgeof the constructivist paradigm as well assupport from the school and system.There should be readiness amongteachers, parents and our school systemto give space to the student as an activeconstructor of the knowledge.ConclusionConstructivism proposes that learningenvironments should support multipleperspectives of reality, knowledgeconstruction, and context-rich,experience-based activities. If our schoolsare to provide experiences for studentsthat fire their spirits, identify and nurturetheir capacities as learners, and enablethem to be independent thinkers, thennew forms of teaching need to bedeveloped that are solidly based onemerging understandings of how humanbeings engage in learning.These understandings call for changes inthe processes, contexts, and content ofteacher education - changes guided byconstructivist pedagogy that educateteachers to be learners themselves.Teacher learning for constructivistteaching needs to include manyopportunities to engage directly in thestruggles of learning, the risk-taking andthe thrill of generating new ideas;continually investigate the learningprocess so that teachers gain ever deeperunderstandings of how disciplinesconnect and involve different modes ofinquiry; become ever more conscious andresponsive to the ways in whichdifferences impact on the learning


process; communicate clearly what theyknow and how they teach to supportstudent growth and development.Changes such as these in teachereducation will support teachers tobecome powerful thinkers. Powerfulthinkers make powerful teachers, and itis this kind of educator that is required

REFERENCESBruner, J. (1966): The process of education; Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Carini, P. (1987): On value in education; New York: The City College Workshop Center.

Dewey, J. (1938): Education and experience; New York: Macmillan.Dewey, J. (1956): The child and the curriculum; Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Eisner, E. W. (1991): What really counts in schools; Educational Leadership, 48(5),

10-17.

Gardner, H. (1983): Frames of mind: A theory of multiple intelligences; New York:

Basic Books.

Glaserfeld, V. (1989): Constructivism in education; England: Pergamon Press.NCF (2005): NCERT: New Delhi.

Kothari Commission (1964-66): MHRD: New Delhi.

Piaget, J. (1973): To understand is to invent; New York: Grossman.

Piaget, J. (1926): The language and thought of the child; London: Routledge & Kegan.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978): Mind in society; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Wiggins, G. (1987, winter): Creating a thought-provoking curriculum; American

Educator.

Woolfolk, A. (2007): Educational Psychology (10th Edition); Canada: Pearson

Publishers.

Mukesh : Asstt. Teacher, Amar Shaheed Major Sehrawat SarvodayaKanya Vidyalaya, Mahipal Pur, New Delhi-110037.e-mail : [email protected]

to provide the students of our nation withan education that supports them to bepowerful themselves, developing theskills and capacities they need to takecharge of their thinking and their ownlives. Only these types of teachers willteach the children the way they learn.

Constructivism : Future Implications for ......................by Dr. Raminder Singh 17

Constructivism: Future Implications forTeaching and Learning

Abstract



Dr. Raminder Singh *

This paper discusses about ‘Constructivism’ as a new theory applied to the field of teachingand learning. The latest innovations in teaching methodologies for the future classrooms arebased on theory of constructivism. Various aspects of teaching and learning like methods ofteaching, discipline, evaluation and role of teacher have been discussed in relation to theconstructivist principles in detail. All these innovative aspects discussed in this paper constitutea complete constructivism teaching theory system which can contribute a lot to improve thefuture teaching and learning.

Introduction:Constructivism, which is a new cognitivetheory, describes learning as a change inmeaning constructed from experience.This theory believes that knowledge andtruth are constructed by people andtherefore do not exist outside the humanmind. Constructivism believes inconstruction of knowledge instead ofimparting or receiving it. Von Glaserfeld(1984) describes it in the following words:“………learners construct understanding.They do not simply mirror and reflectwhat they are told or what they read.Learners look for meaning and will try tofind regularity and order in the events ofthe world even in the absence of full orcomplete information”.While comparing constructivism to bothbehaviourism and cognitivism; Cooper(1993) summarizes: “The constructivist….. sees reality as determined by the

experiences of the knower. The move frombehaviorism through cognitivism toconstructivism represents shifts inemphasis away from an external view toan internal view. To the behaviourist, theinternal processing is only of importanceto the extent to which it explains howexternal reality is understood. Incontrast, the constructivist views themind as a builder of symbols – the toolsused to represent the knower’s reality.External phenomena are meaninglessexcept as the mind perceives them ….constructivists view reality as personallyconstructed, the state that personalexperience determines reality, not theother way round”.Objectivists view learning as theacquisition and accumulation of a finiteset of skills and facts. Whereasconstructivism is radically different fromthis conception of learning. The central



theme of constructivism is that learningis an active process. In other words,information may be imposed on thelearners, but understanding cannot be,for it must come from within. Thereforeconstructivism requires teachers to actas facilitators whose main functionshould be to help the students becomeactive participants in their learning andshould make meaningful connectionsbetween prior knowledge, new knowledgeand the process involved in learning.From Kant to Vygotsky, constructivismhas a variety of schools of thought anddegrees of epistemological extremism(Philip, 1995, Reeves & Okey, 1996).However, there are at least four general(common) constructivist assumptions(Wilson et. al. 1995; Lebow, 1995, Bereiterand Scardamalie, 1992). They are:i. Knowledge is constructed, not

discovered, by the learner;ii. Learning is a social process of

negotiated meanings;iii. The role of a teacher is to scaffold

student’s learning, andiv. Learners should participate in

establishing goals, tasks, and methodsof instruction.

These assumptions have the capacity toaffect all the aspects of teaching andlearning:A. Methods of Teaching:Constructivism suggests to make use ofonly those methods of teaching whichencourage the students to discoverprinciples for themselves. The main goalof these methods should be that thestudents learn how to learn by givingthem training to take initiative for theirlearning experiences. These methodsshould facilitate a process of learning inwhich students should be encouraged tobe responsible for their learning (Bencze,2005). Teachers should encouragestudents’ direct intellectual involvementthrough:(a) Small group work

(b) Student presentation(c) Debate(d) Simulations(e) Brain-storming and(f) Individual studyConstructive classes of the future shouldbe student-centered, most of the activitiesshould be done by students. They shouldbe encouraged to be independentthinkers and problem solvers. Learnersshould be engaged in experiences that gobeyond factual responses and provideopportunities to hypothesize, to analyze,to interpret and to predict (Shneiderman,1993). Another essential component forstudents should be to communicate andcollaborate with others. Thus allowingreinforcement and elaboration of ideasand concepts. The constructivist teachersshould set up problems and monitorstudents’ exploration and should guidethe direction of students inquiry andpromote new.B. Discipline:Constructivism promotes humanistic andstudent-centered discipline models.Founders of these models include CarlRogers, Abraham Maslow and ThomasGordon. These models of discipline whichshould be tried in future schools are:(i) Logical Consequences Model:It focuses on the causes andconsequences of behavioral problems.Students will behave properly if they areconvinced about logical consequences oftheir misbehavior. Logical consequencesmodel increases student autonomy byproviding opportunity to the students tounderstand the reasons of their actionsin the classroom. (Celep: 2002)(ii) Reality Therapy Model:This model focuses on the needs ofstudents, their understanding about theirmisbehaviours’ reasons and learning howto behave more logically. According to theassumption of this model studentsmanage their behavior so they can learnhow to manage their behavior (ibid).


Reality therapy model gives the studentsthe opportunity to see all the possibleresults of their behaviours and it helpsthem to solve the problems, understandtheir needs and know how to meet themlegally.(iii) Teacher Effectiveness Teaching

Model:This model is based upon the assumptionthat every individual has got specificqualities and it is very difficult to managethe students by taking these qualities intoaccount. The main point is to makestudents trust themselves on solvingproblems and making decisions (ibid).Thus this model develops goodrelationship between teacher andstudent. It helps teachers and learnersto evaluate how their own behaviourseffect the others and to recognize theirneeds.(iv)Responsible Classroom Management

Model:This model is based upon the idea thatevery student passes of differentdevelopmental stages. A student’sbehaviour, attitude, cognitive efficienciesand physical qualities determine thesedevelopmental stages. It is assumed thatstudents envy the behaviours ofimportant people in their lives such asteachers and they accept their values.Therefore teachers can be role models forstudents with their behaviours, valuesand attitudes (ibid). By this way studentscan be responsible individuals and theycan take the responsibility of their ownbehaviours.Prevention of Problems of Indiscipline:Prevention is always better than cure. Ateacher needs to know how to prevent theoccurrence of these problems. First of alls/he should define various stages of alesson very clearly. Students must bemade aware of what they are doing at thattime and what they will be doing next.Secondly, a clear and an appropriate startto the lesson is crucial to create a positive

atmosphere in the classroom. Phillimy(2006) suggests some organizationalstrategies to maintain discipline in theclass. To exemplify, the teacher needs togive clear instructions to make thestudents understand what they will do.Another aspect of organizationalstrategies is keeping the pupils busy withtheir tasks every time so that they willnot have time to create problems. Anotherorganizational strategy is introducing therules early and explicitly. For not to breakthem students must know what the rulesare. The rules should be as few,reasonable and positive as possible. Inaddition to these the teachers should useinterpersonal strategies to preventindiscipline problems.C. Evaluation:Assessment and evaluation practices infuture can be planned well by relatingthese to the curricular as well as thestudent needs. Evaluation is a part ofgood teaching. There are some effectiveconstructivist evaluation strategies whichare very relevant for use in future schools:a. Anecdotal Records: Anecdotal records

are a form of ongoing assessment ofobservation of students in theclassroom. These jot-notes give theteacher information about how thestudent is processing information,collaborating with students and generalobservations on learning styles,behaviours and attitudes.

b. Celebration of Learning: This is ademonstration where students canshare their expertise in differentsubjects areas with other students,teachers and parents.

c. Exit Cards: This is a short and easyactivity for checking student knowledgebefore, during and after a lesson.

d.Graphic organizers:Graphic organizersare instructional tools and they areused for illustrating prior knowledge.

e. Journals: Teacher can use journals forassessing for process of learning and


student growth. Open-ended andreflective questions for the students toanswer can be journals. Journalsprovide insight on how the learners aresynthesizing their learning.

f. Oral presentations: Students caneasily share their knowledge verbally inoral presentations. Some students mayprefer to do an oral presentation byusing multi media.

g. Peer assessment: This is anassessment in which learners givewritten or verbal feedback to anotherlearner. Checklists, rubics or give awritten response to beer work can beused by peers.

h. Portfolio: A portfolio means arepresentative collection of a student’swork. A student portfolio includes bestwork to date and a few “works inprogress” that show the process.Students can also show theirknowledge, skills and abilities by usingdifferent ways apart from traditionalmedia such as exams and essays.

i. Project-Based Learning: This is aninstructional strategy that givesopportunity to students to discoveranswers to their questions through real-world investigation. These are learningopportunities that motivate studentsand integrate many curriculum aims.

j. Rubrics: Rubrics means makingguideliness or set of expectations usedto assess student level ofunderstanding. These are very usefulto promote learning as students knowthe expectations and what they needto do in order to be more efficient.

k. Simulation: It is role playing duringthe operation of a comparativelycomplex symbolic model of an actual orhypothetical social process; usuallyincludes gaming. It is a quite usefulmethod of evaluation.

D. Teachers’ Duties:As summarized by Brooks and Brooks(1993) future constructivist teachers

should:i. Encourage and accept student

autonomy and initiative;ii. Use a wide variety of materials,

including raw data, primary sourcesand interactive materials and shouldencourage students to use them;

iii. Inquire about student’sunderstandings of concepts beforesharing his/her own understanding ofthose concepts;

iv. Encourage students to engage indialogue with the teacher and with oneanother;

v. Encourage student inquiry by askingthoughtful, open-ended questions andencourage students to ask questions toeach other and seek elaboration ofstudent’s initial responses; engagestudents in experiences that showcontradictions to initial understandingsand then encourage discussion;

vi. Engage students in experiences thatshow contradictions to initialunderstandings and then encouragediscussion;

vii. Provide time for students to constructrelationships and create metaphors;

viii. Assess students understandingthrough application and performance ofopen-structured tasks.

Hence, a constructivist perspective,implies that, the primary responsibilityof the teacher should be to create andmaintain a collaborative problem-solvingenvironment, where students should beallowed to construct their own knowledge,and the teacher should act as a facilitatorand guide.Concluding Remarks:Based on the above discussion aboutimplications of constructivism for variousaspects of learning and teaching, we canconclude that constructivism as alearning theory puts forward newexplanations for learning and teachingaccording to which students are thesubjects in teaching and thus teachers


should offer more humanism cares forstudents and create a favourable teachingenvironment for them. Thusconstructivism emphasizes on theinitiatives and the interaction betweenteacher and students as well as amongstudents themselves. Thus students infuture schools should be asked to focuson exploration learning and cooperativelearning based on previous knowledgeand experiences by means of interactiveactions. By this way, students canimprove their cognitive ability

REFERENCESBencze, J.L. (2005). Constructivism (Online Article) retrieved on December 16, 2010

from http://www.leo.oise.utoronto. ca/lbencze/constructivism. html#constructivist%20 learning .

Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, L. (1992). Constructivist values for instructional design:Five principles toward a new mindset. Educational Technology Research andDevelopment, 41, 4-16.

Brooks, J.G. and Brooks, M.G. (1993). In Search of Understanding the Case forConstructivist Classrooms. Alexandaria, VA: American Society for CurriculumDevelopment.

Celep, C. (2002). Simif Yonetimi ve Disiplim. Ankara: Ani Yayincilia, 194-255.Cooper, P. (1993). Paradigm Shifts in Designed Instruction: from Behaviourism to

Cognitivism to Constructivism. Educational Technology. 5, 12-18.Jha, Arbind Kumar (2009). Constructivist Epistemology and Pedagogy. New Delhi:

Atlantic.Lebow, D. (1995). Constructivist Values for Instructional Systems Design: Five

Principles towards a New Mindset. In B.Seels (ed.) Instructional DesignFundamentals: A Reconsideration. (175-185). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: EducationalTechnology Publications.

Phillimy, Mc (2006). Organizational and Interpersonal Strategies: Controlling your class.West Sussex: John Willey and Sons.

Phillips, D. C. (1995). The good, the bad and the ugly; the many faces ofConstructivism. Educational Researcher. 24, 5-12.

Shneiderman, B. (March 24, 1993). Constructivism (Online Article). Retrieved onDec 16, 2010 from http://www.towson.edu /csme/mctp/essays/ engagementand construction.txt.

Von Glaserfeld, E. (1984). Radical Constructivism. In P. Watzalwick (Ed.) The InventedReality. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press.

continuously. Teachers can help thestudents in using the positive techniquesand develop the positive attitudes andgood habits in learning. All theseinnovative ideas constitute the completeconstructivism teaching theory system,which can contribute a lot to futureteaching methodologies. Henceconstructivism as a teaching theory hasimportant meanings for education of thefuture generations that focuses onimproving students’ comprehensivequality.

* Dr. Raminder Singh : Assistant Professor, Department of Education,Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda (Punjab)e-mail: [email protected]


Constructivism and Pedagogical Strategies

Abstract



R. Pushpa Namdeo *

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise, that by reflecting on ourexperience we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each one of us generatesour own “mental models” and “rules” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learningtherefore is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.Constructivists allow academic freedom to the students and encourages cooperative learningand sharing of thoughts among students. For developing better understanding in studentspedagogical strategies should also change looking on to constructivist philosophy. Teachersuse various strategies like, problem- based learning, discovery learning, experiential learning,cognitive apprenticeship, situated cognition, self regulated learning, scaffolding, brainstorming,debate etc. In these strategies the focus is on how cognitive processes are facilitated in studentsthrough social interaction.

Introduction:The National Curriculum Framework(NCF)-2005 prepared by NCERT hasproposed a shift in the approach ofteaching and learning from the earlierbehaviorist approach basically becauseof the shift in the theories of learning. Thenew shift is on the constructivistapproach where it is believed that a childconstructs his own knowledge. Theprevalent approach was based onbehaviorism which emphasized that thepurpose of teaching learning was to bringabout desired change in the child’sbehavior through drill and practice. Themetacognitive skills like reasoning,creative thinking, application ofknowledge, interpretation and inferencesetc. were neglected and did not give child,

any opportunity to think and reason outon his own in the behaviorist approachof teaching. But in constructive approachteacher provides children with someunderstanding with the help of whichthey could learn and create their ownvision of knowledge as they interact withthe world and meet the needs of thesociety.Constructivism is basically a theory basedon observation and scientific study abouthow pupil learns. It says that pupilconstruct their own understandingthrough experiencing things andreflecting on those experiences.Constructivism is the process ofconstruction of knowledge. It is thephilosophy that views learning as anactive process in which learners


Constructivism and Pedagogical ......................by R. Pushpa Namdeo 23

construct their own understanding andknowledge of the world through actionand reflection and by connecting newideas to the existing on the basis ofmaterials presented to them.Construction indicates that each learnerindividually and socially constructmeaning as they learn. According toDewey, knowledge is constructed by theknower and there is a relationshipbetween the individual, the communityand is mediated by socially constructedideas. (Oxford, 1997, pp: 35-66).Construction of knowledge has two focalpoints i.e. cognitive constructivism andsocial constructivism. Cognitive constructi-vism as the name defines deals with thecognitive processes associated withconstructing knowledge as individualmake senses of new information withwhich they interact. Social constructivismlays emphasis on social and culturalprocess that takes place in there day today activity.According to constructivist perspective‘knowledge is personally constructed andsocially mediate’. We construct newknowledge, when we experience newinformation that is incongruent with ourprior knowledge. When we make sense ofsuch knowledge we are in the state ofequilibrium regarding that knowledge.The focus of the cognitive constructivismis how individual learn, constructivistwho emphasize social processes viewknowledge as having both individual andsocial components and hold that there isno meaningful way in which thesecomponents can be viewed separately.According to Vygotsky : social, cultural,historical perspective learning is firstaccomplished through the language thatflows between the individuals. Languageand actions were the tools of mediationfor learning. Speaking organizes ourthinking and our language comes to usas a cultural heritage through ourinteraction with others.

Constructivist paradigm calls for a changein the classroom culture, attitude, beliefsand practices. Role of teacher in thisparadigm shifts from transmitter of theknowledge to the explorer or investigatorof the knowledge. Role of student changesfrom ‘knowledge acquisitions’ to the‘knowledge constructor’. In theconstructivist classroom, studentsdesign, experiment, hypothesize, drawsconclusion and compares its findings andresults with those of others. Teacher isthe manager and the organizer of the classwhereas in the objective classroomteacher is the controller of the class. Itleads to major shift from teacher centereddirect instruction towards studentcentered understanding based teaching.Constructivism is based on followingassumptions:-Knowledge is constructed from

experience.-Knowledge is socially constructed.-Learning is an active process and teacher

is a facilitator.-Problem solving is a part of learning.Characteristics of Constructivism:1. According to constructivism learning

is not a process of transmission ofinformation from teachers to students.It provides a group situation whichenhances collaborative learning fornegotiation of meaning, sharing ofmultiple views and changing theinternal representation of the externalreality.

2. Active role of teacher enhancesstudent’s cognition. Allowing studentsto ask questions which relate learningin school with outside, encouragingstudents to answer their question fromtheir own perspective will increase theirunderstanding. A sensitive andinformed teacher engages childrenthrough well chosen tasks, questions,activities etc. so that students are ableto realize their potential. Activeengagement involves inquiry,


exploration, questioning, debates,application and reflection leading totheory building and creation of newideas. School must provideopportunities for all these.

3. Basic processes which are involved inconstructivist learning situation areobservation, contextualization,cognitive apprenticeship, collaboration,interpretation construction, multipleinterpretations and multiplemanifestations.

Assumptions of ConstructivistPedagogy• Learning should take place in authentic

and real world environment.• Learning should involve social

negotiation and mediation.• Content and skills should be made

relevant to the learner.• Content and skills should be understood

within the framework of the learner’sprior knowledge.

• Students should be assessedformatively, serving to inform futurelearning experiences.

• Students should be encouraged tobecome self regulatory, self-mediatedand self aware.

• Teacher serves primarily as guides andfacilitators of learning not instructors.

• Teacher must provide for and encouragemultiple perspectives andrepresentations of content.

• Encouragement and acceptance ofstudent’s autonomy and initiative.

• Encouragement of students to engage in dialogue, both with teacher and with

one another.• Encouragement of student’s inquiry by

asking thoughtful, open endedquestions and encouraging them to askquestion with one another.

• Pursuit of elaboration of student’s initialresponse.

• Engagement of students in experience

that engender contradiction to theirhypothesis and then encouragediscussion.

Constructivist Teaching StrategiesUnder the theory of constructivism,teachers focus on making theconnections between facts and fosteringnew understanding among the students.Strategies provide the methods to helpstudents formulate questions intosomething that can be explored, developthe skill necessary for the exploration andidentify the format that would be best forthe investigation. Each strategy isappropriate for particular circumstances.Teachers tailor their teaching strategiesto student’s responses and encouragestudents to analyze, interpret and predictinformation. Teacher also relies heavilyon open ended questions and promotesextensive dialogue among students.When we look on to assumptions ofconstructive teaching as well ascharacteristics of constructivistclassroom we can say that the strategyused for teaching in constructivistclassroom is also different. There aremany strategies which can be employedin constructivist classroom. These are:Co-operative LearningSocial interaction is important forlearning because higher mental functionsuch as reasoning, comprehension andcritical thinking originate in socialinteraction and are then internalized byindividual. Thus co-operative learningprovides a social support that studentsneed to move learning forward. David andRoger Johnson, lists five elements thatdefines co-operative learning groups:1. Face to face interaction.2. Collaborative skills.3. Positive interdependence4. Group processing5. Individual identity.There are three major benefits of co-operative learning: first higherachievement and greater productivity,


second more positive relationship andgreater psychological health thirdly socialcompetence and self esteem. Learningcan be enhanced in cooperative learningthrough rehearsal and elaboration,creation and resolution of disequilibriumor scaffolding of higher mental processes.The possible strategies of cooperativelearning are: Jigsaw-A cooperativestructure in which each member of agroup is responsible for teaching othermember of the group one section ofmaterial. Reciprocal questioning-It is theapproach where groups of two or threestudents ask and answer each otherquestions after a lesson. Scriptedcooperation-A learning strategy in whichtwo students take turn summarizingmaterial and critiquing the summaries.Thus cooperative learning is an effectiveteaching strategy in constructivistclassroom.Problem- based learningIt is a student centered, contextualizedlearning. In this learning begins with theproblems to be solved inspite of contentto be mastered. Problem based learningaims at-developing scientificunderstanding through real worldsituation, developing reasoningstrategies, developing self directedlearning strategies. Ideally the problemis real; student’s action matters and theycollaborate to find the solution. Problembased learning has five phases:1. Student’s orientation to the problem,

where the teacher recalls the objectivesof the lesson, describe importantlogistical requirements, and engagestudents to the self selected problemsolving activities.

2.Organise students for study, whereteacher help student to organize anddefine study tasks.

3.Assist independent and groupinvestigation, in which students areencouraged to gather appropriateinformation, conduct experiments and

search for explanation and solution.4.Develop and present artifacts and

exhibits.5.Analyse and exhibits the problem

solving process.Discovery LearningDiscovery is the process of self learningin which learners generates concepts andideas. It concentrates upon the closureon some important process, facts,principle or law which is required bysyllabus of particular subject. Indiscovery method, teachers decide inadvance the concepts, the theory, law orpiece of knowledge which is to bediscovered or uncovered by the students.The lesson proceeds through a hierarchyof stages which may be associated withBruner’s level of thoughts i.e. Stage1.Enactive level in which pupils perform

activities which are directly related towhat is to be discovered.

2. Iconic level in which the teacher directsthe thinking of the students to deal withthe experiential situations in terms ofmental images of the object used in theactivities on which the discovery is tobe based.

3.Symbolic level in which students moveto replace the mental images withsymbols in a move to increase generalityand abstraction which results in thediscovery planned by the teacher inadvance.

Experiential LearningIt lays the importance of critical reflectionon learning. It basically emphasizes foursteps that is concrete experience,observation and reflection, formingabstract concepts and testing it in newsituation. It is not just a praxis i.e.connecting of learning to real lifesituations on the other hand it is thetheory that defines the cognitive processof learning and gives importance to criticalreflection.Cognitive ApprenticeshipIt is the term for the instructional process


that teachers provides and supportsstudent with scaffolds as the studentsdevelop cognitive strategies. The basicprocesses in cognitive apprenticeshipare: 1.Students observe the teacher’sperformance as model.

2.Students get external support throughcoaching and tutoring.

3.Students receives scaffolding whichgets faded when students becomeexpert in particular field.

4.Students articulate their knowledgethrough their understanding of theprocess and content being learned.

5.Students reflect on their progress andperformances.6.Students explore newways to apply what they have learnt.

Situated CognitionIt is based on the idea that skills andknowledge are tied to the situation inwhich they were learned. It emphasizethat the real world is not like studying inschool it is more like an apprentice wherenovices with the support of the expertguide and model take on more and moreresponsibility until they are able tofunction independently. It emphasizesapprenticeship, coaching, collaboration,multiple practices and articulation oflearning skills, stories and technology. Italso emphasize sharing and doing andconstructing meaning in social unit.Situated cognition in classroom practicecan be applied in cognition throughpresenting situation in the authenticcontext and by encouraging socialinteraction and collaboration.Self Regulated learningIt has played an important roleconstructivist theory. This learning is thecombination of self observation, selfjudgment and self reaction. This theoryteaches students to become active,motivated, self-regulated learner.Authentic and meaningful classroomactivities that are relevant to real lifesituation are likely to engender student’scognitive activity and conceptual change.

Teachers should equip students with selfregulated strategies so that they becomeindependent thinkers and life longlearners.ScaffoldingIt is the process by which a teacherprovide student with temporary framework of learning. It occurs when a lessskilled learner works at the side of anexpert. It includes modeling, coachingand gradually removing support as theapprentice becomes proficient.DebateIt facilitates articulation of thoughtsthrough the use of language. It can rangefrom highly structured, formal interactionto quite casual exchange of view points.It leads to the positive as well as negativeinterpretation of views about particulartopic thus leading to multipleinterpretations and multiplemanifestations.Case-MethodIt provides an opportunity to enhancelearning through real life situation. Thismethod is important as constructivistapproach emphasize on experientiallearning. It provides information aboutthe situation either simulated or real andlearners responds to the predeterminedquestions.BrainstormingIt supports constructivist learningprinciples through the facilitation ofcollaborative group process where sharedunderstanding is negotiated through asociolinguist process. In this process anew solution to the existing problem isfound, it inspire collective creativity andeffect group synergy. It promotesimaginative expression, develops fellowfeeling and understanding, increasecooperation, causes interest, developsefficient group work, saves time and it issaid to facilitate creative problem solving.Brainstorming is preferred as it providesfreedom to the students to generate newideas.


Conclusion:Constructivist view focuses on howindividuals construct their knowledge onthe basis of their prior experience in aparticular learning situation. Some of theexperiences bring the world to theclassroom, and other extends theclassroom to the world. Therefore we cansay that teaching strategies are of outmostimportance in constructivism and it isupon the teachers how they use thesestrategies in the different context.Constructivist approach places studentsat the centre of the classroom process.

These takes into account student’sdevelopmental stages, maturity,metacognitive and cognitive skills, priorknowledge and experiences, motivationand interest level, personality ,contextand culture. Thus pedagogical strategiessuggest that students should participatein experiences that accommodate theseways of learning. Teacher must provideauthentic learning situation, complexlearning environment and facilitatenegotiation and also a range of strategiesto support individual studentsunderstanding.

REFERENCES

Arenda, R.I. (1997).Classroom Instruction and Management. N. Y.: Mc Graw-Hill.

Bentley, L.M.et al. ( 2007).Teaching Constructivist Science K-8,Corwin Press, A Sage

Publication. New Delhi.

Bruner, J. (1971).The Relevance of Education. N. Y. Norton.

Dewey. (1916)Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the philosophy

Education, Macmillan Company.

Driver, R and Oldham V. (1986).A constructivist approach to curriculum development

in science.Studies in science Education.

Jha, Arbind Kumar.(2009).Constructivist Epistemology and Pedagogy: Insight into

Teaching Learning and Knowing, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi.

NCERT. (2000). National Curriculum for School Education, NCERT, New Delhi.

Sudeesh, P.K and Noushad, P.P. (2011).Social Studies in the Classroom: Trends and

Methods, Scorpio Publishers and Distributors, Kerala.

* R Pushpa Namdeo : Assistant Professor in Education, RegionalInstitute of Education (RIE), Bhopal. (Madhya Pradesh)e-mail : [email protected]


Constructivism Based Teaching : MakingLearning Inclusive

Abstract



Dr. Kundalini Mohanty *

Children are the nation builders of tomorrow hence it is necessary to develop them into logical,creative and optimally thinking individuals. Mere bookish knowledge that prepares highachievers and other graded learners to be ready with set solutions makes them feel embarrassedin the face of fast changing situations in the job-market. So it is the time for revision of curriculumand pedagogy learning towards constructivism based teaching is on the top of priority agendasfor implementation at all levels- global, national, regional and local. Constructivist teachingprovides a rich, problem-solving arena that encourages the learner’s investigation, inventionand inference. The constructivist teacher values learner reflection, cognitive conflict and peerinteraction. Keeping in view the merits constructivism based teaching; there is a very need ofconstructivism based teaching in Indian classrooms from LKG to PG.

IntroductionChildren, the citizens of tomorrow, are thefuture builders of the nation. Therefore,it becomes essential to develop a child’slogical and creative thinking optimally.But these days thinking process andacademic achievement of students havebeen suppressed by competitiveenvironment of our schools. Howstudents perceive each other and interactwith one another is an often neglectedaspect of instruction. There are threebasic ways in which students can interactwith each other as they learn. They cancompete to see who is “best”, they canwork individualistically towards a goalwithout paying attention to otherstudents or they can work cooperativelywith a vested interest in each other’slearning as well as their own. Of the three

interaction patterns, competition ispresently most dominant. It is time thata revision of curriculum and pedagogylearning towards constructivist ways oflearning is on the top of priority agendasfor implementation at all levels- global,national, regional and local. Authoritiesand agencies behind education andevaluation systems at all graded levelsacross the globe have a terrific challengeand responsibility in ensuring that allforms and modes of education andevaluation are geared towards a deeperunderstanding of the vision, theory,research and practices of Constructivismbased teaching methods.Constructivism Based TeachingConstructivist teaching methods arebased on constructivist learning theory.Constructivist learning theory says that


Constructivism Based Teaching : Making ......................by Dr. Kundalini Mohanty 29

knowledge is constructed from a base ofprevious knowledge. Children are not ablank slate and knowledge cannot beimparted without the child making senseof it according to his or her currentconceptions. Therefore children learnbest when they are allowed to constructa personal understanding based onexperiencing things and reflecting onthose experiences. Constructivism is aview of learning based on the belief thatknowledge isn’t a thing that can be simplygiven by the teacher at the front of theroom to students in their desks. Rather,knowledge is constructed by learnersthrough an active, mental process ofdevelopment; learners are the buildersand creators of meaning and knowledge.Constructivism draws on thedevelopmental work of Piaget (1977) andKelly (1991). Twomey Fosnot (1989)defines constructivism by reference tofour principles: learning, in an importantway, depends on what we already know;new ideas occur as we adapt and changeour old ideas; learning involves inventingideas rather than mechanicallyaccumulating facts; meaningful learningoccurs through rethinking old ideas andcoming to new conclusions about newideas which conflict with our old ideas. Aproductive, constructivist classroom,then, consists of learner-centered, activeinstruction. In such a classroom, theteacher provides students withexperiences that allow them tohypothesize, predict, manipulate objects,pose questions, research, investigate,imagine, and invent. The teacher’s role isto facilitate this process. Piaget (1977)asserts that learning occurs by an activeconstruction of meaning, rather than bypassive recipient. He explains that whenwe, as learners, encounter an experienceor a situation that conflicts with ourcurrent way of thinking, a state ofdisequilibrium or imbalance is created.We must then alter our thinking to restore

equilibrium or balance. To do this, wemake sense of the new information byassociating it with what we already know,that is, by attempting to assimilate it intoour existing knowledge. When we areunable to do this, we accommodate thenew information to our old way of thinkingby restructuring our present knowledgeto a higher level of thinking. Similar tothis is Kelly’s theory of personalconstructs (Kelly, 1991). We develop waysof construing or understanding the worldbased on our experiences. When weencounter a new experience, we attemptto fit these patterns over the newexperience. For example, we know fromexperience that when we see a red trafficlight, we are supposed to stop. The pointis that we create our own ways of seeingthe world in which we live; the world doesnot create them for us. Constructivistbeliefs have recently been applied toteaching and learning in the classroom.Characteristics of ConstructivismBased TeachingAccording to Audrey Gray, thecharacteristics of a Constructivistclassroom are as follows:� the learners are actively involved� the environment is democratic� the activities are interactive and stud-

ent -centered� the teacher facilitates a process of

learning in which students areencouraged to be responsible andautonomous

Furthermore, in the constructivistclassroom, students work primarily ingroups and learning and knowledge areinteractive and dynamic. There is a greatfocus and emphasis on social andcommunication skills, as well ascollaboration and exchange of ideas. Thisis contrary to the traditional classroomin which students work primarily alone,learning is achieved through repetition,and the subjects are strictly adhered toand are guided by a textbook. Some


activities encouraged inconstructivist classrooms are:�Experimentation: students individually

perform an experiment and then cometogether as a class to discuss theresults.� Research projects: students research

a topic and can present their findingsto the class.�Field trips: This allows students to put

the concepts and ideas discussed inclass in a real-world context. Field tripswould often be followed by classdiscussions.� Films: These provide visual context

and thus bring another sense into thelearning experience.� Class discussions : This technique is

used in all of the methods describedabove. It is one of the most importantdistinctions of constructivist teachingmethods.

Constructivist approaches can also beused in online learning. For example,tools such as discussion forums, wikisand blogs can enable learners to activelyconstruct knowledge.Role of Teachers in ConstructivismBased TeachingIn the constructivist classroom, theteacher’s role is to prompt and facilitatediscussion. Thus, the teacher’s mainfocus should be on guiding students byasking questions that will lead them todevelop their own conclusions on thesubject.David Jonassen identified three majorroles for facilitators to support studentsin constructivist learning environments:� Modeling� Coaching� ScaffoldingConstructivist Learning Environments(CLEs)Jonassen has proposed a model fordeveloping constructivist learningenvironments (CLEs) around a specificlearning goal. This goal may take one of

several forms, from least to mostcomplex:� Question or issue� Case study� Long-term Project� Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level)Depending on students’ priorexperiences, related cases and scaffoldingmay be necessary for support. Instructorsalso need to provide an authentic contextfor tasks, plus information resources,cognitive tools, and collaborative tools.Constructivist AssessmentTraditionally, assessment in theclassrooms is based on testing. In thisstyle, it is important for the student toproduce the correct answers. However,in Constructivist teaching, the process ofgaining knowledge is viewed as being justas important as the product. Thus,assessment is based not only on tests,but also on observation of the student,the student’s work, and the student’spoints of view. Some assessmentstrategies include:�Oral discussions. The teacher presents students with a “focus” question and

allows an open discussion on the topic.�KWL(H) Chart (What we know, What

we want to know, What wehave learned, How we know it). Thistechnique can be used throughout thecourse of study for a particular topic, butis also a good assessment technique asit shows the teacher the progress of thestudent throughout the course of study.�Mind Mapping. In this activity, students

list and categorize the concepts andideas relating to a topic.�Hands-on activities. These encourage

students to manipulate theirenvironments or a particular learningtool. Teachers can use a checklist andobservation to assess student successwith the particular material.�Pre-testing. This allows a teacher to

determine what knowledge students

Constructivism Based Teaching : Making ......................by Dr. Kundalini Mohanty 31

bring to a new topic and thus will behelpful in directing the course of study.

ConclusionConstructivism promotes social andcommunication skills by creating aclassroom environment that emphasizescollaboration and exchange of ideas.Students must learn how to articulatetheir ideas clearly as well as to collaborateon tasks effectively by sharing in groupprojects. Students must thereforeexchange ideas and so must learn to“negotiate” with others and to evaluatetheir contributions in a socially

REFERENCESCannella, G. S., & Reiff, J. C. (1994). Individual constructivist teacher education:

Teachers as empowered learners. Teacher Education Quarterly 21(3), 27-38.EJ 498 429

DeJong, L., & Groomes, F. (1996). A constructivist teacher education program thatincorporates community service to prepare students to work with children livingin poverty. Action In Teacher Education 18(2), 86-95. EJ 536 849

Fischetti, J., Dittmer, A., & Kyle, D. W. (1996). Shifting paradigms: Emerging issuesfor educational policy and practice. Teacher Educator 31(3), 189-201. EJ 525

Kaufman, D. (1996). Constructivist-based experiential learning in teacher education.Action in Teacher Education 18(2), 40-49. EJ 536 845

Kroll, L. R., & LaBosky, V. K. (1996). Practicing what we preach: Constructivism in ateacher education program. Action In Teacher Education 18(2), 63-72. EJ

Martin, R. J. (1994). Multicultural social reconstructionist education: Design for diversityin teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly 21(3), 77-89. EJ 492 141

Oldfather, P., Bonds, S., & Bray, T. (1994). Drawing the circle: Collaborative mindmapping as a process for developing a constructivist teacher education program.Teacher Education Quarterly 21(3), 5-13. EJ 492 137

O’Loughlin, M. (1995). Daring the imagination: Unlocking voices of dissent and possibilityin teaching. Theory into Practice 24(2), 107-116. EJ 512 860

Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist teaching and teacher education: Theory andpractice. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Constructivist Teacher Education: BuildingNew Understandings (pp. 3-14). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Teets, S. T., & Starnes, B. A. (1996). Foxfire: Constructivism for teachers and learners.Action in Teacher Education 18(2), 31-39. EJ 536 844

Wolffe, R. J., & McMullen, D. W. (1996). The constructivist connection: Linking theory,best practice, and technology. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education12(2), 25-28. EJ 526 775

* Dr. Kundalini Mohanty : Principal, Vidya Sagar College of TeacherEducation, Phansidewa, Darjeeling. West Bengal

e-mail : [email protected]

acceptable manner. This is essential tosuccess in the real world, since they willalways be exposed to a variety ofexperiences in which they will have tocooperate and navigate among the ideasof others. Keeping in view the abovemerits of Constructivism, there is a veryneed of Constructivism based teaching inIndian class rooms from LKG to PG.Learning proceeds more effectively thanusual when exchanges among teachersand learners are frequent and specificallydirected towards students’ problems andinterests.


Constructivism Based Teaching and Learning

Abstract



Dr. Jagannath K. Dange *

This paper describes the meaning and importance of constructivism based teaching and learning,teaching strategies of constructivism, the role of teachers, etc. One component of the currentdevelopment in all subject-area curricula is the change in focus of instruction from thetransmission curriculum to a transactional curriculum. Constructivist classrooms are structuredso that learners are immersed in experiences within which they may engage in meaning-makinginquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection.Teachers need to recognize how people use their own experiences, prior knowledge andperceptions, as well as their physical and interpersonal environments to construct knowledgeand meaning.

Introduction:By the 1980’s, the research of Dewey andVygotsky had blended with Piaget’s workin developmental psychology into thebroad approach of constructivism. Thebasic tenet of constructivism is thatstudents learn by doing rather thanobserving. Students bring priorknowledge into a learning situation inwhich they must critique and re-evaluatetheir understanding of it. This process ofinterpretation, articulation, and re-evaluation is repeated until they candemonstrate their comprehension of thesubject.Constructivism is a philosophical position that views knowledge as theoutcome of experience mediated by one’sown prior knowledge and the experienceof others.Constructivism’s central idea is thathuman learning is constructed, that

learners build new knowledge upon thefoundation of previous learning. This viewof learning sharply contrasts with one inwhich learning is the passivetransmission of information from oneindividual to another, a view in whichreception, not construction is key.Two important notions orbit around thesimple idea of constructed knowledge.The first is that learners construct newunderstandings using what they alreadyknow. There is no tabula rasa on whichnew knowledge is etched. Rather,learners come to learning situations withknowledge gained from previousexperience, and that prior knowledgeinfluences what new or modifiedknowledge they will construct from newlearning experiences.The second notion is that learning isactive rather than passive. Learners


Constructivism Based Teaching and ......................by Dr. Jagannath K. Dange 33

confront their understanding in light ofwhat they encounter in the new learningsituation. If what learners encounter isinconsistent with their currentunderstanding, their understanding canchange to accommodate new experience.Learners remain active throughout thisprocess: they apply current understa-ndings, note relevant elements in newlearning experiences, judge theconsistency of prior and emergingknowledge, and based on that judgment;they can modify knowledge (Wesley A.Hoover, 1996).The term constructivism refers to the ideathat learners construct knowledge forthemselves-each learner individually (andsocially) constructs meaning-as he or shelearns. Constructing meaning is learning;there is no other kind. The dramaticconsequences of this view are twofold;1) We have to focus on the learner inthinking about learning (not on thesubject/lesson to be taught):2) There is no knowledge independent ofthe meaning attributed to experience(constructed) by the learner, or commu-nity of learners. (George E. Hein 1991)Constructivism is basically a theory -based on observation and scientific study- about how people learn. It says thatpeople construct their own underst-anding and knowledge of the world,through experiencing things andreflecting on those experiences (Vygotski,L. and Cole, M .1978). When we encountersomething new, we have to reconcile itwith our previous ideas and experience,maybe changing what we believe, ormaybe discarding the new information asirrelevant. In any case, we are activecreators of our own knowledge. To do this,we must ask questions, explore, andassess what we know. The NationalCurriculum Framework,2005 alsorecommends that curriculum should helplearners to become constructors ofknowledge and emphasizes the active role

of teachers in relation to the process ofknowledge construction.“It is assumed that learners have toconstruct their knowledge individuallyand collectively. Each learner has a toolkit of concepts and skills with which heor she must construct knowledge to solveproblems presented by the environment.The role of community other learners andteacher is to provide the setting, pose thechallenges and offer the support that willencourage constriction” (Davis, Noddings,1990).Five basic assumptions of Constructivismare:1. Knowledge is actively constructed by

the learner, not passively received fromthe environment.

2. Much human activity is devoted toordering process the organizationalpatterning of experience by means oftacit, emotional meaning-makingprocess.

3. The organization of personal activity isfundamentally self-reliant or recursive.

4. Individuals cannot be understood apartfrom their organic embeddness in socialand symbolic systems.

5. All of his active, meaningful andsocially embossed self-organizationreflects an ongoing development flow inwhich dynamic dialectical tensions areessential.

Constructivist Teaching Strategies:Constructivist teaching is based onconstructivist learning theory. Thistheoretical framework holds that learningalways builds upon knowledge that astudent already knows; this priorknowledge is called a schema. Becauseall learning is filtered through pre-existing schemata, constructivistssuggest that learning is more effectivewhen a student is actively engaged in thelearning process rather than attemptingto receive knowledge passively. A widevariety of methods claim to be based onconstructivist learning theory. Most of


these methods rely on some form ofguided discovery where the teacheravoids most direct instruction andattempts to lead the student throughquestions and activities to discover,discuss, appreciate, and verbalize the newknowledge. (Twomey Fosnot, C. 1989).The basic Principals which are essentialto constructivist teaching as given byBrooks J.G. and. Brooks M.G are:1. Encouragement and acceptance of

student autonomy and initiative.2. Utilization of raw data and primary

sources along with manipulative,interactive, and physical materials.

3.When planning, teachers use cognitiveterminology such as “classify”,“analyze”, and “create.”

4.Allowance of student responses to drivelessons, shift instructional strategies,and alter content.

5.Inquiry concerning students’understanding of concept beforesharing their own understanding ofthose concepts.

6.Encouragement of students to engagein dialogue, both with the teacher andwith one another.

7. Encouragement of student inquiry byasking thoughtful, open-endedquestions and encouraging students toask questions of each other.

8. Pursuit of elaboration of students’initial responses.

9. Engagement of students in experiencesthat might engender contradictions totheir initial hypotheses and thenencourage discussion.

10. Allowances for wait time after posingquestions.

11. Providing time for students toconstruct relationships and createmetaphors.

12. Nurturing students’ natural curiositythrough frequent use of the learningcycle model.

Examples of constructivist activitiesFurthermore, in the constructivist

classroom, students work primarily ingroups and learning and knowledge areinteractive and dynamic. There is a greatfocus and emphasis on social andcommunication skills, as well ascollaboration and exchange of ideas. Thisis contrary to the traditional classroomin which students work primarily alone,learning is achieved through repetition,and the subjects are strictly adhered toand are guided by a textbook (Waite-Stupiansky, S. 1997). Some activitiesencouraged in constructivist classroomsare:• Experimentation: students individually

perform an experiment and then cometogether as a class to discuss theresults.

• Research projects: students researcha topic and can present their findingsto the class.

• Field trips: This allows students to putthe concepts and ideas discussed inclass in a real-world context. Field tripswould often be followed by classdiscussions.

• Films: These provide visual context andthus bring another sense into thelearning experience.

• Class discussions: This technique isused in all of the methods describedabove. It is one of the most importantdistinctions of constructivist teachingmethods.

Constructivist approaches can also beused in online learning. For example,tools such as discussion forums, wikisand blogs can enable learners to activelyconstruct knowledge.Role of Teachers: In the constructivistclassroom, the teacher’s role is to promptand facilitate discussion. Thus, theteacher’s main focus should be on guidingstudents by asking questions that willlead them to develop their ownconclusions on the subject.Constructivist teachers encouragestudents to constantly assess how the

Constructivism Based Teaching and ......................by Dr. Jagannath K. Dange 35

activity is helping them gainunderstanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students inthe constructivist classroom ideallybecome “expert learners.” This gives themever-broadening tools to keep learning.With a well-planned classroom environ-ment, the students learn ‘How to Learn’.David Jonassen(1999) identified majorroles for facilitators to support studentsin constructivist learning environments:• Modeling• Coaching• Scaffolding• Encourages and accepts students’

autonomy and initiative andencourages students to engage indialogue with the teacher and with oneanother.

• Teacher relationship must shift fromauthority and control to guidance,support and facilitating.

• Teacher’s role is interactive rooted innegotiation providing tools such asproblem solving and inquiry basedlearning activities with which studentsformulate and test their ideas, drawconclusions and inferences and pooland convey their knowledge in acollaborative learning environment.

Constructivist ClassroomStudents are not blank slates upon whichknowledge is etched. They come tolearning situations with alreadyformulated knowledge, ideas, andunderstandings. This previous knowledgeis the raw material for the new knowledgethey will create. The student is the personwho creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderatesand suggests, but allows the studentsroom to experiment, ask questions, trythings that don’t work. Learning activitiesrequire the students’ full participation(like hands-on experiments). This processmakes them experts of their own learning.The teacher helps create situations wherethe students feel safe questioning and

reflecting on their own processes, eitherprivately or in group discussions. Theteacher should also create activities thatlead the student to reflect on his or herprior knowledge and experiences. Talkingabout what was learned and how it waslearned is really important.The constructivist classroom reliesheavily on collaboration among students.There are many reasons whycollaboration contributes to learning. Themain reason it is used so much inconstructivism is that students learnabout learning not only from themselves,but also from their peers. When studentsreview and reflect on their learningprocesses together, they can pick upstrategies and methods from one another.The main activity in a constructivistclassroom is solving problems. Studentsuse inquiry methods to ask questions,investigate a topic, and use a variety ofresources to find solutions and answers.As students explore the topic, they drawconclusions, and, as explorationcontinues, they revisit those conclusions.Exploration of questions leads to morequestions.Students have ideas that they may latersee were invalid, incorrect, or insufficientto explain new experiences. These ideasare temporary steps in the integration ofknowledge. For instance, a child maybelieve that all trees lose their leaves inthe fall, until she visits an evergreenforest. Constructivist teaching takes intoaccount students’ current conceptionsand builds from there. (Mahoney M.J2004)Conclusion: Many researchers suggestthat constructivist teaching is an effectiveway to teach. It encourages active andmeaningful learning and promotesresponsibility and autonomy, becauseconstructivist teaching is beneficial inachieving desirable educational goals forstudents it is important for teacher togrow professionally towards a


constructivist practice. The responsibilityfor the professional development ofteacher falls largely on teachersthemselves. To encourage incentive, theteachers need to be provided withopportunities, resources, supportencouragement and recognition in theirprofessional development pursuits. Theyneed to know that their efforts are beingsupported by their colleagues,

REFERENCES

Brooks M.G and Brooks J.G. (1993). In search of understanding: The casefor constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA:

Davis, Noddings, (1990) Constructivism in mathematics education’, in Davis, Maherand Noddings (Eds.) Constructivist views on the teaching and learning ofmathematics. JRME Monograph, Reston, Virginia, NCTM

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: The MacMillan Company.George E. Hein (1991) The Museum and the Needs of People, International Committee

of Museum Educators Conference, Jerusalem Israel. Jonassen, D. H. (1999) Constructing learning environments on the web: Engaging

students in meaningful learning. EdTech 99: Educational TechnologyConference and Exhibition 1999: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation.

Mahoney M.J (2004) what is constructivism and why it is growing? ContemporaryPsychology. 49,360-363

NCF (2005), National Curriculum Framework, NCERT,New Delhi.Twomey Fosnot, C. (1989). Enquiring teachers, enquiring learners: A constructivist

approach for teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.Vygotski, Lev and Cole Michael (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher

Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press,Waite-Stupiansky, S. (1997) Building understanding together: A constructivist

approach to early childhood education. Albany, NY: Delmar.Wesley A. Hoover, (1996) Constructivism, SEDL Letter, Volume IX, No. 3, August.

administrators and school boards.Constructivism represents one of the bigideas in education. Its implications forhow teachers teach and learn to teach areenormous. If our efforts in reformingeducation for all students are to succeed,then we must focus on students. To date,a focus on student-centered learning maywell be the most important contributionof constructivism.

* Dr. Jagannath K. Dange : Assistant Professor, Department of P. G .Studies and Research in Education, Jnana Sahyadri KuvempuUniversity, Shankaraghatta. Shimoga. (Karnataka).


Constructivism : A New Paradigm ......................by Dr. Savita Sharma 37

Constructivism: A New Paradigm in Education

Abstract



Dr. Savita Sharma *

Constructivism is an emerging pedagogy across the world and (NCF-2005) has strongly recom-mended it in Indian classroom situation. In this paper, the broader meaning of Constructivismin its pedagogic version, the distinct features of the Constructivist classroom, Constructivistteaching learning process as well as instructional strategies, Constructivist evaluation and itstools and its techniques have been discussed. By focusing on how to learn Constructivist teach-ing can actually enable the learners to be self-initiating active Constructivist with in the mindand active co-constructivist with others for constructing socially and culturally defined knowl-edge and values.

IntroductionEducation has been undergoing a slowbut continuous evolution : from teacher-centred to learner-centred and morerecently to learning-centred system andthis demands revolutionary changes inthe instructional process. In the presentera of globalisation and knowledgeexplosion, when learners have easyaccess to more information channels,there learning styles have also changed.In addition to this, with theimplementation of Programme ofUniversalisation of ElementaryEducation and with The Right toEducation- 2009, majority of studentsin classrooms are first-generationstudents besides hailing from diversebackgrounds. In such a scenario ofheterogeneity, for a curriculum to beeffective in the classroom it must consistof different ways of motivating the

students, different methods of teachingand individualised opportunities for thelearners.The National Curriculum Framework(NCF-2005) recommends a paradigmshift for rote memory to learning byunderstanding where in schools, insteadof filling students, minds with mare facts,rather should facilitate the process ofknowledge construction. The NCF-2005underscores this fact by emphasisingthat ‘child-centred pedagogy meansgiving primacy to children’s experiences,their voices and their active participation.Our school pedagogic practices, learningtasks and the texts for learners tend tofocus on the socialisation of children andon the receptive features of children’slearning. Instead, we need to nurture andbuild on their active and creative abilities-their inherent interest in makingmeaning, in relating to the world in real



ways through acting on it creating andin relating to other humans.’Three Theories of learningBehavioural, Cognitive and Constru-ctivist theories have specially influencedthe system of instructional design in thepast about 150 years.1. Theory of Behaviourism : The main focus of Behaviourism is on

overt behaviours of students that areobservable and measurable. By seekingto establish human mind as a ‘blackbox’ that observes stimulus andresponse qualitatively.

2. Theory of Cognitivism : It emphasises that prior knowledge has

a direct impact on the new learningtasks. By recognising that learninginvolves associations establishedthrough contiguity and repetition, itacknowledges the importance of re-enforcement. Knowledge is notimparted as it already exists in thehuman mind and is only brought forth.

3.Theory of Constructivism : The Constructivist approach to

education is not a new concept thoughthis is the in thing today. According tothis approach learning is a process ofconstruction/creation of knowledge byconnecting new ideas to existing ideas.The teacher’s role as a facilitator, ‘ aguide on the site’ is to pose problemsthat challenge the thinking of learnerstowards more complete understanding.

Historical PerspectiveThe concept of Constructivism has rootsin classical antiquity, going back toSocrates dialogues with his followers inthe streets of Athens, in which he askeddirect questions to ignite their minds toarrive at new generalisations. As aphilosophy of learning constructivismgoes back to 18th century in the works ofGiambattista Vico, who commented, “Oneonly knows something if one can onlyexplain it”. But the first majorcotemporaries could develop a clear idea

of constructivism are Jean Piaget andJohn Dewey.Meaning of ConstructivismThe term refers to the idea thatindividuals, through their interactionwith the environment construct their ownknowledge and meaning. It has ametaphorical reference to construction,meaning thereby that human beings arebuilders, shapers and designers who havebeen creating artifacts from simple potsto skyscrapers. The Constructivistparadigm as advocated by Piaget andBruner, stresses that whatever gets intothe mind has to be constructed by theindividual through knowledge discovery.Thus, learning is an interaction betweenthe learner and the learning environment.During this interaction, prior knowledgeis used as a basis to interpret andconstruct new understanding.Basic Assumptions of Constructivism• Knowledge is actively constructed by

the learner, not passively received fromthe environment.

• Much human activity is devoted toordering process -the organizationalpatterning of experience.

• The organization of personal activity isfundamentally a self- reliant one.

• Individuals cannot be understood apartfrom their organic embeddedness insocial and symbolic systems.

• All of his active, meaningful and sociallyembossed self-organization reflects anongoing development flow in whichdynamic dialectical tensions areessential.

Features of a Constructivist classroomThe constructivist classroom reliesheavily on collaboration among students.In a classroom where constructivistideology is followed :• learning experiences are provided by

asking questions with adequate time forhigher level thinking.

• students autonomy and initiative areaccepted and encouraged thereby


developing their own intellectualidentity.

• discussing/sharing ideas with the groupand the teacher; thereby one will be ableto find out whether his idea is true orfalse, sufficient or insufficient, etc.

• providing opportunities for students totest their hypothesis by encouragingthe discussion of concrete experiences.

• generating abstract concepts throughthe use of primary sources and throughmanipulative and interactive materials.

Role of a TeacherConstructivism modifies the role of ateacher from a manager, supervisor, ‘asage on the stage’ to a mediator, mentor,actuator, facilitator, ‘a guide on the site’.A teacher helps students by providingtools such as problem-solving andenquiry-based learning activities withwhich students formulate and test theirideas, draw conclusions and inferencesand pool and convey their knowledge ina collaborating learning environment.Instructional StrategiesFor facilitating cognitive processes in theminds of learner, some instructionalstrategies that help cognitive processingare following :1. Team Teaching is suitable in case of a

need to pool resources, interests andexpertise in order to devise andimplement a scheme of instructionsuitable to the needs of the learners aswell as to the facilities of the school. Itis a shared accomplishment ofintegrative teaching built around topicsresulting in the integration of subjects.Because of flexibility of teachingmethods, time and process, it helps thelearners with varying degrees toconstruct their own knowledge.

2. Brainstorming promotes imaginativeexpression, develops fellow feelings andunderstanding . It is more appropriatewhen a problem to be solved requirescollective rummaging for ideas bymaking each member of the group give

free expression to his/her ideas bywithholding all criticism or evaluationand listing all major ideas from theimportant stages in brainstorming. Theessence of this technique is the solutiongeneration rather than the solutionevaluation.

3. Experiential Learning connotes learningby experience or learning by doing,when changes in judgments, feelings,knowledge or skills result for aparticular person from living throughan event. A model developed by Kolb &Fry (1975) depicts learning as a four-stage cycle with each stage requiringdifferent abilities and skills on the partof the learner. The stage (a) is a concretepersonal experience which is followedby (b) observation and reflection of thatexperience. These reflections areconnected into (c) abstract conceptsand generalizations which are(d) thentested in new situations.

4. Cooperative Learning providesopportunity to students to interact face-to-face. Group members experiencepositive interdependence. They needeach other for support, explanations,and guidance. Even though they worktogether and help each other, membersof the group must ultimatelydemonstrate learning on their own.

5. Cognitive Apprenticeships is arelationship in which a less experiencedlearner acquires knowledge and skillsunder the guidance of an expert. Byworking alongside a master andperhaps other apprentices, youngpeople have learned many skills, trades,and crafts. In this way teachers provideexperiences, guide discussions, andassume a supportive role in the processof students’ attempts at developingunderstanding.

6. Problem-Based Learning confrontstudents with a real problem that hasmeaning for them. Ideally, the problemis real, students actions matters, and


they collaborate to find solutions.Generally it has five phases :

(i)orienting students to the problems. (ii) organising students for study. (iii) assisting independent and group investigation.(iv) developing and presenting reports,

videos, models etc. and(v) analysing and evaluating the problem

solving process.7.Discovery Learning refers to a process

of self-learning whereby learnersgenerate concepts and ideas. In theknowledge construction process,learners use discovery processes in theinitial perplexing phases of thinking,whereas inquiry processes in the moreadvanced formal verification phases.

Constructivist Evaluation PracticesConstructivism calls for a reconsiderationof evaluation and grading procedure.Students are expected to take an activepart in their own assessment of theirknowledge and in the assessment oflearning situations. Evaluation of thestudent understanding and performancemust be ongoing and cumulative, ratherthan the summative evaluation. Periodic,focused assessments becomes the toolsof evaluation. Paulu (1994) has made thefollowing strong recommendations fordesigning new evaluation system andstrategies.•Evaluation programmes must be

combined with high performancestandards and must encourage and leadlearning... not just measure it.

•Evaluation must measure what is valuedand not just those skills that are quickand easy to measure.

•Evaluation should be part of the learningrather than to terminate learning

•Evaluation should be fair and equitableas well as valid and reliable.

•Teachers must be involved in the designof evaluation programmes.

These are the pertinent questions to betaken into consideration for Evaluation:

1. What should be evaluated? Along with final performance of the

students, the teacher must know :- the prior knowledge of the learners inthe particular area,- the personal and social attributes ofthe learners,- the physical and health developmentof the learners for evaluating the ideasby the learner.

2. How should it be evaluated? Several types of tools and techniques as well as records are necessary to doholistic evaluation of the students’learning and to encourage conceptualunderstanding as well as process of skilldevelopment.a) Anecdotal Records : These are a form

of jotted notes of ongoing assessmentof observation of student in theclassroom. These provide the teacherwith information about the way astudent is processing information withstudents as well as general observationson learning styles, attitude andbehaviour.

b) Celebration of Learning: Ademonstration where students have anopportunity to share their expertise inseveral subjects areas with otherstudents teachers and parents.

c) Exit Cards : These involve an easy, afew minutes activity to check student’sknowledge before, during and after alesson or complete unit of study.Student responds to three questionsposed by the teacher.

d) Portfolios : A representative collectionof an individual student’s work.Students show their knowledge, skillsand abilities in a variety of different ways.

A few special evaluation techniques forauthentic assessment are given below :a) Reflective Questioning - It requires students to reflect on the

content and to use their knowledgedifferently from what they experiencedin the lesson.


- It encourages students to use a varietyof approaches to solve a problem.

b) Hands-On Assessment/PerformanceAssessment

- Students must manipulate materialsfrom the lesson in order to completetasks that enable them to demonstratewhat they understand.

- Students must use their knowledgeand skills in a practical way to solve aproblem.

c) Pictorial Assessment - It requires students to complete

reasoning tasks that differ fromtraditional fill-in, multiple choice andone-answer task.

- It uses pictures that represent familiarobjects and events. Students arerequired to apply what they havelearned and to communicate what theyhave understood.

d) Concept Mapping : These are essentialtools for planning and teaching and canhelp improve students’ conceptconceptions.

ConclusionConstructivism advocates a curricularemphasis on learning, how to learn andon critical thinking as opposed to stresson accumulating ready-made verbalisedknowledge. Learners learn more andenjoy learning when they are activelyinvolved in real-world context activities.It also transforms the role of a teacherfrom mere manager, a sage on the stageto a mentor, mediator, a guide on the siteand metamorphoses the student fromactive listener and passive recipient of theinformation to active thinker and self-initiating active constructivist. Studentslearn how to articulate their ideas clearlyand to collaborate on tasks by sharing ingroup projects. Thus, constructivistparadigm, a meaningful framework forreplacing, analysing and evaluatingeducational events, provides truemeaning to education, expressed in thewords of William Butler Yeats, “Educationis not the filling of a pail, but the lightingof a fire”.

REFERENCES

ANWESHIKA (2008) : Indian Journal Of Teacher Education, Vol.5, No. 1, June 2008,National Council Of Teacher Education, New Delhi.

Dash , N.K (2002) : Implications of Constructivism for Instructional Design in Openand Distance Learning, University News, 40(4), 33- 38.

Dewey John (1996) : Democracy And Education, New York : Free Press.John W.Best & James V. Kahn (1995) : Research in Education, Prentice Hall of

India, Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi.Kasinath, H.M (2009) : Constructivism and Instructional Strategies in EDUTRACKS,

December-2009, Vol.9, No.4, 15-19, Neel Kamal Publications Pvt. Ltd. ,Hyderabad.

NCERT (2005) : National Curriculum Framework – 2005, New Delhi.Sridevi, K.V (2007) : Constructivism : A Shift in the Paradigm of Teaching Learning

Process in EDUTRACKS, December 2007, Vol.7 No.4 , 19-13, Neel KamalPublications Pvt. Ltd. , Hyderabad.

Yager, R.E.(1991) : The Constructivist Learning Model towards Real reform in ScienceEducation, The Science Teacher, 58(6), 52-57.

* Dr. Savita Sharma : Associate Prof., Govt. College of Teacher Education,Dharamshala. (H.P.). e-mail : [email protected]


Constructivist Classroom – Characteristicsand Teacher’s Role

Abstract



Ajit Mondal * & Dr. Jayant Mete **

Constructivism has received considerable attention in education and its policy formation recently.It has been heralded as a natural, relevant, productive and empowering framework for bothteacher education and school education. It is basically a theory–based on observation andscientific study – about how people learn. A constructivist classroom exhibits some markedfeatures that are different from a traditional classroom. In the constructivist perspective,classroom environment is maintained in such a way that students actively participate in learningwhich involves inventing and constructing knowledge and new ideas. The role of teacher hasalso shifted from the transmitter of knowledge to facilitator of knowledge. This paper identifiesmajor forms of constructivism in conjunction with the characteristics of a constructivist classroomand the role of teacher in a constructivist classroom.

IntroductionConstructivism has greatly influenced thefield of education. It has been at theforefront of academic debates amongresearchers and practitioners.Constructivism is an outgrowth ofcognitive science. Constructingknowledge on the basis of previousknowledge is called constructivism. Therole of teacher undergoes a majortransformation from the imparter ofknowledge to facilitator of conditions,which will help learner in the process ofknowledge construction.Constructivism is an epistemology, alearning or meaning-making theory, thatoffers an explanation of the nature ofknowledge and how human beings learn.It maintains that individuals create orconstruct their own new understandings

or knowledge through the interaction ofwhat they already know and believe andthe ideas, events, and activities withwhich they come in contact (Richardson,1997). Learning activities inconstructivist settings are characterizedby active engagement, inquiry, problemsolving, and collaboration with others.Constructivist approaches are regardedas producing greater internalization anddeeper understanding than traditionalmethods.The constructivist epistemology assertsthat the only tools available to a knowerare the senses. It is only through seeing,hearing, touching, smelling and tastingthat an individual interacts with theenvironment. The individual builds apicture of the world using these sensesonly. Therefore, constructivism resides in


Constructivist Classroom-.................by Ajit Mondal & Dr. Jayant Mete 43

students and that knowledge can not betransferred without any transformationfrom the head of a teacher to the headsof students.National Curriculum Framework (NCF2005) has given guiding principles ofconstructivism, which are as follows :• Learning is a process of construction of

knowledge.• Knowledge is constructed by the

students.• Constructing meaning is learning.• Child constructs knowledge from

experiencing the world.• By interacting with the environment the

child constructs knowledge and derivesmeaning.

• Local knowledge has to occupy a majorplace in school knowledge.

According to constructivism, learning isnot a treasure hunting game wherestudents are trying to guess what is inteacher’s head but a process that createsmeaning and knowledge. So the mainfocus is “how to learn” rather than “whatto learn”.The constructivist epistemology is basedon the premise that learning does notinvolve discovering the reality, butconstructing the reality. According to theconstructivist theory, knowledge is beingactively constructed by the individual andlearning is an adoptive process based onthe experiences of individual (Hendry,1996). Therefore, learning is not mereabsorption of knowledge and learner isno longer controlled respondent to stimulias in the behaviourist approach(Jonassen, 1999).Vadeboncoeur (1997) identifies threesignificant strands within theseinterpretations – Piagetian, sociocultural,and emancipatory, constructivism –strands differentiated primarily by 1. thesubject of study, 2. views about howcognitive forms develop, and 3. “theliberatory power of the pedagogicalapproaches derived”. In general, two

broad interpretations can be found amongcontemporary educators – psychologicalconstructivism, most notably articulatedby Piaget, and social constructivism,associated with Vygotsky.Psychological ConstructivismPsychological or Piagetian constructivistsgenerally regard the purpose of educationas educating the individual child in afashion that supports the child’s interestsand needs; consequently, the child is thesubject of study, and individual cognitivedevelopment is the emphasis. Learningis primarily an individualistic enterprise.This is a child-centered approach thatseeks to identify, through scientific study,the natural path of cognitive development(Vadeboncoeur, 1997). This approachassumes that students come toclassrooms with ideas, beliefs, andopinions that need to be altered ormodified by a teacher who facilitates thisalteration by devising tasks and questionsthat create dilemmas for students.Knowledge construction occurs as aresult of working through thesedilemmas. Characteristic instructionalpractices include “discovery learning” andhands-on activities, such as usingmanipulatives; student tasks thatchallenge existing concepts and thinkingprocesses; and questioning techniquesthat probe students’ beliefs andencourage examination and testing ofthose beliefs (Richardson, 1997).To a large extent, internal developmentis the focus of the teaching environment,and the social and historical context, aswell as issues of power, authority, andthe place of formal knowledge in thelearning environment are not emphasized(Richardson, 1997). It is essentially adecontextualized approach to learningand teaching. Critics of the psychologicalconstructivist approach depreciate itslack of attention to “the influence of theclassroom culture and the broader socialcontext” (Vadeboncoeur, 1997), as well as


disregard for power issues, particularlypower issues related to knowledgeproduction (Martin, 1994; Richardson,1997; Vadeboncoeur, 1997).Social ConstructivismSocial or Vygotskian constructivismemphasizes education for socialtransformation and reflects a theory ofhuman development that situates theindividual within a socio-cultural context.Individual development derives fromsocial interactions within which culturalmeanings are shared by the group andeventually internalized by the individual(Richardson, 1997). Individuals constructknowledge in transaction with theenvironment, and in the process both theindividual and the environment arechanged. The subject of study is thedialectical relationship between theindividual and the social and culturalmilieu.Schools are the socio-cultural settingswhere teaching and learning take placeand where “cultural tools” such asreading, writing, mathematics, andcertain modes of discourse are utilized(Richardson, 1997). This approachassumes that theory and practice do notdevelop in a vacuum; they are shaped bydominant cultural assumptions (Martin,1994). Both formal knowledge, thesubject of instruction, and the manner ofits presentation are influenced by thehistorical and cultural environment thatgenerated them. To accomplish the goalsof social transformation andreconstruction, the context of educationmust be deconstructed, and the culturalassumptions, power relationships, andhistorical influences that undergird itmust be exposed, critiqued, and, whennecessary, altered. Variants of socialconstructivism include situatedconstructivism, social re-constructivism,socio-cultural constructivism, socio-historical constructivism, andemancipatory constructivism.

Characteristics of ConstructivistClassroomTeaching learning process is not only anarrangement of teaching strategies butsetting of situations and environment inwhich learning process is recognised andsupported. For creating such situationand environment, a constructivistclassroom has certain characteristics asdiscussed below :1. Interactive Teaching-Learning:Learning takes place within a net of socialrelationships as teachers and pupilsinteract both formally and informally.Teacher creates interactive situations forunderstanding students’ concepts andthen refines or revises those concepts byasking questions, posing contradictions,engaging them in inquiries and / orencouraging research (Prabha, 2010).There is no domination of teacher andlearning takes place in a collaborativeenvironment and experiences.Collaborative teaching, group discussion,group work and assignment and projectwork are some of the essential elementsof an interactive classroom. Teachermakes all possible efforts to make herclassroom interactive. This interaction ismultidirectional. Therefore, a variety ofgroup activities with minimal teacherinput are encouraged to promotecommunication among students and tofacilitate the individual student’s self-discovery of the subject matter.2. Use of Students’ Prior Knowledge:Awareness and acknowledgement ofstudents’ prior knowledge are essentialfor teaching learning process in aconstructivist classroom. Teacher needsto provide an encouraging environmentin which students are comfortable withwhat is not yet known to them and feel atease to share their ideas with their peersand teacher. It facilitates students toconstruct and reconstruct theirknowledge relating it with their previousknowledge.


3. Child-Centred Classroom :Constructivist classroom places a childin the centre position of the classroom.Ideas initiated by students are acceptedand encouraged. Students’ opinions arevalued. NCF-2005 establishes the needto recognize the child as a natural learner,and knowledge as the outcome of thechild’s own activity. Students’experiences, their voices and their activeparticipation are valued. Students are notridiculed or rebuked for asking questions.They are allowed to ask questions, makemistakes and to correct those mistakes.They learn from the positive experiencesof social set up of the classroom. Focusis given to what students are learningrather than what the teacher is teaching.They are involved in all the activities ofclassroom and at all stages of teachinglearning processes. Lindfors (1984)advises that how we teach shouldoriginate from how students learn.4.Democratic Classroom Management:Democratic environment of the classroomfacilitates constructive learning. Suchenvironment emphasises sharedresponsibility in learning and decision-making. Students are directly involved inall the activities of the classroom. Teacherin a constructivist classroom designs andmanages her activities in such a way thatstudents are eager and ready to exchangetheir ideas. They are not afraid of beingridiculed. Teacher encourages his / herstudents to ask and share the thoughtprocesses going on in their mind. He /she assures to his / her students that noquestion is silly one. Relationship amongstudents and teacher is also democraticand responsive. It stimulates interest inthe subject matter and develops a senseof self-achievement in students. Rules aremade flexible and teacher’s focus is onstudents learning rather than on his /her own performance (Prabha, 2010).5. Empowering Students : Empoweringstudents to learn themselves is basic in

constructivist philosophy. Students aregiven a lot of choices in their activities,curriculum and behaviour, but withincertain parameters. In such a classroomcontrol comes from involving the studentsin responsibilities and not from imposingstrict rules. Thus the teacher can focuson students learning.6. Assessment is Interwoven withTeaching Learning Process : Intraditional classroom, teachers assessstudents by paper-pencil test, gradingassignments, worksheets and ratingstudents’ work as right and wronganswers. In contrast, in a constructivistclassroom assessment of studentslearning is done in the context of dailyteaching. It is continuous andcomprehensive. NCF-2005 suggests thatmaintaining a daily diary based onobservation helps in continuous andcomprehensive evaluation. Assessment isnot considered as separate andpatchwork, but interwoven in teachinglearning process of a constructivistclassroom. Not only scholastic but alsoco-scholastic areas of students’ learningare also assessed.Teacher’s RoleA basic premise of constructivism is thatindividuals live in their own world ofpersonal and subjective experiences andbuild new knowledge on the basis of theirprevious experiences, rather than newknowledge being imposed from outside.The role of teacher, therefore, undergoesa major transformation from the imparterof knowledge to facilitator of conditions,which will help learner in the process ofknowledge construction. This changingconcept of knowledge, learner, andteacher has been presented in Table 1.In a traditional classroom teachertransmits knowledge, students passivelylisten while their minds may bedaydreaming. In a constructivistclassroom teacher transacts theknowledge, students are actively involved


Learning

Knowledge

Pedagogy

Motivation

Teacher

Learners

Traditional (Behaviourist)Learning is a change in behaviour broughtout through selective reinforcement ofresponse. It is a product and externalentity.

Passed on, transmitted, reproducible,and linear

• Teacher centred• Evaluation & assessment of set knowledge• Practising, listening, reproducing• All students do the same tasks

• Extrinsic, grade focus

• Imparter of knowledge• Asks questions• Explains concepts• Superior to learners

• are objects that learn• Passive listeners

• Rarely ask questions beyond seekingclarification of instructions

ConstructivistLearning is a process ofsubjective construction ofknowledge based on personalexperience of learner.

Reciprocally developed co-constructed, builds on prior-knowledge, spiral.• Learner centred cooperativeand experiential• Doing, stating, theorising• Range of possible responses• Tasks vary among students• Intrinsic, Learning focus

• Facilitator, guide• Raises questions• Facilitates students theorising• A learner among learners

• Co-inquires• Active partners in learning• Raise questions

Table 1 : Changing Epistemology of Learning

Source : Cited from Pandey (2007), p. 24

Table 2 : School Environment of Traditional &Constructivist Classrooms

Traditional Classrooms

Curriculum is presented part to whole,with emphasis on basic skills.Strict adherence to fixed curriculum ishighly valuedCurricular activities rely heavily ontextbooks and workbooks

Students are viewed as “blank slates” ontowhich information is etched by the teacherTeachers generally behave in a didacticmanner, disseminating information tostudentsTeacher seeks the correct answer tovalidate student learning

Assessment of student learning is viewedas separate from teaching and occursalmost entirely through testing

Students primarily work alone

Constructivist Classroom

Curriculum is presented whole to part withemphasis on big conceptsPursuit of student questioning is highlyvaluedCurricular activities rely heavily on primarysources of data and manipulativematerials.Students are viewed as thinkers withemerging theories about the worldTeachers generally behave in an interactivemanner, mediating the environment forstudentsTeachers seek the student’s point of view inorder to understand student’s presentconceptions for use in subsequent lessonsAssessment of student is interwoven withteaching and occurs through teacherobservations of students at work andthrough student exhibitions and portfoliosStudents primarily work in group

Source : Cited from Brooks and Brooks, 1993, p. 17.


and their minds construct the knowledge.Constructivism sees learning as adynamic and social process in whichlearners actively construct meaning fromtheir experiences in connection with theirprior understandings and the socialsetting (Driver, Asoko, Leach et al. 1994).The Table–2 summarizes the differencesin school environment betweentraditional classrooms and constructivistclassrooms. In the constructivistclassroom, the focus tends to shift fromthe teacher to the students. Theclassroom is no longer a place where theteacher (“expert) pours knowledge intopassive students, who wait like emptyvessels to be filled. In the constructivistmodel, the students are urged to beactively involved in their own process oflearning.One of the major characteristics of theconstructivist classroom is the student-centered learning environment; thus, thecognitive demands placed on individuallearners in a constructivist learningenvironment are higher than in contentrich classroom setting (Goldberg, 2002).The teacher’s role is shifted from that ofan “information provider, sequencer ofinformation, and test creator” to a“facilitator, guide, scaffolder, andproblemtask presenter” (Nicaise & Barnes,1996). In the constructivist classroom,the teacher’s role is to prompt andfacilitate discussion. Thus, the teacher’smain focus should be on guiding studentsby asking questions that will lead themto develop their own conclusions on thesubject. David Jonassen identified threemajor roles for facilitators to supportstudents in constructivist learningenvironments : Modeling, Coaching andScaffolding.Suggestions for teacher in a constructivistclassroom are :• Encourage and accept student

autonomy and initiative.• Try to use raw data and primary sources,

in addition to manipulative, interactive,and physical materials.

• When assigning tasks to the students,use cognitive terminology such as“classify”, “analyze”, “predict”, and“create”.

• Build off and use student responseswhen making “on-the-spot” decisionsabout teacher behaviors, instructionalstrategies, activities, and content to betaught.

• Search out students’ understanding andprior experiences about a conceptbefore teaching it to them.

• Encourage communication between theteacher and the students and alsobetween the students.

• Provide enough time for students toconstruct their own meaning whenlearning something new.

ConclusionConstructivism in education emergedafter the behaviourist movement as awelcome and refreshing view of learningthat centres on the active learner withinthe teaching-learning process. Inconstructivism, development ofunderstanding requires the learneractively engage in meaning making. Incontrast to Behaviourism, constructivistsargue that “Knowledge is not passivelyreceived but built up by the cognizingsubject”. Thus, constructivists shift thefocus from knowledge as a product toknowing as a process. In theConstructivist classroom, learning takeplace through a variety of group activitiesamong students or through dialogueswith peers or teachers. Learning is aprocess of subjective construction of newknowledge based on prior knowledge andexperience of the learner. Teachers areaware of the role of prior knowledge instudents’ learning, recognising thatstudents bring with them a rich array ofprior experiences, knowledge and beliefsthat they use in constructing newunderstandings.


REFERENCESBrooks, M. G. & Brooks, J. (1993). The case for constructivist classrooms. VA :

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria.Drivers, R., H. Asoko, J. Leach, E. Mortimer and P. Scott, 1994, “Constructing

Scientific Knowledge in the Classroom”, Educational Researcher, 23(7), p. 5.Goldberg, M. F. (2002). 15 school questions and discussion : from class size,

standards, school supply to leadership and more. Scarecrow Press, Lanham.Hendry, G. D. (1996). Constructivism and educational practice. Australian Journal

of Education, 40(1), p 19 – 45.Henson, K. T. (2001). Curriculum planning : Integrating multiculturalism,

constructivism, and education reform. McGraw-Hill, New York.Jonassen, D. H. (1992). Evaluating constructivist learning. In T. Duffy and D.

Jonassen (Eds.). Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction : AConservation. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N. J. 137 – 148.

Kim, Jongsuk (2005). The Effects of a Constructivist Teaching Approach on StudentAcademic Achievement, Self-concept and Learning Strategies, Asia PacificEducation Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 7 – 19.

Kroll, L. R. & LaBosky, V. K. (1996). Practicing what we preach : Constructivism in ateacher education program. Action In Teacher Education 18(2), 63– 72.

Lindfors, J. (1984). “How children learn or how teachers teach ? A profoundconfusion”, Language Arts, 61(6), p. 600 – 606.

Martin, R. J. (1994). Multicultural social reconstructionist education; Design fordiversity in teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 21(3), p. 77-89,

NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework 2005, NCERT, New Delhi.Nicaise, M., & Barnes, D. (1996). The union of technology, constructivism, and teacher

education. Journal of Teacher Education, 47(3), p. 205 – 212.Prabha, S. (May, 2010). Characteristics of a constructivist classroom in the context

of Science Education, Journal of Indian Education, Vol. XXXVI, No. 1.Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist teaching and teacher education : Theory and

practice. In V. Richardson (Ed.). Constructivist Teacher Education; BuildingNew Understandings (pp. 3 – 14). Falmer Press, Washington, DC.

Vadeboncoeur, J. (1997). Child development and the purpose of education : Ahistorical context for constructivism in teacher education. In V. Richardson(Ed.). Constructivist Teacher Education; Building New Understandings (pp.15–37). Falmer Press, Washington, DC.

Von Glaserfeld, E. (1995). Radical Constructivism : A Way of Knowing and Learning,Falmer Press, Washington, DC.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Harvard University Press, London.Wilson, B. G. (1996). Constructivist learning environments., Educational Technology

Publications, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

* Ajit Mondal : Research Scholar, Department of Education, University ofKalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, Pin–741235, (W. B.)e-mail : [email protected]

** Dr. Jayanta Mete : Associate Professor, Department of Education, Universityof Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, Pin – 741235, West Bengal.e-mail : [email protected]

Constructivist Approach in Pedagogical.....................by Mrs. Kusum Lata 49

Constructivist Approach in Pedagogical Practices

Abstract



Kusum Lata *

A revolution in whole teaching learning process including the curriculum, role of teachers,methods of teaching and evaluation patterns is needed to improve the quality of education.According to Constructivist learning theory all knowledge is constructed from a base of priorknowledge. Children learn best when they are allowed to construct a personal understandingbased on experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. The classroom organizationsuggested by this approach differs in many respects from that of the traditional approach. Thepresent paper discusses the conceptual underpinnings of constructivist learning theory alongwith the characteristics of constructivist classroom. The role of teacher, methods of teachingand evaluation patterns in a constructivist classroom along with the constructive curriculum isalso discussed here.

IntroductionEducation should be child directed as thelearner has an active role in interpretingthe learning process. High drop-out rates,low skill and knowledge levels amongmany students, low levels of studentengagement in school work and poorinternational comparisons suggest thatthe current educational paradigm is weakor inappropriate. Educators mustunderstand that changes in students’outcomes must be supported by parallelchanges in curriculum and instruction.However, it is apparent that many oftoday’s teachers are caught in the midstof a change for which they may not havebeen professionally prepared. In thepresent classroom role of the student isto memorize information, conduct wellregulated experiments, perform

mathematical calculations using aspecific algorithm and is then tested onhis ability to repeat these tasks orremember specific facts. Additionally, theconventional (lecture) teaching method ofteacher as sole information-giver topassive students appears outdated. In astudy carried out by (Colburn, 2000) onundergraduates in a large lecture hallsetting, it was found that only 20% of thestudents retained what the instructordiscussed after the lecture. 65% studentswere busy in taking notes to internalizethe information. Also, after a lecture haspassed eight minutes, only 15% of thestudents were paying attention. such adegradation of our education systemcause psychologists with theirunderstanding of human learningprocess to invent an important branch of



cognitive learning theory - learning theoryof constructivism.Constructivist theory provides aframework through which the emergentideas about teaching, learning andassessment can be unified (Young andCollin, 2003). Constructivism is notaccepting what you are told but your priorknowledge about what you are taught andyour perceptions about it has given dueimportance. Active involvement ofstudents is emphasized inconstructivism, hence knowledge gainedlasts long in their memory.Constructivism : A ConceptualFrameworkConstructivism has its roots inphilosophy and has been applied tosociology and anthropology, as well ascognitive psychology and education, soit is a growing concept in differentdisciplines. Constructivism is apsychological theory of knowledge whichargues that humans construct knowledgeand meaning from their experiences. Itis a set of beliefs about knowledge thatbegins with the assumption that realityexists but cannot be known as a set oftruth (Tobin et al.,1993).Immanuel Kant elaborated that humanbeings are not passive recipients ofinformation. Learners actively takeknowledge, connect it to previouslyassimilated knowledge and make it theirsby constructing their own interpretation(Cheek, 1992).A. E. Woolfolk divides the constructivismtheory into three groups:1. Individual constructivism theory,2. Social constructivism theory of Vygotsky,3. Sociology constructivism theory.Characteristics of ConstructivistClassroomAccording to Audrey Gray, thecharacteristics of a constructivistclassroom are as follows:In a constructivist classroom-

• The learners are actively involved.• The environment is democratic.• The activities are interactive and

student-centred.• The teacher facilitates a process of

learning in which students areencouraged to be responsible andautonomous.

Constructivist TeacherBased on the assumed realityconstructivist teachers need to adapttheir teaching style, approach, andcontent to the specific developmentalstage of the child. The role of the teacheris to organize information aroundconceptual clusters of problems,questions and discrepant situations inorder to engage the student’s interest.Ideas should be presented holistically asbroad concepts and then broken downinto parts.Cognitive theorists believe that teachershould play the role of a facilitator andfriend of learner as described below:1.To assist the students in developing

new insights and connecting them withtheir previous learning.

2.To provide students the requiredenvironment to actively constructmeaning.

3.To give Students a prior understandingsand thoughts about a topic or conceptbefore instruction. It exerts atremendous influence on what theylearn during instruction.

4. To generate a change in the learner’scognitive structure or way of viewingand organizing the world.

5. To co-operate with students is animportant source of motivation andsupport for them.

Constructivist CurriculumThe present curriculum fails to encouragestudents to work together, to share ideasand information freely with each other,or to use modern instruments to extendtheir intellectual capabilities (Olarewaju,1987). One proposed solution to the

Constructivist Approach in Pedagogical.....................by Mrs. Kusum Lata 51

mentioned problem is to prepare studentsto become good adaptive learners. Thatis, students should be able to apply whatthey learnt in school to the challengingand unpredictable situations that theymight encounter in the course of theirwork lives. Obviously, the traditionalteacher as information giver and textbookguided classroom has failed to bringabout the desired outcome of producingthinking students (Young and Collin,2003). National Curriculum Framework(NCF 2005) emphasizes constructivismand recommends that curriculum shouldhelp learners to become constructor ofknowledge and emphasizes active role ofteachers in relation to the process ofknowledge construction.They are thesubset of school education and socialinteractions. Several authors have citedimportance of constructivist approachesthat engage students on interdisciplinaryexploration, collaborative activity andfield based opportunities for experientiallearning. By adopting the constructivistapproach focus of the classroom willchange from teacher dominated tostudent dominated. Focusing on a moreeducational description of construc-tivism, meaning is intimately connectedwith experience (Mahoney, 2004). Itmeans curriculum should provideexperience based learning material andless importance to theoretical workshould be given.Constructivist Teaching MethodsBehaviourism and Constructivism aretwo predominant theories in Educationfor effective classroom teaching. But theresearches conducted in these areasshowed that there is obvious shift toconstructivist way of teaching. Also togrow professionally towardsconstructivist practices there is a needof paradigm shift from Behaviorism toConstructivism in Teacher EducationProgrammes.Conventional (lecture) method of teaching

is the process of transmission ofknowledge from teacher to student(Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999).Constructivist teaching concept holds theopinion that teaching should takestudents’ existing experimentalknowledge as a growing point of newknowledge and then guide them to makenew experimental knowledge fromexisting experimental knowledge. Sincelearning occurs under a certain situationor in some social cultural context withthe help of others, that is, throughinterpersonal collaboration activities. Soto achieve the meaning of constructionprocess, constructivist learning theorythinks that “situation”, “cooperation”,“session” and “meaning construction” arethe four key elements of the learningenvironment.Constructivists EvaluationConstructivists view assessment as aprocess that involves both the instructorand the student. Educators who preferto use constructivist methods andprinciples in evaluating student workhave several different avenues to choosethat can help to enhance the learningexperience of students (Holt & Willard-Holt, 2000).Similarities between constructivist andtraditional methods of assessment doexist. Even though constructivistscontinue to research and experiment withmore interactive, experience basedassessments, the more traditionalmethods still prevail and are being usedin classrooms as the predominant meansof assessment.Constructivists do not see assessment asan ending activity, but rather an ongoingprocess that helps the student continueto learn. Many constructivists encourageself-reflection as a means of assessment,or encourage students to exchangeevaluations of each other’s work (NCREL,1993).In assessing, a constructivist’s goal is to


* Kusum Lata : Swami Devi Dayal College of Education, Golpura ,Distt. Barwala, Haryana.e-mail: [email protected]

help the learner acquire knowledge, notmake the learning process laborious andundesirable. Therefore, it is important tohave a non-critical attitude as oneevaluates in a constructivist format.Tools and Methods Used inConstructivist AssessmentWhen constructivists assess students,they prefer to use following methods:1. To Engage in dialogue with the learner.2. Take an opportunity to observe a

student as he or she developsknowledge.

3. Verbal discussions such as interviews,debates, knowledge telling, co-investigations, or dramatizationsshould be preferred.

4. Physical Assessment of the whole childis also important. When observed, aconstructivist instructor will notephysical stance and expression.

5. KWL Charts, Mind mapping, portfolios,checklists, investigative projects, paper

and pencil tests, and performance tasksare also often used to evaluate work ina constructivist frame.

ConclusionIt is believed as true that ‘teachingmethods that enable children to organizelearning at their own Pace, manageproblem solving processes and learn frominteraction with other students, generateencouraging results from social andeducational standpoints’. Also learningenvironment of a constructivist classroomis generally marked by the absence offear, feeling of being secure, equality andjustice, thus everyone feel valued. A goodevaluation system should be an integralpart of the learning process. It should bebeneficial for all the students, teachersand the society. There is a growing needto understand philosophy, pedagogy andteacher practices in order to implementthe constructivist evaluation process.

REFERENCESCheek DW (1992). Thinking Constructively About Science, Technology and Society

Education. Albay, NY: State University of New York Press.Holt, D. G. & Willard-Holt, C. (2000). “Let’s get real – students solving authentic

corporate problems”. Phi Delta Kappan 82 (3).Constructivist Teaching Methods.(n.d.) Retrieved on March 8, 2009 from The Psychology Wikipedia.

Mahoney MJ (2004). What is Constructivism and Why is it Growing? ContemporaryPsychol. 49: 360-363.University.

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (1993). Assessment in aConstructivist Classroom. Retrieved March 10, 2009, from Learning PointAssociates.

Olarewaju AO (1987). Some problems identified in implementing the core-curriculumfor integrated science. J. Sci. Teach. Assoc. Niger.(JSTAN). 25 (2), 61-67.

Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education. New York:Grossman.

Tobin K, Tippins D (1993). Constructivism as a referent for teaching and learning. InTobin, K. (ed), controvert in classroom research, (2nd edition). Burkinham:Open University Press.

Young R, Colin AA (2003). Constructivism and social constructivism in career field.J. Vocat. Behavior, 64: 373-388.

Practicing Constructivism in the Era of ......................by Dr. Kamaljeet Singh 53

Practicing Constructivism in the Era ofNeo-Liberalism: Challenges forEvolving a Critical Pedagogy

Abstract



Dr. Kamaljeet Singh *

Constructivism is an epistemological view of knowledge acquisition emphasizing the activerole of the learners in the construction of knowledge and interpretation of reality. The emergenceof new sociology of education and postmodernism has provided scope for constructivist approachto gain ground in the field of education. In India, the National Curriculum Framework (2005)has introduced the constructivist approach for the first time as the very basis of curriculumformulation. But the neoliberal agenda in education advancing the instrumental andbehaviouristic conception of education is posing a serious challenge for practicing constructivismand evolving a critical pedagogy.

IntroductionThe modern formal education has beengenerally organised on the basis ofobjectivist or positivist view of knowledge.According to this view, objects haveintrinsic meaning and knowledge is areflection of a correspondence to reality.In this tradition, knowledge being areflection of the ontological reality shouldrepresent a real world that is thought ofas existing, separate and independent ofthe knower, and this knowledge shouldbe considered true only if it correctlyreflects that independent world (Jha,2009:). Similarly, positivism viewsknowledge and educational categoriesconsensually, as if they were objective,‘out there’ and existed in an unsituated,context-free, manner (Sarup, 1978).Regarding knowledge the positivistapproach believes that no conscious or

unconscious choices are involved inacquiring knowledge. Whatever is givenit is accepted without questioning by thestudents (ibid:).This view of learning and knowledgeassumes that knowledge can be impartedfrom teacher to learner throughinstruction, lecture and practice.Teaching and research driven by thisphilosophy discourage different views andunderstandings, disregarding differentcontexts, and experiences of theindividuals, and regard individuals aspassive recipients of knowledge (ibid.).Such approach to knowledge thusprovides the necessary theoretical basisfor behaviourist school of learning, whichhas dominated the educational scenariotill date.In contrast, the phenomenologicalapproach rejects positivism and



objectivist epistemology. According to thisapproach, it is not the ontologicalstructures of objects, but the meaning ofour experiences which constitute reality(ibid.). Knowledge is not absolute and‘given’, but is relative and ‘produced’ bymen (ibid.). This relativist view ofknowledge states that knowledge shouldnot be regarded as a body of knowledge,but as a human activity. If learning isreally to take place then it can’t be contextfree. It will be related to the life andsurroundings of the learner. The learningprocess becomes independent fromknowledge centred teaching methods andit would be composed of less informationbut a variety of ways of learning (Kale,2001).This phenomenological approach toknowledge brings into limelightconstructivism as an alternative paradigmof learning.Constructivism: The DefiningParadigmsConstructivism is an epistemological viewof knowledge acquisition emphasizingknowledge construction rather thanknowledge transmission (Jha, 2009).Constructivism’s central idea is thathuman knowledge is constructed, thatlearners build new knowledge upon thefoundation of previous learning. This viewof learning sharply contrasts with one inwhich learning is the passivetransmission of information from oneindividual to another, a view in whichreception, not construction is key (ibid).The constructivists argue that knowledgedoes not have an objective or absolutevalue. Rather, the learner whileinteracting with his environmentconstructs and interprets knowledgebased on his experiences andperceptions. This construction of newknowledge is mediated through theprevious knowledge of the learner.Therefore, constructivism implies thatlearners are encouraged to construct

their own knowledge, instead of copyingit from an authority, be it a book or ateacher, in realistic situations instead ofdecontexualised, formal situations suchas propagated in traditional textbooksand together with others instead of ontheir own (Kanselaar et al., 2001).Experience is the central point aroundwhich learning and knowledge aregenerally interpreted in constructivism.It is a belief that one constructsknowledge from one’s experience, mentalstructures and beliefs that are used tointerpret objects and events (ibid). Thus,constructivism is a philosophy based onthe premise that by reflecting on ourexperiences, we construct our knowledgeof the world surrounding us.The Constructivist perspectives arerooted in the psychological works of JeanPiaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Jerome Brunerand in the philosophical work of JohnDewey. In fact, there is no singleconstructivist theory of learning, rathermultiple perspectives and approaches ofconstructivism are there. Two prominentperspectives of constructivism have beenpsychological constructivism and socialconstructivism. The psychological orcognitive constructivism, based on theideas of Piaget visualises knowledgeacquisition as a process of continuousself-construction by the child. It is not aprocess of imparting information forchild’s understanding and use rather itis a process under which the childconstructs his/her own knowledgethrough experiences. According to Piaget,child’s individual action is the startingpoint of his or her intellectualdevelopment. While interacting with his/her surrounding environment he/shebegins to form mental constructs aboutthe world. These mental constructs orcognitive structures called schemas byPiaget constitute the knowledge of theindividual child. Thus, Piaget’spsychological constructivist perspective


is less concerned with “correct”representations and more interested inmeaning as constructed by the individual(Woolfolk, 2011: 358). Rather thanknowing an objective reality, individualsonly construct a version of it forthemselves (Jha, 2009:46).On the other hand, the socialconstructivism having its origin in thework of Lev Vygotsky emphasises thesignificance of social interactions and ofthe cultural context in understanding andexplaining the process of learning.Vygotsky believed that social interaction,cultural tools and activity shapeindividual development and learning(Woolfolk, 2011: 358). For Vygotsky, thecognitive development of children is notan individualised process rather is aresult of a dialectical process, where thechild learns through the shared problem-solving experiences with someone else(Jha, 2009:59). The social context, wheredifferent people interact with the childfrom his/her birth onwards thus formsthe very basis of his/her cognitivedevelopment. Because, it is this socialcontext which provides the child with thecognitive tools like language needed forhis/her intellectual development.Therefore, Vygotsky considered anindividual’s cognitive system to be a directresult of and inseparable from social life(Vygotsky, as quoted in ibid.).However, despite its varied versions,constructivism in general represents aphilosophical position that promulgatesthat reality is a mental construction basedone’s experiences in a particular culturalcontext. In the field of education,constructivism thus acknowledges theactive role of the learner in theconstruction of knowledge andinterpretation of reality. Constructivismalso suggests that our constructions andviews of the world are not stable, but arein continuous change as we build on pastexperiences. This change signifies

learning and supports the understandingthat as human beings we are alwaysconstruing and learning, and we are neverinert (Kelly, as quoted in ibid.: 5). Thus,instead of talking about knowledge assuch constructivism offers an explanationof the nature of knowing and how humanbeings learn.Scope for Constructivism in EducationIn 1970s, with the publication of theworks of Michael Apple, Michael Young,Pierre Bourdieu, Basil Bernstein, SamuelBowles and Herbert Gintis, newsociological insights were developed ineducational studies, which came to beknown as the ‘new sociology of education’.These thinkers highlighted the absurdityof argument regarding the neutrality ofthe education system in general andespecially of school curriculum. Thecurriculum, these thinkers argued, hadto be understood in terms of questions ofpower, politics, and ideology, both withinand beyond schools (Young, 2008:2).Pierre Bourdieu puts forward theargument that education system isgenerally biased in the favour of thedominant class which is in possession ofrequisite cultural capital necessary forbecoming academically successful. In thisway the education system reproduces theexisting domination in the society.Similarly, Bernstein with his work on‘invisible pedagogy’ highlights that howthrough an implicit controllingmechanism in schools, the capitalistsocieties exercise control over thestudents and thus perpetuatedomination.NCF(2005) & ConstructivismThe National Curriculum Framework(2005) has uniqueness of its own as withit constructivism for the first time cameto be the very basis of curriculumformulation in India. The NCF documentviews child-centred pedagogy as its basicpremise, meaning thereby giving primacyto children’s experiences, their voices,


and their active participation (NCERT,2005). The document realizes that ourschool pedagogic practices, learningtasks, and the text we create for learnerstend to focus on the socialisation ofchildren and on the ‘receptive features ofchildren’s learning (ibid.). Therefore, itargues that learning at school cannotbecome a joyful experience unless wechange our perception of the child as areceiver of knowledge and move beyondthe convention of using textbooks as thebasis of examination (ibid.). It contendsthat learning for the sake of beingexamined in a mechanical manner takesaway the joy of being young, and delinksschool knowledge from everydayexperience (ibid.)While defining learning in constructivistterms the document states: Learning isactive and social in its character (ibid).Learning is a process of the constructionof knowledge. Learners actively constructtheir own knowledge by connecting newideas to existing ideas on the basis ofmaterials/activities presented to them(ibid.). The children are thus viewed ascreators of knowledge rather than passiverecipient of knowledge.Further, the NCF document asserts thatthe greatest national challenge foreducation is to strengthen ourparticipatory democracy and the valuesenshrined in the Constitution (ibid.:9),therefore the aims of education have tobe located in social values cherished byour democratic society. The first is acommitment to democracy and the valuesof equality, justice, freedom, concern forothers’ well-being, secularism, respect forhuman dignity and rights. Educationshould aim to build a commitment tothese values, which are based on reasonand understanding. The curriculum,therefore, should provide adequateexperience and space for dialogue anddiscourse in the school to build such acommitment in children (ibid).

Furthermore, the NCF documentenvisages the role of education as aninstrument of social transformation andof developing an egalitarian social order.It affirms the vision of Mahatma Gandhiwho had visualized education as a meansof awakening the nation’s conscience toinjustice, violence and inequalityentrenched in the social order (ibid). Thedocument visualizes that a criticalfunction of education for equality is toenable all learners to claim their rightsas well as to contribute to society andpolity (ibid). It therefore emphasises thatthe concept of critical pedagogy has to bepracticed in all dimensions of education,including school education (ibid).Thus, the National CurriculumFramework (2005), while institutingconstructivism as the underlyingapproach of the curriculum framework,envisages the evolution of a criticalpedagogy in order to enable the studentsto develop a comprehensive anddemocratic worldview and way of life.Neoliberal Agenda in Education:Challenges for PractisingConstructivismParallel to the introduction ofconstructivist paradigm in the NationalCurriculum Framework, theintensification of neoliberal agenda ineducation especially at elementaryeducation level has resulted in suchpedagogical situations, which are quitecontrary to those required underconstructivist approach. In the neoliberaleducational policy discourse education isbeing viewed and defined more in termsof the needs of the emerging economy.The school education in the globaldiscourse of Education for All (EFA) isviewed more in terms of skills to beacquired by masses, which are consideredas prerequisite for the smooth functioningof the emerging economy. The setting upof Minimum Levels of Learning by theNational Policy on Education (1986)


gained further credence in the gained further credence in thesubsequent policy documents in the eraof neoliberal globalisation.Therefore, the policy documents in the eraof neoliberalism have recommendedsetting up of learning outcomesbeforehand those are to be realizedthrough educational programmes. Thedeclaration of World Conference onEducation for All held at Jomtien states:“Whether or not expanded educationalopportunities will translate intomeaningful development-for an individualor for society-depends ultimately onwhether people actually learn as a resultof those opportunities i.e. whether theyincorporate useful knowledge, reasoningability, skills and values. The focus ofbasic education must, therefore, be onactual learning acquisition and outcome,rather than exclusively upon enrolment,continued participation in organizedprogrammes and completion ofcertification requirements…..It istherefore, necessary to define acceptablelevels of learning acquisition foreducational programmes and to improveand apply systems of assessing learningachievements (UNESCO,1990). Suchdefinition of role of education in terms ofacquisition of pre-decided outcomes leadsto its reduction to mere literacy,numeracy, life skills and behaviorism.On the other hand, the conception ofquality of education is now-a-days alsobeing reduced to merely achieving theselearning outcomes. Far from showingconcern for any essential attributes ofeducation, much of the current usage ofthe term ‘quality’ focuses on the relativelymore instrumentalist features ofeducation. Whereas one might expect‘quality’ to refer to a comprehensive orholistic view of education, contemporarydebates on quality often stick to thelimited view of learning which becamesynonymous with behaviouristiceducational theory and pedagogy.


tional theory and pedagogy. Accoding to this theory and the pedagogic avice it offers, learning is something tht can be planned, predicted and accrately measured once it has occurred Evidently, quality related debates arund the world, and not just in the dveloping countries, tend to attach greatsignificance to large-scale testin which, in turn, encourages teachng for predictle outcomes (Kumar, 2010). ı With regard o the instrumental paradigm gaining round in educational policy discourse, emient educationist Prof. Anil Sagopal comments: The goal of eucation excludes building a democratic, eglitarian, just, secular and enlightenedREFERENCESApple, Michael W. (1993): The Politics of Official Knowledge: Does a National

Curriculum Make Sense, Teachers College Record, Vol. 95 (2), pp. 267-284.Beck, Clive (1993): ‘Postmodernism, Pedagogy and Philosophy of Education’, in

Philosophy of Education Society (ed.), Philosophy of Education Yearbook 1993,Stanford University, available at www.ed.uiuc.edu/eps/PES-Yearbook/93_d.

Hussein, Jeylan Wolyie (2006) : Locating the value conflicts between the rhetoricand practices of the public and teacher education in Ethiopia within thehegemony of the global neo-liberalism and seeking the alternative in criticalpedagogy, Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, Vol. 4 (2).

Jha, Arbind Kumar (2009): Constructivist Epistemology and Pedagogy: Insights intoTeaching Learning and Knowing, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers.

Kumar, Krishna (2010): Quality in Education: Competing Concepts, ContemporaryEducation Dialogue, Vol. 7(1), pp. 7-18.

NCERT (2005): National Curriculum Framework 2005, New Delhi: National Council ofEducational Research and Training.

Sadgopal, Anil (2010): Right to Education vs. Right to Education Act, Social Scientist,Volume 38(9-12), pp.17-50.

Sarup, Madan (1978): Marxism and Education, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Wood, E.M. (2006): ‘What is the “Postmodern” Agenda?’, in Ellen Meiksins Wood and

John Bellamy Foster (eds.), In Defence of History : Marxism and ThePostmodernism Agenda, Aaakar Books, New Delhi, pp. 1-16.

Woolfolk, Anita (2004): Educational Psychology (Ninth Edition), New Delhi: PearsonEducation Inc.

Young, Michael (2008): From Constructivism to Realism in the Sociology of theCurriculum, Review of Research in Education, Vol. 32(1), pp. 1-28.

alitarian, just, secular and enlihtened society. Instead, educatio has become an instrument for only mproving productivity, promoting consmerism and establishing market cntrol over knowledge and the public mind sch that every human beingbecomes a ‘useful’ resource for the gloal capital (Sadgopal, 2010).ıSuch a instrumental and behaviouristic conceptin of education is posing a seriouschallenge for evolving a critical pedaogy based on a constructivist paraigm. Evolving such pedagogy is of utmos significance in the face of preominance of the neoliberal model of develpment characterised by the exacerbating

* Dr. Kamaljeet Singh : Assistant Professor, Department of Education,Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda (Punjab) Pin.151001e-mail: [email protected]

Innovative Teaching for Effective ......................by Dr. Happy, P. V. 59

Innovative Teaching for Effective Learning

Abstract



Dr. Happy, P. V. *

The common image of a teacher standing in front of a class, providing information to studentssitting passively at their desk is simply archaic, according to contemporary scientific views ofthe learning process. The research on learning has shown that people construct new knowl-edge and understandings based on what they already know and believe. It is not sufficient foracademics to be experts in their disciplinary area. The new curriculum, which is followed indeveloped countries and some of the states of our country, has constructivism as a major theo-retical backing. It is constructivism that initiated learner-centered approach in education

IntroductionMany of today’s schools still operate asthey did at the beginning of last century.They are not encouraging deep learningand skills that underline innovativeactivity.For both the individual and society,successful management of learning isessential. Individuals who become self-directed learners are able to acquireexpert knowledge in various fields, tochange careers and to endow their liveswith creativity and variety.Developingthese capacities is not only important fora successful economy, but also foreffective community and socialengagement, participatory democracyand for living meaningful lives.How can individuals be helped to achievetheir fullest potential? How can today’sschools be transformed so as to createenvironments that result in the types ofteaching and learning that makes

individuals lifelong learners and preparesthem for the 21st century?We need to change and improve teachingso that there are better learning outcomesand those different skills sets are fosteredsimultaneously pedagogical innovationsare absolutely necessary. Pedagogicalinnovation is only one dimension of abroader innovation ecosystem ineducation. Innovation and improvementin pedagogy is the cornerstone of betterlearning outcomes.Learning to see deeper truthsA father once took his six-year old sonfor an evening walk. On the way it startedraining heavily. The father and the sontook shelter under a huge banyan tree.In order not to waste their time, the fatherdecided to teach his son the fourdirections East, West, North and South.The son learnt this quickly and in themeanwhile the rain stopped and theyreturned back home. The father very



proudly told his wife that he had taughthis son about the four directions of thecompass. The happy mother then askedthe son to point towards east. The boypromptly replied: “let us go back to thebanyan tree.”Here lies the question, what is education?Is it merely obtaining university degreeor is it something more?The common image of a teacher standingin front of a class, providing informationto students sitting passively at their deskis simply archaic, according tocontemporary scientific views of thelearning process. But what exactly do weknow? While traditional education hasemphasised memorization and themastery of text, research on learning hasshown that people construct newknowledge and understandings based onwhat they already know and believe. Theimportance of allowing students to takecontrol of their own learning and, thereby,become active learners who are able tounderstand complex subject matter, isanother major finding of the learningsciences. This can be achieved by takingmeta-cognitive as well as motivationaland affective factors in learning intoaccount. In general, learning must beseen as a social, cultural, intrapersonaland, most of all, active process. Whilethere is no universal best teachingpractice, general principles of teachingand learning – that can enhance ourunderstanding of the teaching-learningprocess –unquestionably exist.It is not sufficient for academics to beexperts in their disciplinary area; theyalso need to know how best to teach thatdiscipline. They need to have anunderstanding of learning theories, andto know how to apply these theories totheir practice. They need to appreciatewhat teaching and learning approacheswork best for different students indifferent situations.Western countries have already modified

their school curriculum, according to thelearner centered approach, which ishighly influenced by the constructivistview of learning. In many states of India,the teaching is still dominated by theteacher in the class, and it is less learner-centered. In the present educationsystem, verbalism dominates allactivities. Words, which are found remoteor unrelated by the learner, cannotinitiate learning. The teacher-centerededucation system, lack of basic amenitiesand the overcrowded classrooms resultedin the failure of achieving many plannedobjectives. Hence, we are also makingcontinuous efforts to modify and revitalizethe school education. The newcurriculum, which is followed indeveloped countries and some of theStates of our country, has constructivismas a major theoretical backing. It isconstructivism that initiated learner-centered approach in educationPrinciples of constructivism1. Learning is an active process in which

the learner uses sensory input andconstructs meaning out of it. The moretraditional formulation of this ideainvolves the terminology of the activelearner (Dewey’s term) stressing thatthe learner needs to do something; thatlearning is not the passive acceptanceof knowledge which exists “out there”but that learning involves the learner sengaging with the world.

2. People learn to learn as they learn:learning consists both of constructingmeaning and constructing systems ofmeaning. For example, if we learn thechronology of dates of a series ofhistorical events, we are simultaneouslylearning the meaning of a chronology.Each meaning we construct makes usbetter able to give meaning to othersensations which can fit a similarpattern.

3. The crucial action of constructingmeaning is mental: it happens in the

Innovative Teaching for Effective ......................by Dr. Happy, P. V. 61

mind. Physical actions, hands-onexperience may be necessary forlearning, especially for children, but itis not sufficient; we need to provideactivities which engage the mind as wellas the hands. (Dewey called thisreflective activity.)

4. Learning involves language: thelanguage we use influences learning.On the empirical level. Researchershave noted that people talk tothemselves as they learn. On a moregeneral level. there is a collection ofarguments, presented most forcefullyby Vygotsky, that language and learningare inextricably intertwined. This pointwas clearly emphasized in ElaineGurain’s reference to the need to honornative language in developing NorthAmerican exhibits. The desire to havematerial and programs in their ownlanguage was an important request bymany members of various NativeAmerican communities.

5. Learning is a social activity: ourlearning is intimately associated withour connection with other humanbeings, our teachers, our peers, ourfamily as well as casual acquaintances,including the people before us or nextto us at the exhibit. We are more likelyto be successful in our efforts to educateif we recognize this principle rather thantry to avoid it. Much of traditionaleducation, as Dewey pointed out, isdirected towards isolating the learnerfrom all social interaction, and towardsseeing education as a one-on-onerelationship between the learner andthe objective material to be learned. Incontrast, progressive education (tocontinue to use Dewey’s formulation)recognizes the social aspect of learningand uses conversation, interaction withothers, and the application ofknowledge as an integral aspect oflearning.

6. Learning is contextual: we do not learn

isolated facts and theories in someabstract ethereal land of the mindseparate from the rest of our lives: welearn in relationship to what else weknow, what we believe, our prejudicesand our fears. On reflection, it becomesclear that this point is actually acorollary of the idea that learning isactive and social. We cannot divorce ourlearning from our lives.

7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is notpossible to assimilate new knowledgewithout having some structuredeveloped from previous knowledge tobuild on. The more we know, the morewe can learn. Therefore any effort toteach must be connected to the stateof the learner must provide a path intothe subject for the learner based on thatlearner’s previous knowledge.

8. It takes time to learn: learning is notinstantaneous. For significant learningwe need to revisit ideas, ponder themtry them out, play with them and usethem. This cannot happen in the 5-10minutes usually spent in a gallery .Ifyou reflect on anything you havelearned, you soon realize that it is theproduct of repeated exposure andthought. Even, or especially, momentsof profound insight, can be traced backto longer periods of preparation.

9. Motivation is a key component inlearning. Not only is it the case thatmotivation helps learning, it is essentialfor learning. This idea of motivation asdescribed here is broadly conceived toinclude an understanding of ways inwhich the knowledge can be used.Unless we know “the reasons why”, wemay not be very involved in using theknowledge that may be instilled in us.Even by the most severe and directteaching.

ConclusionConstructivist view of learning focus onhow individuals construct their owncognitive structures as they interpret


their experiences in particular learningsituations. Constructivist approachesemphasizes making students aware oftheir own role in constructing knowledge.The assumptions we make, our beliefs,and our experiences shape what each ofus comes to ‘know’ about the world.

Different assumptions and differentexperiences lead to different knowledge.If students are aware of the influence thatshape their thinking, they will be moreable to choose, develop, and defendpositions in a self –critical way whilerespecting the positions of others.

REFERENCES

Dash, U.N., (2007, March). Attainment of Excellence through Higher Education.Universal Education, Vol. I, Issue 4, 51-52.

Eldho Mathews, (2012, February 27).Pedagogical innovations are a must. The Hindu, Education Plus.

John Sagy, (2007, January).Constructivism and Learner Centered Approach inEducation. Edutracks, Vol.6 No.5, 13-15

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher PsychologicalProcesses, MA: Harvard University Press.

* Dr. Happy P. V. : Asst. Professor, Govt. Institute of Advanced Study inEducation (IASE), Thrissur, Kerala -20email:[email protected]

Constructive Teaching Strategies and ......................by Dr. Meena Manral 63

Constructive Teaching Strategies andEvaluation Methods

Abstract

Dr. Meena Manral *

Constructivism is a theory of learning which emphasises in discovering and creating ofknowledge. With the help of constructive teaching strategies, a teacher can enhance problemsolving and creative thinking abilities with in students. Theory of constructivism helps a teacherin evaluation processes also. Formative assessment methods can be applied assess the overallperformance of students in class room situations and out of class rooms.

Introduction:There are many learning theories thathelp the teachers in planning, organizing,evaluating teaching-learning process. Thetheory of Constructivism gives teachersanother perspective to rethink howstudents learn and to focus on processand provide ways of documenting changeand transformation. It also remindsteachers to look for different ways toengage individual students, to developconductive environment for exploration,prepare for coherent sets of problems andchallenges that focus the model buildingeffort, elicit and communicate studentperceptions and interpretations.Constructivism is one of the learningtheory by which, learning is an activeprocess in which learner constructs newideas or concept’s based upon theircurrent/past knowledge, socialinstructions and motivation effect.Constructivism is not a new phenomenonin the field of teaching and learning. It

played effective role in education andliterature for many decades.Meaning and History ofConstructivism: According to LisaFirtscher (2009), “Constructivism is a typeof learning theory that explains humanlearning as an active attempt to constructmeaning in the world around us.Constructivists believe that learning ismore active and self-directed.Constructivism divides learning into twotypes: accommodation and assimilation.The focus is on the individual’s desire andability to learn, and the teacher is merelythere to help guide self-directed learning.”In the field of education constructivismis applied as learning theory,epistemology and pedagogy of learning.The term constructivism refers the ideathat learners construct knowledgethemselves. From the perspective ofconstructivism, learners constructknowledge based on what they alreadyknow and make connections between





new information and old information.Students’ prior ideas, experiences, andknowledge interact with new experiencesand their interpretations of theenvironment around them.Some philosophers, such as Socrates,focused on helping students constructmeanings on their own rather than havingauthority figures transmit information tothem. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) builtupon this by recognizing that the waylearners perceive stimuli from theirenvironment shapes their understandingof the world. In the early 20th century,John Dewey (1859– 1952) proposed thateducation should work with students’current understanding, taking intoaccount their prior ideas and interests.Later, Jean Piaget (1896–1980) definedaccommodation and assimilation as waysfor new knowledge to build upon previousknowledge. The ideas of Lev Vygotsky(1896–1934) also influencedconstructivism. He helped increaseawareness of the interactions between theindividual, interpersonal, and culturalhistorical factors that affect learning. Theconstructivist learning is based onstudents’ active participation in problem-solving and critical thinking regarding alearning activity which they find relevantand engaging. They are “constructing”their own knowledge by testing ideas andapproaches based on their priorknowledge and experience, applyingthese to a new situation, and integratingthe new knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs. In thefield of education some of the mainconstructivists thinkers are, John Dewey(1859-1952), Maria Montessiri (1870-1952), David A. Kalb (1939), WladyshawStrzeminske (1893-1952), Heinz VonFoerster (1911-2002), George Kelly (1905-1967), Herbert Simon (1916-2001), PaulWatzlawick (1921-2007), Ernst VonGlaserfeld (1917-2010), Edgar Morin(1921) and Humberto Maturana (1928). In

the field of education there are two maintypes of constructivism –1. Cognitive constructivism which is

about how the individual learnerunderstand things, in terms ofdevelopmental stages and teachingstyles and

2.Social constructivism which emphaseshow meanings and understandingsgrow out of social encounters.

Principals of constructivism:According to Jonassen, (1994) the mainprincipals of constructivism are –1. constructivist learning environments

provide multiple representations ofreality.

2. these represent the complexity of thereal world.

3. knowledge construction is emphasizedover knowledge reproduction.

4. authentic tasks are emphasized inmeaningful context.

5. real world settings or case-basedlearning is provided.

6. thoughtful reflection on experience isencouraged.

7. enable context and content dependentknowledge construction.

8. support collaboration and socialnegotiation among learners.

9. discovery learning.10. collaborative activity.11. integration and activation of prior

knowledge.12. opportunities for hand-on activities.Teacher’s role to enhance constructiveapproach among the students:Teacher has significance role in teaching-learning process. To enhance construc-tive approach among student a teachercan focus on making connectionsbetween facts and fostering newunderstanding in students. Teacherstailor their teaching strategies to studentresponses and encourage students toanalyze, interpret, and predictinformation. Teachers also rely heavily onopen-ended questions and promote


extensive dialogue among students. Togive students an opportunity to beinvolved in creating knowledge, thelearner should be involved not inactivities in which the goal is to memorizefacts but in problem-solving activities. Forinstructional design geared towardradical constructivism, students shouldbe provided with personal autonomy inwhich individual work is a part of theinstructional framework. Furthermore, toactively engage students, “the teacher’srole should be to challenge the learner’sthinking-not to dictate or attempt toproceduralize that thinking”(Savery &Duffy).Teaching strategies for enhancingconstructive approach:Every child has constructive ability inmore or less quantity. A teacher can playsignificant role in enhancing this abilityof the students. As a guide and facilitatorthe teacher can help to enhance theconstructive ability of the students.Teaching strategies can help the teachersfor achieving this goal are as below –1- Discovery learning:It is an instructional method in whichstudents are free to work in a learningenvironment with little or no guidance.For example, discovery learning is themethod of instruction when students aregiven a math problem and asked to comeup with a solution on their own, whenstudents are given a scientific problemand allowed to conduct experiments, orwhen students are allowed to learn howa computer program works by typingcommands and seeing what happens ona computer screen. The early 21st-century interest in discovery learning hasits roots in Jerome Bruner’s (1961)eloquent call for discovery methods ofinstruction and is echoed in SeymourPapert’s (1980). 2- Case based learning:Cases describe an interesting story thatwill generate alternative perspectives

from learners. Cases should provokealternative ideas and require decisionmaking (Herreid, 2008). There are avariety of methods for using cases in thecontext of instruction. Collaborativediscussions among students about thecase are common. Students are expectedto bring their knowledge and perspectivesto the consideration of the case, engagein argumentation about the interpretationof the case with their peers, and deepentheir understandings of the issues athand. In doing so, students use their priorexperiences and knowledge to constructnew knowledge and understandings.3- Inquiry based learning:Constructivist teaching practice,particularly inquiry-based learning, seeksto mediate the learning process and makethis kind of cognition an object ofclassroom instruction. Through inquirylearning, students play the role ofscientists, a role that is familiar toresearchers, as it is modeled on theauthentic inquiry activities of professionalscientists. Their tasks includeformulating questions, designinginformative investigations, analyzingpatterns, drawing inferences, accessingevidence in responding to questions,formulating explanations from evidence,connecting explanations to knowledge,and communicating and justifying claimsand explanations. The focus on inquirylearning originated with the work of JeanPiaget (1896–1980) on the developmentof adolescent reasoning skills,particularly his focus on thediscontinuous, or abrupt, transition fromconcrete to formal operational thoughtduring adolescence.4- Project based learning: project-basedlearning was the idea of “whole-heartedpurposeful activity proceeding in a socialenvironment.” Thus, many elements ofproject-based approaches of the twenty-first century are present in this earlyconception. A goal of using projects is to


provide opportunities for students tobecome engaged in their own learning asthey create meaningful artifacts. Thesemay include reports, physical models,computer models, exhibits, Web sites andother concrete products that provideopportunities for students to demonstratetheir understanding. Project-basedlearning (PBL) is a constructivistapproach to learning because studentsare involved in constructing deepunderstanding as they engage with theideas needed for their projects.5- Problem based learning:Problem Based Learning was designedwith five instructional goals (Barrows,1985): to help students (1) constructflexible knowledge, (2) develop effectiveproblem-solving skills, (3) develop self-directed learning skills, (4) becomeeffective collaborators, and (5) becomemotivated to learn. Major factors in theeffectiveness of PBL are having goodproblems that allow for extendedengagement, a student-centered tutorialprocess, and a facilitator to help guide thelearning process.Constructive evaluation methods:Evaluation or assessment is a wellplanned process by which we evaluate theachievement of teaching-learningobjectives. Assessment tools are neededto guide students and teachers in settingappropriate learning goals. To assess thestudent’s over all performance teacheruse summative and formative tools. Toassess the constructive learningconstructivism emphasis some innovativeassessment methods like -1. Anecdotal record: Anecdotal record provides general

information about student learningstyles, attitude and behavior and helpto a teacher for ongoing assessment.

2. Celebration of learning: Celebration of learning organizes a

demonstration where students have theopportunity to share their expertise in

several subject areas with otherstudents, teachers and parents.

3. Exit cards: Exit cards is an easy 5 minute activity

to check student knowledge before,during and after a lesson or completeunit of study. Students respond to 3questions posed by the teacher.Teachers can quickly read theresponses and plan necessaryinstruction.

4. Graphic organizers: Also known as mind maps, are

instructional tools used to illustrateprior knowledge.

5. Oral presentation: Student may share their knowledge

verbally or oral presentation usingmultimedia.

6. Peer Assessment: In this assessment pattern one learner,

group of learners or class give writtenor verbal feedback of learner. For thisthey can use check list, rubrics orwritten response to peer work.

7.Portfolios: A portfolio is a representative collection

of an individual student’s work. Astudent portfolio is generally composedof best work to date and a few “worksin progress” that demonstrate theprocess. Students show theirknowledge, skills and abilities in avariety of different ways that are notdependent upon traditional media suchas exams and essays.

8. Project-Based Learning: Instructional strategy that challenges

students to discover answers to theirquestions through real-worldinvestigation. These are in-depthlearning opportunities that motivatestudents and integrate manycurriculum objectives.

9. Rubrics: A rubric is “a road map, telling students

and teachers where to begin, wherethey’re going, and how to get there.” Dr.


Kay Burke. Rubrics are scoring guidesor sets of expectations used to assessstudent level of understanding andallow students to know the expectationsand what they need to do in order to belearning at a higher level.

10. Simulation: The use of role playing by the actors

during the operation of a comparativelycomplex symbolic model of an actual ofhypothetical social process; usuallyincludes gaming and may be all-man,man-computer, or all-computeroperations.14

Conclusion:Constructivism believes in invention,construction and generation of theknowledge. Constructivism emphasisthat every child has his/her own style oflearning. By the help of constructive

REFERENCESAngela M.O’ Donnell: Case-Based Learning; constructivism, education.com/

reference/ article/constructivism. html document.Assessment in a Constructive Classroom; http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/

methods/ assessment/ as7const.htm.Cindy, E. Hmelo-silver: Project Based Learning; constructivism, education.com/

reference/ article/constructivism. html document.Constructivism: Evaluation; Knowledge Building in the Secondary Classrooms,

http:// www.saskshools.ca/curr_content//constructivism/how/evaluation.html

Cynthia M. D’Angelo, Stephanie Touchman, Douglas B. Clark, constructivism,education.com/reference/article/constructivism. html document.

David Dean, Jr.: Inquiry Based Learning; constructivism, education.com/reference/article/constructivism. html document.

Firtscher, Lisa (2008); Constructivism, About.com Guide, Updated 9 May 2009.Jonassen, David H. 1994. Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design

Model. Educational Technology journal, 34(4), pp. 34-37.Gayla, S. Keesee, Learning Theories, Wiki, HTML Document.Richard E. Mayer: Discovery Learning; constructivism, education.com/reference/

article/constructivism. html document.Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional

model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35(5), 31.

* Dr. Meena Manral : Asst. Professor, Dept. of Education, KumaunUniversity, SSJ Campus. Almora. (Uttarakhand).e-mail : [email protected]

teaching methods, such as, discoverylearning, case based learning, inquirybased learning, project based learning,problem based learning etc, can enhancecreativity, problem solving and criticalthinking ability of the students.Constructive teaching methods helpstudents in acquire knowledge in selfpace of learning. By the help of peerassessment, anecdotal record,continuous and comprehensiveassessment etc teacher can assess theoverall performance of the students andcan give them feed-back. Soconstructivism based teaching andevaluation pattern can change wholeprocess of learning and can developcritical thinking, problem solving andknowledge discovering abilities of thestudents.


Constructivism: A Learner – CenteredEducation

Abstract



Vandana Chouhan *

Constructivism is a new approach in education that claims human beings are better able tounderstand the information that they have constructed by themselves. Constructivism as learningtheory has emerged as one of the child-centered approaches. It is mainly attributed to the workof Jean Piaget. Constructivism is about how people learn and construct their own understandingand knowledge through experiencing thinks and reflecting on those experiences. This articlegives a brief outline of Constructivism.

Introduction-Schools are expected to transmitknowledge to the younger generation.The traditional classrooms sometimesresemble a one-person show with acaptive but often uninvolved audience.Classes are usually dominated by theteacher at the centre. To improvise theinstruction, various strategies likediscovery, joyful and recently experientiallearning were introduced. Hence itrequires a shift from teacher centered tolearning-centered education for whichone proposed solution is Constructivism.Constructivism is not a new concept, ithas been around since the turn of thecentury and was supported by: JohnDewey an American psychologist. JeanPiaget, who based his view ofpsychological development of childrensuch that a child constructsunderstanding through many channels:such as reading, listening, exploring and

experiencing his or her environment. LevVygotsky, a Russian psychologist andphilosopher and was associated with thesocial constructivist theory. He believedthat the influence of cultural and socialcontexts play an important part inlearning and supports a discovery modelof learning.Constructivism isa child-centeredapproach, rather than curriculum based.It focuses on knowledge construction, notknowledge reproduction. It is a belief thatone constructs knowledge from one’s ownexperiences. Everyone’s view of theexternal world differs from others becauseof their unique set of experiences. Theideas and interests of children drive thelearning process and the teachers thefacilitators.Definition-A learning theory that claims individualsactively construct new knowledge fromtheir experiences rather than acquiring


Consrtuctivism : A Learner ......................by Vandana Chouhan. 69

knowledge from outside to within thelearner. Knowledge is individuallyconstructed through interactions with theenvironment and others (cognitive) andis co-constructed through interactionswith others (social).Jonassen (1994) proposed that there areeight characteristics that differentiateconstructivist learning environments:1. Constructivist learning environments

provide multiple representations ofreality.

2. Multiple representations avoidoversimplification and represent thecomplexity of the real world.

3. Constructivist learning environmentsemphasize knowledge constructioninserted of knowledge reproduction.

4. Constructivist learning environmentsemphasize authentic tasks in ameaningful context rather than abstractinstruction out of context.

5. Constructivist learning environmentsprovide learning environments such asreal-world settings or case-basedlearning instead of predeterminedsequences of instruction.

6. Constructivist learning environmentsencourage thoughtful reflection onexperience.

7. Constructivist learning environments”Senable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction.”

8. Constructivist learning environmentssupport “collaborative construction ofknowledge through social negotiation,not competition among learners forrecognition.”

Roles of the TeacherThe role of the teacher in construstivistteaching methods is,watching, listening,asking questions and having the abilityto observe and listen to one’s studentsand their experiences in the classroomcontributes to his other ability to use a

constructivist approach. A constructivistapproach contributes to one’s ability toobserve and listen in the classroom.Advantages - Each person in the world builds theirown knowledge. Focuses on student-centered learning Teacher guidesstudents in building their ownunderstanding and knowledge. Studentsactively engaged in their learning process.Disadvantages -Lack of teacher preparation forconstructivist classrooms Difficult tobreak the cycle of those who have beentaught in a classroom where they wereexpected to solely absorb information.Limitation-• It is almost impossible to create highly

detailed lesson plans because so muchvariation is possible.

• Teaching from a constructivistperspective is more time consumingand places higher demands on learnersas compared to a typical lecture format.

• Recognize that students construct theirown interpretations of things regardlessof whether you teach from aconstructivist perspective.

• Constructivism is not the onlyorientation to learning that you will everneed.

Conclusion-Constructivism is an idea that not everyteacher will use, but they should at leastconsider it. The idea of buildingknowledge off prior knowledge is atechnique that if done properly, canenhance the learning of the studentsdramatically while at the same timemaking it more interesting due to the factthe teacher does not have to keeprepeating the same information over andover.


REFERENCES

Davydov, V. V. (1995). The influence of L. S. Vygotsky on education theory, research,and practice. Educational Researcher, 24, 12-21.

Dewey, John. “John Dewey between pragmatism and constructivism.” FordhamAmerican philosophy. Fordham University Press,(2009).

Driscoll. M. P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 384-407; Ch. 11 –Constructivism). Toronto, ON: Pearson.

Ertmer, P.A. & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:Comparing Critical features from an instructional design perspective.Improvement Quarterly, 6 (4): 50-72.

* Vandana Chouhan. : Asstt. Professor, Shiva College, Bhilai. Distt. Durg.Chhattisgarh. e-mail : [email protected]

Problem-Based Learning as a Constructivist.....................by Mrs. Gurkirat Kaur 71

Problem-Based Learning as a ConstructivistMethod of Teaching

Abstract



Mrs. Gurkirat Kaur *

Problem based learning (PBL) is an innovative learner-oriented instructional strategy. It drawson constructivist and social constructivist principles of learning. PBL is an instructional methodin which students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order tosolve a problem, engage in self-directed learning, apply their new knowledge to the problem,and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed (Hmelo,2004). PBL is an imperative part of an various disciplines viz. sciences, medicine, engineering,law, business, educational administration, teacher education and architecture (Savery & Duffy,1996). A selected review of literature is presented in the present paper, discussion andconclusions are also presented.

IntroductionProblem based learning (PBL) is aninnovative learner-oriented instructionalstrategy. It draws on constructivist andsocial constructivist principles oflearning, advocating student centeredengagement with course materials andcontent as well as student interactionwith peers as central to the processassociated with learning. PBL is anapproach that empowers learners toconduct research, integrate theory andpractice and apply knowledge and skillsto develop a viable solution to a definedproblem (Savery, 2006). Problem basedlearning is focused, experientially basedlearning organized around theinvestigation and resolution of messy,real- world problems (Torp & Sage, 2002)which includes the followingcharacteristics (Murray & Slee, 2000),

• actively engaging the students to takeresponsibility for solving the problemwith support from a tutor or instructor

• organizing the curriculum around thechallenging, open- ended problems tofacilitate students’ learning, and

• creating a learning environment to guidestudent inquiry at a deeper level ofunderstanding.

Hence PBL is an instructional method inwhich students work in collaborativegroups to identify what they need to learnin order to solve a problem, engage in self-directed learning, apply their newknowledge to the problem, and reflect onwhat they learned and the effectivenessof the strategies employed (Hmelo, 2004).PBL is an imperative part of an array ofdisciplines viz. sciences, medicine,engineering, law, business, educationaladministration, teacher education and

Sub Theme - 2Constructivism Application


architecture (Savery & Duffy, 1996).Definitions and Characteristics ofProblem-Based LearningPBL is based on constructivist theory andcarry with them expectations of:• anchoring all learning activities to a

larger task or platform;• supporting the learner in developing

ownership for the overall problem ortask;

• engaging in authentic tasks;• designing problems or tasks that reflect

the complexity of the teachingenvironments;

• giving the learner ownership of theprocess used to develop a solution;

• designing the learning environment tosupport and challenge the learner’sthinking;

• encouraging the testing of ideas againstalternative views and alternativecontexts; and

• providing opportunities and support forreflection on both the content learnedand the learning process (Savery &Duffy, 1996).

Boud and Feletti (1997) provided a list ofthe practices considered characteristic ofthe philosophy, strategies, and tactics ofproblem-based learning. Duch, Groh, andAllen (2001) described the methods usedin PBL and the specific skills developed,including the ability to think critically,analyze and solve complex, real-worldproblems, to find, evaluate, and useappropriate learning resources; to workcooperatively, to demonstrate effectivecommunication skills, and to use contentknowledge and intellectual skills tobecome continual learners.Torp and Sage (2002) described studentsas engaged problem solvers, seeking toidentify the root problem and theconditions needed for a good solution andin the process becoming self-directedlearners. Savery (2006) enlisted followingcharacteristics and henceforth thedefinitions of PBL viz.

1.Students must have theresponsibility for their own learning-PBL is a learner-centered approach—students engage with the problem withwhatever their current knowledge/experience affords. Learner motivationincreases when responsibility for thesolution to the problem and the processrests with the learner. Individualsaccept responsibility for seekingrelevant information and bringing thatback to the group to help inform thedevelopment of a viable solution.

2. The problem simulations used inproblem-based learning must be ill-structured and allow for free inquiry-Problems in the real world are ill-structured. A critical skill developedthrough PBL is the ability to identify theproblem and set parameters on thedevelopment of a solution. When aproblem is well-structured learners areless motivated and less invested in thedevelopment of the solution.

3. Learning should be integrated froma wide range of disciplines orsubjects- Barrows (1996) elucidatedthat during self-directed learning,students should be able to access,study and integrate information from allthe disciplines that might be related tounderstanding and resolving aparticular problem-just as people in thereal world must recall and applyinformation integrated from diversesources in their work. The rapidexpansion of information hasencouraged a cross-fertilization of ideasand led to the development of newdisciplines.

4. Collaboration is essential- In theworld after school most learners willfind themselves in jobs where they needto share information and workproductively with others. PBL providesa format for the development of theseessential skills. During a PBL sessionthe tutor will ask questions of any and


all members to ensure that informationhas been shared between members inrelation to the group’s problem.

5. What students learn during theirself-directed learning must beapplied back to the problem withreanalysis and resolution- The pointof self-directed research is forindividuals to collect information thatwill inform the group’s decision-makingprocess in relation to the problem. It isessential that each individual sharecoherently what he or she has learnedand how that information might impacton developing a solution to the problem.

6. A closing analysis of what has beenlearned from work with the problemand a discussion of what conceptsand principles have been learnedare essential- Given that PBL is a veryengaging, motivating and involving formof experiential learning, learners areoften very close to the immediate detailsof the problem and the proposedsolution. Barrows (1988) examined thatlearners examine all facets of the PBLprocess to better understand what theyknow, what they learned, and how theyperformed.

7. Self and peer assessment should becarried out at the completion of eachproblem and at the end of everycurricular unit- These assessmentactivities related to the PBL process areclosely related to the previous essentialcharacteristic of reflection onknowledge gains. The significance ofthis activity is to reinforce the self-reflective nature of learning andsharpen a range of metacognitiveprocessing skills.

8. Student examinations mustmeasure student progress towardsthe goals of problem-based learning-The goals of PBL are both knowledge-based and process-based. Studentsneed to be assessed on both dimensionsat regular intervals to ensure that they

are benefiting as intended from the PBLapproach. Students are responsible forthe content in the curriculum that theyhave “covered” through engagementwith problems. They need to be able torecognize and articulate what theyknow and what they have learned.

9. Problem-based learning must be thepedagogical base in the curriculumand not part of a didacticcurriculum.

Thus PBL can be defined as a processin which

• the role of the tutor is of a facilitator oflearning,

• the responsibilities of the learners areto become self-directed and selfregulated in their learning, and

• the essential elements in the design ofill-structured instructional problemsserves as the driving force for inquiry.

Impact of Problem-Based Learning onTeaching Learning ProcessStudies by Coles (1985), Dods (1997) andNewble and Clarke (1986) revealed thatPBL promotes more in-depthunderstanding of content than traditionalmethods. A meta-analysis of 20 years ofPBL evaluation studies was conducted byAlbanese and Mitchell (1993), and also byVernon and Blake (1993), and it wasconcluded that a problem-basedapproach to instruction was equal totraditional approaches in terms ofconventional tests of knowledge (i.e.,scores on medical board examinations),and that students who studied using PBLexhibited better clinical problem-solvingskills.A smaller study of graduates of a physicaltherapy program that utilized PBL(Denton, Adams, Blatt, & Lorish, 2000)showed that graduates of the programperformed equally well with PBL ortraditional approaches but studentsreported a preference for the problem-centered approach. Anecdotal reportsfrom PBL practitioners suggest that


students are more engaged in learning theexpected content (Torp & Sage, 2002).Basile et al (2003) explored problem-based learning as a dimension that addscontext and framework to coaching andreflection. The process for problem-basedlearning is described as a healthyenvironment for reflection, discussionand problem solving. The resultsillustrated how teacher candidates movefrom micro-reflection to self-reflection tomacroreflection as they engage in a year-long teacher education program in aprofessional development school.Implications from the study suggestedthat problem-based learning is a validprocess for the enculturation of teachercandidates to schools and to theprofession of teaching.Hmelo- Silver (2004) enunciated thatProblem-based learning is aninstructional method in which studentslearn through facilitated problem solving.In PBL, student learning centers on acomplex problem that does not have asingle correct answer. Students work incollaborative groups to identify what theyneed to learn in order to solve a problem.They engage in self-directed learning andthen apply their new knowledge to theproblem and reflect on what they learnedand the effectiveness of the strategiesemployed. The goals of PBL includedhelping students develop flexibleknowledge, effective problem-solvingskills, effective collaboration skills, andintrinsic motivation.Cindy et al. (2007) used two cases usingadvocacy as a teaching strategy andlearning outcome and PBL as a guide fortask structure were described in termsof course design, student learning, andrevisions. It was observed that theproblem-based learning approach helpedto increase students’ empowerment andbeliefs that they can make a difference inpeople’s lives by using their professionalactivities and therefore, combining PBL

and advocacy was shown to be asuccessful approach in fostering anappreciation within the students for theirpersonal power.Kaur (2010) introduced PBL as analternative pupil-oriented method to themainstream teacher-oriented method inthe subject of ‘Teaching of Science’ ininitial teacher training programme. Thetopic ‘Microteaching Skills’ was developedinto two case studies to acquaint theprospective teachers with the realproblems of the teaching- learning world.It was examined that PBL approachhelped students in connecting the topicin their practicum experience.Polyzois et al. (2010) conducted a reviewto classify and interpret the availableevidence and extract relevantconclusions. In addition, it was intendedto propose recommendations regardingthe relative benefits of PBL compared withconventional teaching. The literature wassearched using PubMed, ERIC andPsycLIT. At the level of RCTs andcomparative studies (whole curricula), noclear difference was observed betweenPBL and conventional teaching.Paradoxically, it was only comparativestudies of single PBL intervention in atraditional curriculum that yieldedresults that were consistently in favourof PBL. However researchers pointed outsome limitations of PBL. Because thefocus of this pedagogy is primarily onlearning to learn and less on mastery of aparticular body of knowledge, traditionalmethods of course assessment such asexaminations may not be very effective(Major, 1999). Further a report on asystematic review and meta-analysis onthe effectiveness of PBL used in highereducation programs for healthprofessionals (Newman, 2003) stated that“existing overviews of the field do notprovide high quality evidence with whichto provide robust answers to questionsabout the effectiveness of PBL”.


DiscussionThese studies show that it is time to thinkout of the box on how we assess theeffectiveness of PBL and how we thinkabout its outcomes. Allowing students toengage in these kinds of measures canallow us to assess important learning byexamining and judging the studentsactual or simulated performance onsignificant tasks (Worthen, 1993). Whileeach particular PBL instructionalenvironment is unique, and thereforemerits its own unique assessmentstrategy, several alternative assessmenttechniques seem particularly appropriatefor the PBL learning environment (Major,2001) viz. Outside Evaluation by Experts,Content Analysis of Projects, FocusGroups, Peer Evaluations, Journals orActivity Logs and Personal

Reflections. These techniques focus onthe contextual nature of PBL, requiringthe students to produce an authenticproduct that is related to the problem andto make judgments about theirperformances.ConclusionFrom the selected review of literature itis observed that PBL serves as analternative method of learning which isbased on formulation of authenticproblems for the learners, encourage theircritical and logical reasoning. It providesopportunities for content mastery, selfreflection, ownership value and self-directed learning. PBL is based onconstructivist principles and proves to bea paradigm shift from traditional tocontemporary learning proves.

REFERENCESAlbanese, M.A. and Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: a review of literature

on its outcomes and implementation issues, Academic Medicine, 68 (8), 615.Barrows, H.S. (1996). Problem- based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief

overview, In L. Wilkerson and W.H. Gijselaers (Eds) Bringing Problem – basedLearning to Higher Education: Theory and Practice- Vol. 68. New directionsfor Teaching and Learning, San Franciso, Jossey- Bass.

Basile, C., Olson, F. and Nathenson-Mejia, S. (2003). Problem-based Learning:reflective coaching for teacher educators, Reflective Practice, 4 (3), 291- 392.

Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). The challenge of problem-based learning (2nd ed.).London: Kogan Page.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn:Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National AcademyPress.

Bridges, E.M., & Hallinger, P. (1996). Problem-based learning in leadership education.In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning tohigher education: Theory and practice. New Directions in Teaching andLearning, No. 68 (pp. 53-61). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Cindy, V. B. and Neal, S. (2007), Advocacy as a Problem-Based Learning (PBL)Teaching Strategy, International Journal of Teaching and Learning in HigherEducation, 19 (3), 315-324.

Coles, C. R. (1985). Differences between conventional and problem based curriculain their students’ approaches to studying. Medical Education,19 (4), 308 309.

Denton, B. G., Adams, C. C., Blatt, P. J., & Lorish, C. D. (2000). Does the introductionof problem based learning change graduate performance outcomes in aprofessional curriculum? Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 11 (2&3),147-162. Dods (1997)


Hmelo- Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: what and how do studentslearn? Educational Psychology Review, 16 (3), 235- 266.

Kaur, G. (2010). Problem Based Learning in Initial Teacher Training Programme,Paper published in the Proceedings of International Technology, Educationand Development Conference, Valencia, Spain, ISBN: 978-84-613-5538-9.

MacDonald, P. J. (1997). Selection of health problems for a problem based curriculum.In D. Boud & G. Feletti (Eds.), The challenge of problem-based learning (2nded.) (pp. 93-102). London: Kogan Page.

Major, C. (1999). Connecting what we know and what we do through problem basedlearning. AAHE Bulletin, 51 (1), 7 9.

Major, C.H. (2001). Assessing the Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning in HigherEducation: Lessons from the Literature, Academic Exchange Quarterly , 5 (1)

Murray- Harvey, R. and Slee, P. (2000). Problem-based learning in teacher education:just the beginning, Paper presented in the Annual Conference of AustralianAssociation for Research in Education, Sydney, Australia.

Newble, D. I., & Clarke, R. M. (1986 ). The approaches to learning of students in atraditional and in an innovative problem based medical school. MedicalEducation, 20 (4), 267 273.

Newman, M. (2003). A pilot systematic review and meta-analysis on the effectivenessof problem-based learning. Retrieved December 12, 2005 from http://www.ltsn-01.ac. uk/docs/pbl_report.pdf.

Polyzois, I, Claffey N, and Mattheos N. (2010). Problem-based learning in academichealth education. A systematic literature review, European Journal of DentalEducaion, 14 (1), 55-64.

Savery, J.R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: definitions and distinctions,The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1(1), 9-20.

Stinson, J. E., & Milter, R. G. (1996). Problem-based learning in business education:Curriculum design and implementation issues. In L. Wilkerson & W. H.Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem- based learning to higher education: Theoryand practice. New Directions For Teaching and Learning Series, No. 68 (pp.32-42). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Torp, L. and Sage, S. (2002). Problems as possibilities: problem-based learning forK-16 education (2nd Ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development.

Vernon, D. T. A., & Blake, R. L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work? A meta-analysis of evaluation research. Academic Medicine, 68(7), 550-563.

Wilkerson, L., & Gijselaers, W. (Eds.). (1996). Bringing problem-based learning tohigher education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching andLearning Series, No. 68. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Worthen, B. (1993). Critical issues that will determine the future of alternativeassessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 74, (6), 444 448, 450 454.

* Mrs. Gurkirat Kaur : Asstt. Professor, Chitkara College of Educationfor Women, Vill. Fatehpurgarhi, Teh. Rajpura, Distt. PatialaPunjab -140401 e-mail: [email protected]

Constructivism and Formative Assessment .....................by Rima Dutta 77

Constructivism and Formative Assessment:An Overview

Abstract



Rima Dutta *

The child constructs knowledge from environment, from his experiences and interactions withothers. Constructivism holds the view that every child actively participates in learning andconstructs his/her own piece of knowledge. It is always based on his/her previous knowledge.In a formal setting of education if measures are taken to conform that knowledge should beconstructed by the learner through active participation in teaching learning process then questionarises about the role of the evaluation. What would be the contribution of evaluation inconstructing knowledge? Can it be used effectively to create new knowledge? What would beits type then? All these concerns need to be addressed effectively for a well build curriculum.

Introduction :The child constructs knowledge fromenvironment, from his experiences andinteractions with others. Constructivismholds the view that every child activelyparticipates in learning and constructshis/her own piece of knowledge. It isalways based on his/her previousknowledge. A child may relate newknowledge with previous knowledge invarious amazing and peculiar ways. Everychild comes from different environmentand background so their previousexperiences also differ from each other.In teaching learning process the teachernot only has to have a good knowledge ofthe previous knowledge but s/he shouldoptimally use it for the construction ofthe new and valid knowledge. In our dayto day interactions in the classrooms wecome across many such situations.

Constructivism :Constructivism is an idea in whichknowledge is regarded as a byproduct ofhuman construction. An earliest votaryof constructivism an Italian philosopherGiambattista Vico had said “The known isthe made”. Constructivism has its rootsin various disciplines like philosophy,psychology, sociology, education,cognitive science and cybernetics.Constructivism is centered on the ideathat human knowledge and learning isactively constructed by the learner, notpassively received from the environment.Knowledge is always someone’sknowledge. It is created or constructedby the experiencing individual. It is notimpersonal or absolute. They createknowledge on the bedrock of their priorknowledge. Learners in a classroom havetheir individual experiences and a



cognitive structure, which are built onthose prior experiences.The main function of the knowledgeconstructs is to organize the ongoingexperiences of the learner and not mirrorreality. The learner tends to reformulatehis/her existing structures/constructsby connecting them to the newexperiences of the world.Knowledge involves mental constructsthat are constructed from pastexperience. Whether these constructs/structures are valid, truthful orincomplete is not important. The truthcontent of this knowledge is insignificant.If the knowledge is the made, there is nosingular, universal absolute knowledge;if reality is pluralistic, then it ismeaningless to search for or debate aboutwhat the truth is. The truthfulness of astatement has to be judged vis-à-vis thepoint of reference on which it is based.The two main ideas of constructivismare:-• The learner is not a passive entity but

an active cognizing subject andknowledge cannot be transmitted fromone learner to another. Learners haveto construct knowledge themselves.

• The function of cognition is not thediscovery/representation of the worldbut adaptation. That is to say thatcognition performs the function oforganizing the learner’s experiences ofthe world. What is of significance is thatthe learner constructs a viableexplanation of his/her experiences.The goal of cognition is thus not therepresentation of an objectiveindependent reality but our ownattempt to understand and organize it.In order to do so we create a version ofit by our own selves. This is the processof construction of knowledge.

Formative AssessmentFormative assessment is a tool used bythe teacher to continuously monitorstudent’s progress in a non- threatening,

supportive environment. It instead ofmeasuring knowledge helps in formationof the knowledge. When evaluation issubsumed into teaching-learning, it willlead to diagnosis, remediation andenhancement of learning. It is an integralpart of the instructional process,underpinning the importance of studentinvolvement. It involves students beingan essential part of assessment fromdesigning criteria to assessing self orpeers. It follows from this that whenincorporated into classroom practice;assessment tends to lose its individualidentity, getting subsumed into theinstructional process. It is also importantbecause it not only measures the progressand achievement of the learner but alsothe effectiveness of the teaching materialsand methods used for transactions. Ifused effectively it can improve studentperformance tremendously while raisingthe self esteem of the child and reducingthe work load of the teacher.Features of Formative Assessment• Is diagnostic and remedial• Makes the provision for effective

feedback• Provides the platform for the active

involvement of students in their ownlearning

• Enables teachers to adjust teaching totake into account the results ofassessment

• Recognizes the profound influenceassessment has on the motivation andself-esteem of students, both of whichare crucial influences on learning

• Recognizes the need for students to beable to assess themselves andunderstand how to improve

• Builds on student’s prior knowledge andexperience in designing what is taught

• Incorporates varied learning styles intodeciding how and what to teach

• Encourages students to understand thecriteria that will be used to judge theirwork

Constructivism and Formative Assessment .....................by Rima Dutta 79

• Offers an opportunity to students toimprove their work after feedback

• Helps students to support their peers,and expect to be supported by them

• Formative assessment is thus carriedout during a course of instruction forproviding continuous feedback to boththe teachers and learners for takingdecisions regarding appropriatemodifications in the transactionalprocedures and learning activities

• The most important aspect to be keptin mind is that these tasks are meantto be integrated with the teaching-learning process, i.e., while teachingunit/lesson (and not after). Also thefollow up in terms of providing furtherhelp to clear doubts, removes problemsfaced by the learners and modificationsin teaching methods and strategies hasto be given utmost importance

After considering the features of formativeassessment it can be said that if anyevaluation suits constructivism it isformative assessment. Formativeassessment helps in creating the properenvironment for knowledge construction.In it the students work in collaborationand help each other in a project or groupactivity. The feeling of collaboration takesplace instead of the feeling of competition.Formative Assessment: - The Tool ofEvaluation in ConstructivismKnowledge construction the learner is atthe center of every activity. It’s the learnerwho is constructing his/her own piece ofknowledge. Although this knowledge hasto be valid and authentic but the natureof this knowledge is subjective. Individualdifferences of the learners have to beconsidered and should be given properimportance. As the individuals varylargely from each other it is obvious thattheir capacity to construct knowledge alsovaries. Some students are very good atlanguage while some others are good atcomputation. Even in language some arevery good listeners while some others

have a marvelous capacity of creativewriting. As they vary distinctly from eachother objective evaluation cannot cater alltheir needs. To meet all their needs theevaluation system also has to besubjective which means that the teacherhas to design different evaluation patternfor the learners. It not only measures theirachievements and progress in learningbut also gives a feedback to the teacherregarding his/her teaching learningmaterials and strategies. It also gives aclear idea of the difficulties and problemsfaced by the learner in particular areas.In formative assessment the teacher isfree to give various projects to the learnersaccording to their needs and capability.The students are encouraged to work ingroups so that they can counterbalancetheir deficiencies and can learn from eachother. Teacher can apply variousstrategies for various students and canmonitor their progress. The slow learnersare encouraged if they successfullycomplete the assignments given to them.At the same time gifted are also motivatedas they are able to move according to theirown speed. Even by self evaluation andpeer evaluation the learners are able tomonitor their own progress. Learningdisabilities are detected timely and boththe teacher and the learner are able towork on it. Formative assessment alsohelps in the process of knowledgeconstruction as it is done simultaneouslywith the dealing of the topic. Teacher digsinto the prior knowledge of the learnerand thus takes it to the forefront so thatthe learner is able to connect the newknowledge with the previous one. So itcan be said that formative assessment isthe essential tool for evaluation inconstructivism.Limitations of ConstructivismSummative assessment is conducted atthe completion of any particular contentor after a certain time it is obvious that itfails to contribute in the construction of


knowledge and even it cannot address theindividual needs of the student. It cannotevaluate the construction of knowledgeproperly. It is objective in nature and eachstudent is measured on the samestandards so the subjective aspect ofknowledge is ignored. It is also true thatwithout summative assessment a hugenumber of students are difficult tomeasure on the account of theirachievement. It is also important thatformal system of education serves as abase for different selections units to selectproper employees for them and formativeassessment cannot serve this purpose.ConclusionConstructivism says that the child shouldhave the freedom to construct his/herknowledge. Knowledge is subjective sothe question of its being true or false isuseless. The plurality of truth says thatthere are various versions of truth and it

depends on the individual that what istruth according to him. It depends on theperception of the individual that what s/he considers important for him. And whatis important for one may not be importantfor another. Hence what is truth andknowledge for one may not be the samefor the other. But knowledge should bevalid and authentic and it should helpthe individual in performing his/her dayto day activities then it will consider astrue knowledge.In formal setup of education we see thatassessment is an integral part ofcurriculum and it cannot be separated.So in a constructive approach we have tosee that assessment will also act as a toolof knowledge construction. To addressthis issue we should adopt formativeassessment and help the learner toconstruct his/her knowledge along withmonitoring his/her progress anderadicating difficulties.

REFERENCESCBSE : Teacher’s Manual on Formative Assessment English Communicative and

Language. First Edition. CBSE, India. 2010IGNOU : . Theories of Learning: A Critical Summary. MES-013 Learning, Learner And

Development. New Delhi. 2007. (Study Material))cce.icbse.com/formative-assessmenten.wikipedia.org/wiki/constructivist_epistemologyen.wikipedia.org/wiki/constructivism_(learning_theory).26/06/2012en.wikipedia.org/wiki/constructivism_(art)en.wikipedia.org/wiki/constructivist_teaching_methodsen.wikipedia.org.wiki/Formative_assessment.Viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-

it/constr.htmlwww.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.htmlwww.learning_theories.com/constructivismwww.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice.htmlwww.learningandtavhing.info/learning/constructivism.htmlwww.exploratorium.edu/1F1/resources/constructivistlearning.htmlwww.amle.org/publications/webexclusive/assessment/tabid/1120/default.aspxwww2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3751398wvde.state.wv.us/teach21/ExamplesofFormativeAssessment.html pareonline.net/

getvn.asp?v=8&n=9www.oecd.org/dataoecd/19/31/35661078.pdf

* Rima Dutta : Research Scholar, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya,Bilaspur. (C.G.). e-mail: [email protected]

Attitude of Secondary School Teachers ..........by Pranab Barman & Dr. D. Bhattacharyya. 81

Attitude of Secondary School Teacherstowards Teaching throughConstructivist Approach



Pranab Barman * & Dr. Dibyendu Bhattacharyya **

Abstract

It is an attitudinal study on 120 secondary school teachers taken from Bengali Medium SecondarySchools in the district of Burdwan,West Bengal towards constructivist teaching approach. ThePurposive sampling technique has been used for the selection of sample. The investigatorsdeveloped a tool themselves to measure attitude towards constructivist teaching approach ofteachers at secondary level. For the analysis of data‘t’ test has been used in the present study.The overall results indicate that the secondary school teachers possess favourable attitudetowards constructivist teaching approach. There is no significant difference in the attitude ofsecondary school teachers towards constructivist teaching approach in relation to gender, localityand stream (i.e. Arts and Science).

Introduction:Learning without meaningfulunderstanding is valueless in our life.That’s why teachers should always teachstudents by using a fruitful teachingmethod so that students can learnmeaningfully and apply their learnedexperiences in their daily life.Constructivist teaching method is sucha method which draws on students’existing knowledge, beliefs, and skills.With a constructivist approach, studentssynthesize new understanding from priorlearning and new information. Inconstructivist teaching, a teacher sets upproblems and monitor students’exploration, guides students inquiry, andpromotes new patterns of thinking.

Constructivist teaching asks students towork with their own data and learn todirect their own explorations. Ultimately,students begin to think of learning asaccumulated, evolving knowledge.Constructivist teaching poses a questionto the students, who then work togetherin small groups to discover one or moresolutions (Yager, 1991). Students play anactive role in carrying out experimentsand reaching their own conclusions.Teachers assist the students indeveloping new insights and connectingthem with previous knowledge, but leavethe discovery and discussion to thestudent groups (VAST, 1998). Studentsare able to develop their ownunderstanding of the subject matter



based on previous knowledge, and cancorrect any misconceptions they have.Important aspects of Constructivism:In the Constructivist perspective,learning is a process of Construction ofKnowledge. Learners actively constructtheir own Knowledge by connecting newideas to existing ideas on the basis ofmaterials/ activities presented to them.This theory suggests that people learnthrough an interaction between thinkingand experience. It also emphasizes thatlearning is a result of sequentialdevelopment of more complex cognitivestructures. This theory places the learnerin a very active and independent role.There is considerable emphasis onlearning concepts and skills though theirinteraction with the topics of their ownchoice. Great emphasis is placed on directexperience in constructivist learning.Role of a teacher in ConstructivistClassroom:In the constructivist classroom, theteacher’s role is to prompt and facilitatediscussion. Thus, the teacher’s mainfocus should be on guiding students byasking questions that will lead them todevelop their own conclusions on thesubject. David Jonassen identified threemajor roles for facilitators to supportstudents in constructivist learningenvironments: Modelling; Coaching andScaffolding.Objectives of the Study:The researcher has conducted his studyon the basis of the following objectives:1. To study the attitude of secondary

school teachers towards constructivistteaching approach.

2. To study the difference in mean scoresof attitude towards constructivistteaching approach among secondaryschool teachers on the basis of Gender,Locality and subject wise attitude ofteachers.

Research QuestionWhether there exists favourable attitude

towards constructivist teaching approachamong secondary school teachers ?Hypotheses of the Study:The following hypotheses have beenconstructed to achieve the objectives ofthe study:H

o.1. There exists no significant difference

in the mean scores of attitude ofsecondary school teachers towardsconstructivist teaching approach inrelation to gender.

Ho.2

. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude ofsecondary school teachers towardsconstructivist teaching approach inrelation to their locality.

Ho.3

. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude ofsecondary school teachers of Arts andScience stream towards constructivistteaching approach.

Ho.4

. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude betweenArts Male Teachers and Arts FemaleTeachers towards constructivistteaching approach.

Ho.5

. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude betweenScience Male Teachers and ScienceFemale Teachers towards constructivistteaching approach.

Methodology of the StudyMethod:In the present study Descriptive SurveyMethod was employed to find out theattitude of secondary school teacherstowards constructivist teaching approachby using following statistical techniques:Mean, S.D., followed by t-test.Sample:A sample of 120 teachers from selectedfive secondary schools situated in thedistrict of Burdwan have been consideredas the sample for the present study.Purposive sampling technique is used forthe selection of sample and data has beencollected on the basis of gender, localityand subject wise attitude of teachers.


Tools Used:The following tool was used for thecollection of data in the present study:‘Constructivist Teaching Attitude Scale’developed by the investigator.Results and Discussion:

Table-1.Shows the Frequency Distribution andPercentage of Attitude Score of Total

Teachers. Class Interval of Frequency % of the

Attitude Scores Teachers

65-71 1 0.83

72-78 8 6.66

79-85 22 18.33

86-92 36 30.00

93-99 37 30.83

100-106 16 13.33

Total 120

Fig.1Graphical Representation of FrequencyDistribution and Percentage of Attitude

Scores of Teachers

score 100-106. It shows that most of theteachers have favourable attitude towardsConstructivist Teaching Approach atsecondary level.Ho.1. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude ofsecondary school teachers towardsconstructivist teaching approach inrelation to gender.

Table - 2:Shows the attitude of Male and Female

Teachers towards ConstructivistTeaching Approach.

Sex No. of Mean Sd. t- Level of

Teach. value Signi.

Male 60 91.1 7.97 0.38 NS

Female 60 90.56 7.28

From the table -2, it is observed that thecalculated‘t’ value (‘t’ = 0.38) is less thanthe table value (1.98 at 0.05 level ofsignificance).So, it is not significant and it indicatesthat male and female teachers havesimilar attitude towards constructivistteaching approach at secondary level.Hence the null hypothesis is accepted.Ho.2. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude ofsecondary school teachers towardsconstructivist teaching approach inrelation to their locality.

Table - 3:Shows the attitude of Urban and Rural

Teachers towards ConstructivistTeaching Approach.

Loca No. of Mean Sd. t- Level of lity Teach. value Signi.

Urban 70 89.88 6.94 1.62 NS

Rural 50 92.16 8.07The table-1 shows that 0.83% teachersresponded between the score 65-71.Similarly 6.66% teachers respondedbetween the score 72-78, 18.33%teachers responded between the score79-85, 30% teachers responded betweenthe score 86-92, 30.83% teachersresponded between the score 93-99 and13.33% teachers responded between the

From the table -3, it is observed that thecalculated ‘t’ value (‘t’ = 1.62) is less thanthe table value (1.98 at 0.05 level ofsignificance). So, it is not significant andit indicates that urban and rural teachershave similar attitude towardsconstructivist teaching approach atsecondary level.


Hence the null hypothesis is accepted.Ho.3. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude ofsecondary school teachers of Arts andScience stream towards constructivistteaching approach.

Table - 4:Shows the attitude of Arts Teachers and

Science Teachers towardsConstructivist Teaching Approach.

Strea- No.of Mean Sd. t - Level of ms Teach. value Signi.

Arts 60 90 7.9 1.22 NS

Sci. 60 91.66 7.03

From the table -4, it is observed that thecalculated ‘t’ value (‘t’ = 1.22) is less thanthe table value (1.98 at 0.05 level ofsignificance). So, it is not significant andit indicates that teachers of Arts andScience streams have similar attitudetowards constructivist teaching approachat secondary level. Hence the nullhypothesis is accepted.Ho.4. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude betweenArts Male Teachers and Arts FemaleTeachers towards constructivist teachingapproach.

Table - 5:Shows the attitude of Arts Male

Teachers and Arts Female Teacherstowards Constructivist Teaching

Approach. Arts No. of Mean Sd. t- Level of Teach. value Signi.

Male 25 90.8 7.75 0.67 NS

Fem- 35 89.42 7.93 ale

Ho.5. There exists no significant differencein the mean scores of attitude betweenScience Male Teachers and ScienceFemale Teachers towards constructivistteaching approach.

Table - 6:Shows the attitude of Male and FemaleArts Teachers towards Constructivist

Teaching Approach.

Sci. No. of Mean Sd. t- Level of Teach. value Signi.

Male 35 91.74 7.28 0.09 NS

Fem- 25 91.56 6.67 ale

From the table -6, it is observed that thecalculated ‘t’ value (‘t’ = 0.09) is less thanthe table value (1.98 at 0.05 level ofsignificance). So, it is not significant andit indicates that Science male teachersand Science female teachers have similarattitude towards constructivist teachingapproach at secondary level. Hence thenull hypothesis is accepted.Major Findings of the Study:1. The secondary school teachers possess

favourable attitude towards teachingthrough Constructivist Approach.

2. The secondary school teachers do notdiffer significantly in their attitudetowards Constructivist TeachingApproach in relation to gender.

3. The secondary school teachers do notdiffer significantly in their attitudetowards Constructivist TeachingApproach in relation to their locality.

4. The secondary school teachers of Artsand Science streams do not differsignificantly in their attitude towardsConstructivist Teaching Approach.

5. The Male and Female teachers of Artsstream do not differ significantly in theirattitude towards ConstructivistTeaching Approach.

6. The Male and Female teachers ofScience stream do not differsignificantly in their attitude towardsConstructivist Teaching Approach.

From the table -5, it is observed that thecalculated ‘t’ value (‘t’ = 0.67) is less thanthe table value (1.98 at 0.05 level ofsignificance). So, it is not significant andit indicates that Arts male teachers andArts female teachers have similar attitudetowards constructivist teaching approachat secondary level. Hence the nullhypothesis is accepted.


ConclusionThe secondary school teachers havefavourable attitude towardsConstructivist Teaching Approach.

REFERENCES

Ahiakwo, M.J. (2005): Primary school teachers’ preparations for primary science In.:Wokocha, A.M. (Ed). Trends and issues in the Nigerian primary school system.Uyo: Ivy Press.

Awodeyi, A.F. (2005): The constructivist approach to teaching relationshipbetweenvolume and capacity in school mathematics. J. Science Teacher Associationof Nigeria (STAN), 40(1&2), pp. 21-27.

Holloway, J.H. (1999). Constructivist classrooms. Washington: University ofWashington.

Josephine M. Shireen Desouza and Charlene M. Czerniak (2003): Study ofScience Teachers’ Attitudes toward and Beliefs about CollaborativeReflective Practice. Journal of Science Teacher Education, pp. 75-96.

Judy Beck, Charlene M. Czerniak and Andrew T. Lumpe (2000): An ExploratoryStudy of Teacher’s Beliefs Regarding the Implementation of Constructivismin their Classrooms. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11(4), Pp. 323-34

Jodi J. Haney and Julia McArthur (2002): Four Case Studies of Prospective ScienceTeachers’ Beliefs Concerning Constructivist Teaching Practices. ScienceEducation, pp. 783–802.

Karadag, E. (2007). Development of The Teachers’ Sufficiency Scale in Relation toConstructivist Learning: Reliability and Validity Analysis. Education ofSciences: Theory and Practice. 7(1). Pp.167-175.

Kizito, T.K. (2005). Constructivist teaching and students’ achievement and retentionin teaching the concept of waves. Ghana J. Scientific Literacy, 2(1), pp.98

Taber, KS (2006). Beyond Constructivism: the Progressive Research Programme intoLearning Science Studies in Science Education, 42, pp. 125-184.

* Pranab Barman : Research Scholar; Dept.of Education; University ofKalyani. Kalyani. West Bengal.e-mail: [email protected]

** Dr.Dibyendu Bhattacharyya : Associate Professor and HOD;Dept. of Education; University of Kalyani. Kalyani. (W.B.)e-mail: [email protected]

There is no significant difference in themean scores of attitude of secondaryschool teachers towards ConstructivistTeaching Approach in relation to gender,locality and streams.


Cooperative Learning as a ConstructivistTeaching-Learning Strategy



K. Karthigeyan * & Dr. K. Nirmala * *

AbstractThis paper presents the function of Cooperative Learning as pioneering constructivist pedagogyin educational practice which could encourage students’ creativity, interest, problem solving,critical thinking and meaningful learning and promotes responsibility. Our formal educationsystem assumes true reality can be determined by “a large accumulation of facts” and teachersplay a central role as a transmitter of objective truths and information to the students wherethey play as passive listeners in the process of learning. In order to eradicate such problems inour formal education system various revolutionary teaching learning methods and approachesare initiated and implemented in our present education system Construtivism is one of them.

Introduction:The constructivist movement has grownthroughout the world in academicparlance essentially from thedissatisfaction with traditionaleducational methods. Our formaleducation assumes true reality can bedetermined by “a large accumulation offacts” (Kelly, 1970) and has relied on theobjectivist view of knowledge in whichlearning presumes that knowledge can beimparted from teacher to learner throughinstruction, lecture and practice. In ourtraditional education system teachersplay a central role as a transmitter ofobjective truths and information to thestudents and mere controller of studentsin classroom where the students play aspassive listeners in the process oflearning. There was insufficientinteraction between students and

teachers in classrooms where moreemphasis has been given on theorywithout any practical and real life timesituations. Observing this Gulati (2004)has rightly stated that learning inobjectivist context places emphasis onteacher control and learner compliance.In order to eradicate such problems inour formal education system variousrevolutionary teaching learning methodsand approaches are initiated andimplemented in our present educationsystem. Among the various methods ineducational practice Cooperative learningis the pioneering constructivist pedagogywhich encourages students’ creativity,interest, problem solving, critical thinkingand meaningful learning and promotesresponsibility.ConstructivismConstructivism is the theory of how the

Sub Theme - 3Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning as a Constructivist ...............by K. Karthigeyan & Dr. K. Nirmala 87

learner constructs knowledge fromexperience, which is unique to eachindividual. It is a view of learning basedon the belief that knowledge is not a thingthat can be simply given by the teacherat the front of the room to students intheir desks. Rather, knowledge isconstructed by learners through anactive, mental process of development;learners are the builders and creators ofmeaning and knowledge. “Constructivism” refers to the process bywhich human beings actively make senseout of the world around them tounderstand (Wiske, 1998). Fosnot (1989)defines constructivism by reference tofour principles: learning, in an importantway, depends on what we already know;new ideas occur as we adapt and changeour old ideas; learning involves inventingideas rather than mechanicallyaccumulating facts; meaningful learningoccurs through rethinking old ideas andcoming to new conclusions about newideas which conflict with our old ideas.Constructivist ClassroomConstructivism is a more overarchingtheory, one that can incorporate anumber of teaching practices, such ascooperative, collaborative and inquirybased learning. In the classroom, theconstructivist view of learning can bepoint towards a number of differentteaching practices. In the most generalsense, it usually means encouragingstudents to use active techniques(experiments, real world problem solving)to create more knowledge and then toreflect on how their understanding ischanging. In constructivist classroom, thefocus tends to shift from the teachers tothe students. The classroom is no longera place where the teacher (expert) poursknowledge into passive students butstudents are urged to be actively involvedin their own process of learning. Theteacher provides students withexperiences that allow them to

hypothesize, predict, manipulate objects,pose questions, research, investigate,imagine, invent and also the teacherfunctions more as a facilitator whocoaches, mediates, prompts and helpsstudents develop and assess theirunderstanding of learning.Constructivism in Teaching andLearningIn the present era there is a vast changein the educational curricula and teachingmethods. Constructivist approach hasrecently been applied to teaching andlearning in the classroom with the beliefthat better learning occurs whenknowledge is the result of situatedconstruction of knowledge (Wilson, 1996).One component of the currentredevelopment of all subject areacurricula is the change in focus ofinstruction from the transmissioncurriculum to a transactional curriculum.In a traditional curriculum, a teachertransmits information to students whopassively listen and acquire facts. In atransactional curriculum, students areactively involved in their learning to reachnew understandings. Von Glasersfeld(1995) argues from the constructivistperspective that, learning is not astimulus-response phenomenon. Itrequires self- regulation and the buildingof conceptual structures throughreflection and abstraction. In thisparadigm, learning emphasizes theprocess and of constructing meaningfulrepresentations of making sense of one’sexperiential world. Based on theconstructivism approach the followingprinciples of learning are derived.• Learning as an active process in which

the learner uses sensory input andconstructs meaning of it.

• Individuals learn to learn as they learnand the key component of learning ismotivation.

• Physical actions and hands onexperiences are necessary for learning


especially for children.• Learning involves language which

influences learning and also languageand learning are inextricablyintertwined.

• Learning is social activity and learningis associated with one’s connection withteachers, peers, parents as well ascasual acquaintances.

• It is not possible to absorb newknowledge without having somestructure developed from previousknowledge to build on.

• Learning is not instantaneous. It takestime to learn.

Constructivist teaching fosters criticalthinking and creates active and motivatedlearners. Many educationists stated thatlearning in all subject areas involvesinventing and constructing new ideas.They suggest that constructivist theorybe incorporated into the curriculum, andadvocate that teachers createenvironments in which children canconstruct their own understandings.Fosnot (1989) recommended that, aconstructivist approach be used to createlearners who are autonomous, inquisitivethinkers who question, investigate, andreason. A constructivist approach freesteachers to make decisions that willenhance and enrich students’development” in these areas. Based onconstructivist approach teachers in aconstructivist classroom must be in aposition to:• Influence or create motivating

conditions for students.• Take responsibility for creating problem

situations.• Foster acquisition and retrieval of prior

knowledge.• Create a social environment that

emphasizes that attitude of learning tolearn.

• Provide complex learning environmentsthat incorporate authentic activity.

• Provide for social negotiation as anintegral part of learning.

• Emphasize student centered instruction.Cooperative LearningCooperative Learning is an approach toorganizing classroom activities intoacademic and social learning experiences.It differs from group work, and it has beendescribed as “structuring positiveinterdependence.” Students must work ingroups to complete tasks collectivelytoward academic goals. Unlike individuallearning, which can be competitive innature, students learning cooperativelycapitalize on one another’s resources andskills (asking one another for information,evaluating one another’s ideas,monitoring one another’s work, etc.).Furthermore, the teacher’s role changesfrom giving information to facilitatingstudents’ learning. Everyone succeedswhen the group succeeds. Ross andSmyth (1995) describe successfulcooperative learning tasks asintellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher order thinkingtasks.Cooperative Learning StrategyCooperative learning is an increasinglypopular instructional strategy. In recentdecades, theorists have extended thetraditional focus on individual learningto address cooperative, collaborative andsocial dimensions of learning whichfocused on students learning than onteachers teaching. The goal ofconstructivist cooperative learningenvironment is to engage learners inactive (manipulative), constructive,intentional, cooperative (collaborative andconversational) and reflective learningactivities Chen (1996). Hilke (1990)defines “Cooperative learning is anorganizational structure in which a groupof students pursue academic goalsthrough collaborative efforts. Studentswork together in small groups, draw oneach other’s strengths, and assist eachother in completing a task.” Johnson andJohnson (1991) stated that “Cooperative


learning is the instructional use of smallgroups so that students work together tomaximize their own and each other’slearning.”Cooperative learning refers to a variety ofmethods for organizing classroominstruction so that students work andlearn in small groups. Cooperativelearning is instruction that involvesstudents working in teams to accomplisha common goal, under conditions thatinclude the following elements• Positive interdependence. Team

members are obliged to rely on oneanother to achieve the goal. If any teammembers fail to do their part, everyonesuffers consequences.

• Individual accountability. All studentsin a group are held accountable fordoing their share of the work and formastery of all of the material to belearned.

• Face-to-face promotive interaction.Although some of the group work maybe done individually, some must bedone interactively, with group membersproviding one another with feedback,challenging reasoning and conclusions,and perhaps most importantly, teachingand encouraging one another.

• Appropriate use of collaborative skills.Students are encouraged and helped todevelop and practice trust-building,leadership, decision-making, communi-cation, and conflict management skills.

• Group processing. Team members setgroup goals, periodically assess whatthey are doing well as a team, andidentify changes they will make tofunction more effectively in the future.

Cooperative learning is an approach tolearning and teaching which offers theopportunity for regular and rigorouslydesigned group work, where students arevery clear about the learning intentionsand success criteria and are encouragedto work collaboratively while still

encouraging individual accountability. Inthis learning strategy students areactively involved in making meaning,processing and relating information totheir own experience through dialogueand collaboration.Cooperative Learning TechniquesThere are a great number of cooperativelearning techniques available. Somecooperative learning techniques utilizestudent pairing, while others utilize smallgroups of four or five students. A wellknown cooperative learning techniquesare Think Pair Share, Jigsaw, Jigsaw II ,Reverse Jigsaw and Reciprocal Teachingtechnique. (Schul, 2011)i. Think Pair Share - Think-Pair-Share

technique is developed by Frank T.Lyman (1981) which allows for studentsto contemplate a posed question orproblem silently. The student may writedown thoughts or simply justbrainstorm in his or her head. Whenprompted, the student pairs up with apeer and discuss his or her idea(s) andthen listen to the ideas of his or herpartner. Following pair dialogue, theteacher solicits responses from thewhole group.

ii. Jigsaw - In this technique studentsare considered as members of twogroups: home group and expert group.In the heterogeneous home group,students are each assigned a differenttopic. Once a topic has been identified,students leave the home group andgroup with the other students with theirassigned topic. In the new group,students learn the material togetherbefore returning to their home group.Once back in their home group, eachstudent is accountable for teaching hisor her assigned topic.

iii. Jigsaw II - Jigsaw II is Robert Slavin’s(1980) variation of Jigsaw in whichmembers of the home group areassigned the same material, but focuson separate portions of the material.


Each member must become an “expert”on his or her assigned portion and teachthe other members of the home group.

iv. Reverse Jigsaw - This variation wascreated by Timothy Hedeen (2003)which differs from the original Jigsawduring the teaching portion of theactivity. In the Reverse Jigsawtechnique, students in the expertgroups teach the whole class ratherthan return to their home groups toteach the content.

v. Reciprocal Teaching - It is acooperative technique developed byBrown and Paliscar (1982) that allowsfor student pairs to participate in adialogue about text. Partners take turnsreading and asking questions of eachother, receiving immediate feedback.Such a model allows for students to useimportant met cognitive techniquessuch as clarifying, questioning,predicting, and summarizing. Itembraces the idea that students caneffectively learn from each other.

Benefits of Cooperative LearningCooperative learning is not simply asynonym for students working in groups.A learning exercise only qualifies ascooperative learning to the extent that thefive listed elements are present. Fromlooking at these five essential attributesof cooperative learning, it is evident thatthey illustrate the outworking ofnumerous values among the students.Interdependence focuses on a concern forothers; Accountability is a demonstrationof our responsibility for each other’swelfare; Collaboration gives the ability towork closely with others, seeing theirpoint of view; Listening, encouraging andtrusting are essential elements ifaffirmation and support, which help,comprise faith and Face to faceinteraction promotes the type of closenessrequired for formation of caringcommunity.Cooperative learning provides anapproach to teaching which is conductive

to the development of the skills and socialinteraction which increases pupilattainment. There are three majorbenefits to cooperative learning: higherachievement and greater productivity,more positive relationship and greaterpsychological health, social competenceand self esteem. It can have manydifferent kinds of positive impacts onstudent learning and which help studentsdevelop conflict resolution skills andcommitment to democratic values. Otherbenefits include better attitudes towardschool, learning, and classmates;improved ability to collaborate; betterpsychological health, including increasedself esteem; and increased awareness ofmulticultural and diversity issues.The following are the main benefitsidentified by the extensive studies(Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1988).• Higher achievement and increased

retention.• Greater use of higher level reasoning

strategies and increased criticalreasoning competencies.

• Greater ability to view situations fromothers’ perspectives.

• More positive attitudes toward subjectareas, learning, and school.

• Higher achievement and greaterintrinsic motivation.

• More positive attitudes toward teachers,principals and other school Personnel.

• High self-esteem based on basic self-acceptance.

• Less disruptive and more on-taskbehavior.

• Greater collaborative skills and attitudesnecessary for working effectively withothers.

Conclusion:As a result Cooperative Learning as aconstructivist strategy appear to promisepositive effects for students, as reflectedin increased academic achievement andimproved social attitudes and behavior.Although cooperative learning activitiesmay require more teacher preparation of


group material and monitoring of groupactivities, the rewards and benefits forboth the teacher and students go a longway. They appear likely to positivelyinfluence a school’s academic and socialclimates as well as enhance students’creativity, interest, problem solving, and

REFERENCESArbind Kumar Jha. (2009). Constructivist epistemology and pedagogy. UP.Atlantic

publishers.Gibbs, J. (1987). Tribes: A process for social development and cooperative Learning.

Santa Rose, CA: Center Source Publications.Fosnot.C.(1989). Enquiring teachers, enquiring learners: a constructivist approach

for teaching. New York.: Teachers College Press.Hilke, E.V. (1990). Cooperative learning . Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa

Educational Foundation.Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Holubec, E. (1990). Circles of learning: Cooperation

in the classroom. Edina: Interaction Book Co.Kelly.G.A.(1970).The psychology of personal conducts. New York, NY:Norton.Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures.

New York: The Viking Press.Ross, J.,& Smythe, E. (1995). Differentiating cooperative learning to meet the needs

of gifted learners: A case for transformational leadership. Journal for theEducation of the Gifted, 19, 63-82

Schul, J.E. (2011). Revisiting and old friend: The practice and promise of cooperativelearning for the twenty-first century. The Social Studies, 102, 88-93.

Slavin, R. E.(1990). Cooperative Learning: theory, research and practice. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall.

Wilson.B.(1996).Constructivist learning environments. Englewood cliffs, NJ:Educational Technology publication.

Von Glaserfeld.(1995).Constructivism as a scientific method. Pergmon press.

* K. Karthigeyan : Research Scholar, Department of Education, PeriyarUniversity, Salem, Tamilnadu. e.mail:[email protected],

** Dr. K. Nirmala : Professor and Head, Department of Education,Periyar University, Salem, Tamilnadu.e.mail: [email protected],

critical thinking. It encourages active andmeaningful learning and promotesresponsibility; because of constructivistteaching is beneficial in achievingdesirable educational goals for studentsand for teachers to grow professionallytowards a constructivist practice.


Effect of Computer-Supported CooperativeLearning on Achievement of Secondary

School Students in Biology



Ms. Beena *

AbstractConstructivism as a description of human cognition is often associated with pedagogicapproaches that promote learning by doing. Constructivism is a learning strategy that draws onstudents’ existing knowledge, beliefs, and skills. With a constructivist approach, studentssynthesize new understanding from previous knowledge. Cooperative learning is a teachingstrategy that encourages student success by alleviating overt competition and substituting groupencouragement. Computer-supported cooperative learning (CSCL) helps in achievement of higherscores of Biology subject at higher secondary level. The sample consisted of 19 students ofhigher secondary school of Meerut District, which had been selected by purposive Samplingtechnique. The data was collected with the help of pre test and post test after teaching throughcomputer supported co operative method.

IntroductionConstructivism is an educationalphilosophy which holds that learnersultimately construct their own knowledgethat then resides within them, so thateach person’s knowledge is as unique asthey are. Among its key precepts are:• situated or anchored learning, which

presumes that most learning is context-dependent, so that cognitiveexperiences situated in authenticactivities such as project-basedlearning;

• cognitive apprenticeships, or case-basedlearning environments result in richerand more meaningful learningexperiences;

• social negotiation of knowledge, aprocess by which learners form and test

their constructs in a dialogue with otherindividuals and with the larger society.Collaboration as a principal focus oflearning activities so that negotiationand testing of knowledge can occur.

Constructivist learning is based onstudents’ active participation in problem-solving and critical thinking regarding alearning activity which they find relevantand engaging. They are “constructing”their own knowledge by testing ideas andapproaches based on their priorknowledge and experience, applyingthese to a new situation, and integratingthe new knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs.The 5 E’s is an instructional model basedon the constructivist approach tolearning, which says that learners buildor construct new ideas on top of their old

Sub Theme - 3Cooperative Learning

Effect of Computer-Supported Cooperative ..................by Ms. Beena 93

ideas. The 5 E’s can be used with studentsof all ages, including adults. Each of the5 E’s describes a phase of learning, andeach phase begins with the letter “E”:Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, andEvaluate. The 5 E’s allows students andteachers to experience common activities,to use and build on prior knowledge andexperience, to construct meaning, and tocontinually assess their understanding ofa concept.Characteristics of ConstructivistTeachingOne of the primary goals of usingconstructivist teaching is that studentslearn how to learn by giving them thetraining to take initiative for their ownlearning experiences.According to Audrey Gray, thecharacteristics of a constructivistclassroom are as follows:• the learners are actively involved• the environment is democratic• the activities are interactive and

student-centered• the teacher facilitates a process of

learning in which students areencouraged to be responsible andautonomous.

Transition towards Constructivism:according to Constructivism approach theteachers are learning facilitators andinstructors.Relevance: Constructivism is one of thehot topics in educational philosophy rightnow. It potentially has profoundimplications for how current ‘traditional’instruction is structured, since it fits withseveral highly touted educational trends,for example:• the transition of the teacher’s role from

“sage on the stage” (fount/transmitterof knowledge) to “guide on the side”(facilitator, coach);

• teaching “higher order” skills such asproblem-solving, reasoning, andreflection.

• enabling learners to learn how to learn;• more open-ended evaluation of learning

outcomes;• and, of course, cooperative and

collaborative learning skills.Cooperative LearningCooperative learning refers to aninstruction method in which students insmall groups of two to five help oneanother learn and work cooperatively toachieve a common academic goal.Cooperative learning is a teachingstrategy that encourages student successby alleviating overt competition andsubstituting group encouragement.Cooperation involves people workingtogether to achieve common goals.Davidson distinguishes cooperativelearning from traditional group work inthat most models conform to the followingprinciples:Children work and learn together in small(2-5 members) groups.• Their task is carefully designed to be

suitable for group work.• There is positive interdependence -

cooperation is necessary for children tosucceed.

• Children are individually accountablefor learning and participation.

• Attention and class times are given tocooperative skill building.

• The role of the teacher changes frombeing the “sage on the stage” to the“guide on the side”

Importance of Cooperative LearningResearch has shown that cooperativelearning techniques:• promote student learning and academic

achievement• increase student retention• enhance student satisfaction with their

learning experience• help students develop skills in oral

communication• develop students’ social skills


• promote student self-esteem• help to promote positive race relationsComputer supported cooperativelearning (CSCL)The technology itself is nottransformative; it’s the school, thepedagogy, which is transformative.CSCL is a computer application thatstimulate learning and thinking in groupof students. CSCL improves instructionfor students because students receiveimmediate feedback and do not continueto practice the wrong skills and computercapture the students’ attention becausethe programes are interactive and engagethe students’ spirit of competitiveness toincrease their scores. It helps studentswith developing ideas, organizing,outlining and brainstorming. Templatesprovide a framework and reduce thephysical effort spent on writing so thatstudents can pay attention toorganization and contents.Information and communicationtechnology has brought new possibilitiesin to the classroom. Information andcommunication technology exemplifiedby the internet and interactivemultimedia and obviously of greatsignificance for teachers and students. Itneeds to be effectively integrated in to theformal classroom and learning condition.The introduction of technology in theeducation field has made the process oflearning and knowledge sharing aninteractive and for filled activities. Thecomputer offers an interactive audiovisual media. Power point presentationand animation software can be used torender information to the students in aninteractive manner. The visual effectsprovided by the animation andpresentation. Software serves as visualaids to the teachers. Overhead projectorsand screens facilitate a simultaneousviewing of information by a large numberof students. There audio visual teachingaids have brought about marked

improvement in students attention andattentiveness.ObjectivesTo study the effect of computer supportedcooperative learning on the achievementof biology subject for higher secondaryclass.Hypotheses1. There will be no significant difference

in the mean scores of achievements ofstudents with individualistic method.

2. There will be no significant differencein the mean scores of achievements ofstudents with cooperative method.

3. There will be no significant differencebetween the achievements of studentswith individualistic and cooperativemethods.

Population and SampleAll the students studying in highersecondary classes of government seniorsecondary schools of Meerut districtconstitute the population of the study. Agroup of 19 students’ taken, purposivesampling technique is used.Tools and techniques used for datacollectionAs per objective and hypotheses of thepresent study, the researcher hasconstructed the following tools:-1. Computer supported lessons (self

constructed)2. Pre test and post test (self constructed)Description of toolsTo develop Computer supported lessonsfor higher secondary class, which areinteractively chosen.The ten concepts were chosen byresearcher while giving consideration.a. Concept which had not been taught in

the class.b. The concepts on which effectively

computer programe, can be made thoseconcept were taken.

c. Concept developed on the basis oftheme given in the text book

Name of topics included were, 1. Plantphysiology 2. Overview of respiratory

Effect of Computer-Supported Cooperative ..................by Ms. Beena 95

system 3. Overview of digestive system4. Overview of circulatory system5. Overview of excretory system6. Endocrine glands 7. Exocrine glands8. Replication 9. Translation and10. Transcription.Pre and Post TestsSelf made pre and post tests based onselected units of content in sciencesubject for higher secondary class wereadministered. They are based on thesyllabus of higher secondary class biologygroup of U.P. Board. Test based ondifferent type of questions. There are 2sections in some and four in others - fillin the blanks, right and wrong, matchingand multiple choice questions etc.Statistical techniques used:Keeping in the mind the objective andresearch methodology used in this study,for better analysis statistics like mean andt-value has been used to test thesignificance of the difference betweenmeans of two groups.

Table -1Comparison of the scores of pre test and

post test of students in relation toindividualistic method

Group N M S.D. t- S/ value NS

Pre test 19 12.44 2.6 .0003 NS post test 19 16.31 3.3 individual

Table 1 shows that means score of pretest and Individual post test in relationto individualistic method is 12.44 and16.31 with S.D. 2.589 and 3.300respectively. The t-value testing thesignificance of mean difference betweentwo groups was calculated as 0.0003,which is not significant at 0.05 level. Theconclusion is that the students’achievement is equal after individualisticmethod.Table 2 shows that mean score of pre testand cooperative post test in relation tocooperative method is 12.44 and 20.68

with S.D. 2.6 and 1.6 respectively. The t-value testing the significance of meandifference between two groups wascalculated as 9.33, which is significantat 0.05 level. The conclusion is that thestudents achievement is differ after CSCLmethod.

Table -2Comparison of the scores of pre test

and post test of students in relation tocooperative method.


Pre test 19 12.44 2.6 9.33 S post test 19 20.68 1.6 individual

Table -3Comparison of the scores of

individualistic method and cooperativemethods.


Pre test 19 16.31 3.3 2.03 NS post test 19 20.68 1.6 individual

Table 3 shows that mean scoreindividualistic method and cooperativemethod is 16.31 and 20.68 with S.D. 3.3and 1.6 respectively. The t-value testingthe significance of mean differencebetween two groups was calculated as2.03, which is not significant at 0.05 level.The conclusion is that the studentsachievement is not differ afterindividualistic and CSCL method.Findings of the study1.The cooperative method is more

effective method for learning ascompare to individualistic method.

2. There was no significant difference inthe mean scores of pre and post testsof students with individualistic method.

3. There was a significant difference inthe mean scores of pre and post testsof students with cooperative method.


4. There was no significant differencebetween the achievements of studentswith individualistic method andcooperative method.

ConclusionComputer supported cooperative learning(CSCL) method stimulate teachinglearning process and facilitate easy andeffective learning as compare to individualand traditional learning method.

Computer and the internet technologyhave revolutionized the field of educationand give its maximum impact on teachinglearning process in group study as itincrease the feeling of competitivenessand interest among students. Computertechnology is used to add a fun elementto education and it goes without sayingthat the technology has endowededucation with interactivity.

REFERENCES

Armstrong, M.N. (1999). Gifted Students and Cooperative Learning: A study of

grouping Strategies, Roeper Review, 21(4): 315-316.

Best , J.W. (1959) : Research in Education, Eaglewood Cliff ; Practice Hall of inc.

Blosser, P.E. 1992. Using Cooperative learning in science education: [Online]. Available:

http://www.stemworks.org/Bulletins/SEB 92-1.html.

Johnson ,D.W. & Johnson, R.T. 1989. Cooperative learning. http://www.co-

operation.org/pages/cl.html.

* Ms. Beena : Research Scholar; Dept. of Education, BanasthaliVidyapeeth, Tonk, Rajasthan. e-mail: [email protected]

Effect of Constructivism-Based Teaching ......................by Dr. Satvinderpal Kaur 97

Effect of Constructivism-Based TeachingStrategy on Academic Performance of

Students in Chemistry at Secondary Level

Abstract



Dr. Satvinderpal Kaur *

Present paper is based on an investigation aimed at to study the effect of constructivist-basedteaching strategy on academic performance of students in Chemistry at secondary level. Thestudy is experimental in nature and has been conducted on 60 students of 10+1 class. Thesample was divided into two equated groups, group 1 was instructed with traditional (lecture)method and group 2 was exposed with the constructivistbased strategy. Achievement test wasconstructed and used as pre and post test as a criterion for academic performance. The indexof effectiveness of constructivist-based teaching strategy was taken from the achievement scoresof pre and post test and t- test was used to find the significance of the difference in scores. Theresults reveal that group 2 students instructed with constructivist based strategy showedsignificantly better performance in the form of achievement scores on. It is suggested that alongwith other methods of teaching, constructivistbased approach should be applied to enhancethe academic performance of the students in chemistry at secondary level.

IntroductionIt has been remained as a question beforethe educationists that which learningactivities contribute to the learning ofscientific concepts with understandingand to transfer that learning to daily lifesituations. Answer to this question is ofparamount importance to the designingand use of innovative learningenvironment of science education inschool setting. Traditional classroomexperience predominating organized onthe basis of behaviouristic approach,emphasized rote learning and essentiallya one-way process in which learners arethe passive recipients. In this type ofinstructions, the learners are developedmore to get good grades rather than an

evolving and rational human being withscientific attitude. Moreover, the out ofschool knowledge and previousexperiences are not well integrated in thisstrategy.Contrast to this approach, scienceteaching is now finding a base onconstructivist, cognitive and sociallearning theories which consider humanbeing as an active constructor ofknowledge based on his/her priorknowledge rather than being a passiverecipient. This approach is called aconstructivist approach of teaching.Constructivism asserts that learning cantake place only when the learner relatesthe new information to his alreadyexisting knowledge and perceive learning

Sub Theme - 4Practicing Constructivism


as a product of self organization andreorganization of existing ideas.Constructivism advocates that knowledgecannot be transmitted to the learner’smind from a textbook or by the teacher.Instead, students construct theirknowledge by making links between theirideas and new concepts throughexperiences they acquire in school ordaily life (Mohan 1998). Constructivismworks with the assumption that studentscome into classroom with their ownexperiences and a cognitive structurebased on previous experiences. Thesepreconceived structures may be valid,invalid or incomplete. Memorized facts orinformation that has not been connectedwith the learner’s prior experiences arequickly forgotten. In short, learner mustactively construct new information in tohis/her existing mental framework formeaningful learning to occur (Mahoney2004).The core view of constructivists onlearning science suggests that studentsconstruct their knowledge stronglyinfluenced by social environments. Theylearn science through a process ofconstructing, interpreting and modifyingtheir own representations of reality basedon their experiences. Therefore,constructivists acknowledge socialdimension of learning such as theclassroom and community wherebystudents make meaning of the worldthrough both personal and socialprocesses (Driver et. al., 1994).The role of teacher in teaching throughconstructivist strategy is to organizeinformation around conceptual clustersof problems, questions and discrepantsituations in order to engage the student’sinterest. Ideas are presented as broadconcepts and by broken down into parts.The activities are student-centered andstudents are encouraged for discussions,to ask questions, carry out their ownexperiments, make their own analogies

and come to their own conclusions.Teaching science focuses on providingstudents with opportunities in which theyhave cognitive conflict and they developdifferent structures based on theirexperience. It is accepted that studentsdevelop some ideas about natural eventsbefore coming to the classroom. Oftenthese ideas are different from scientificexplanations and interact with scientificknowledge presented in the class.Consequently, unintended learningoutcomes come out. Therefore, prime aimof science education is to make studentsto acquire scientific knowledgemeaningfully.Certain topics in Chemistry like AtomicStructure and Chemical Bonding arebasic concepts in which studentsexperience difficulty in understanding.Since these topics are abstract in nature,and cannot be applied to everyday lifedirectly, most of the students are not ableto comprehend because they cannotrelate the microscopic to macroscopicworld. Also, the understanding of thesetopics requires base of topics from Physicssuch as energy and force in whichstudents usually have misconceptions inunderstanding. In order to comprehendthe nature of chemical reactions andsome physical properties such as boilingpoint, melting point etc., and studentsshould understand atomic structure andchemical bonding at mastery level oflearning. Empirical research studiesconducted in this field showed that typeof instruction affected students’ attitudestoward science as a school subject(Parker, 2000, Chang, 2000).Niaz (1995) studied on dialecticconstructivist framework based oncognitive conflict for science studentsreported that students exposed tocognitive conflict method were moresuccessful than students studiedtraditionally. Carey et al. (1989) concludedthat after the constructivist methodology,


students saw scientific inquiry as aprocess guided by questions and ideas.From the review of the studies related inthis area, it is observed that a few studieshave been conducted to study the effectof constructivist approach in performanceof students in the subject of chemistryand this makes the present study vital inessence.ObjectiveThe present study has been conductedbased on following objective:1. To study the effect of constructivist-

based teaching strategy on academicperformance of students in Chemistryat secondary level.

Hypothesis 1. There will be no significant difference

in the academic performance of thestudents instructed with constructivistbased strategy and traditional methodof teaching.

Methodology and Procedure(a) Design of the study: The basic designof this study is experimental. 60 studentsof 10+1 class were selected for a sampleand sample was divided into two groupsnamely group 1 and group 2. Two topicsof chemistry i.e. Atomic Structure andChemical Bonding were taught to Group1 with the conventional method ofteaching and group 2 with theconstructivist model of instructions forthe period of 15 days.(b) Procedure in framing the equatedgroups: The sample of 60 students wasdivided into two equated groups of 30students in each. Both the groups wereequated as nearly as possible in terms oftheir prior knowledge about the topics tobe taught. With the pre test conducted toget idea about the previous knowledge anachievement test was conducted.Students having similar range of scoreswere divided equally and randomly inboth the groups. To find out whetherthere was any significant differencebetween the two groups t-test was

applied.The difference was not significant.Hence an attempt was made to increasethe internal validity of the results and itwas assured that both the groups wereequivalent to each other before beginningof the experiment.(c) Construction of Tools: Achievementtests were constructed with a set of thirtyfive multiple choice test items on topicscovered i.e. Atomic Structure andChemical Bonding. Experts of the fieldwere consulted and as per the opinion ofthe experts test items were formulated.The agreement of the views expressed bythe experts after the logical evaluation ofthe test items was taken as the index ofthe validity of the tool. The reliability wasestablished by the split half method andthe reliability coefficient was found to be0.84, which depicted the reliability of thetool. Both the tests constructed on AtomicStructure and Chemical Bonding wereadministered just after instructions ineach topic. The same tests were used aspre test and post test to evaluate thestudents’ performance.An instructional package with the use ofconstructivist instruction andinstructional package with the use ofconventional (lecture) method wereprepared. The groups equated by theabove said procedure were taken for thestudy under experimental design. The pretest was administered to both the groups.The test instrument covered the aforementioned topics which were taughtduring the study. At the end of eachinstruction, the achievement test wasapplied as a post test. Mean and standarddeviation of achievement scores on boththe groups for the topics taught withconventional method and constructiviststrategy were calculated separately for preand post test. ‘t’ -test was applied andthe results are presented in the form oftables for discussion.Results and DiscussionMeans and standard deviations for each


group with respect to pre and post testscores are presented in the form of tables.As indicated in table 1, in the pre testthe achievement scores are almost equalfor both the group 1 and 2 students withmean scores 15.1 and 16.1 respectivelyfor both the groups. The t- value is 0.88,which shows no significant difference.Hence before the treatment, students ofboth the groups have almost the samelevel of knowledge about the topic I. Afterthe treatment, group 2 students exposedto constructivist instructions in topic Ihas mean achievement score 29.4 (SD=1.4) and the group 1 taught withtraditional method of instructions keepsmean achievement scores 19.3 and (SD=4.8). The value of t is calculated as 3.01which show significant difference at 0.01level of confidence.Further, table 2 reveals the statisticalscores on academic performance obtainedby group 1 and group 2 students in thepre and post-test on topic II. The mean

achievement scores of group 1 and group2 in the pre test are 18.2 and 17.9 andvalue of SDs as 5.8 and 6.1 respectivelyfor both the groups. The t-value is 0.43shows no significant difference betweenthe group 1 and 2 in the pre test of topicII. It means students of both the groupshave the same entry level before thetreatment. The mean and sd. scores of thegroups with constructivist based strategyare 18.8 and 4.02 and for the traditional(lecture) group, the mean achievementscore is 28.9 with sd. 1.51. The t-value is3.28 is significant at 0.01 level ofconfidence.Results1. Students performed significantly better

in the academic performance whenused construcivism based teachingmethod than the traditional method atpost test level for the topic AtomicStructure.

2. Students performed significantly betterin the academic performance whenused construcivism based teachingmethod than the traditional method atpost test level for the topic ChemicalBonding.

Conclusion It is concluded in unequivocal terms thatif constructivist approach of teaching andlearning is applied in the secondaryclasses for teaching of Chemistry, therewould be improvement in the students’performance and conceptual clarity of thetopics taught. Constructivist approachesare student centered in which teachersuse subject matter for interactiveengagement with students. Classroomclimate encourages discussions andnegotiation of ideas. Also, it is observedfrom the study that students developpositive attitude, enthusiasm and interestin the subject with the constructivistpedagogy, which in itself has longimpending impact to formulate the basefor the Chemistry at tertiary level also.The subjects like Chemistry in which

Table-1Scores Obtained by Group 1 and Group2 in the Pre and post- test on Topic-1

Method N Mean S.D. t- S/NS value

Tra.(Pre) 30 15.1 4.5 0.88 NS Con(Pre) 30 16.1 4.1 Tra.(Post) 30 19.3 4.8 3.01 0.01 Con(Post) 30 29.4 1.4 Sig.

Table-2Scores Obtained by Group 1 and Group2 in the Pre and post- test on Topic-2

Method N Mean S.D. t- S/NS value

Tra(Pre) 30 18.2 5.8 0.43 NS Con(Pre) 30 17.9 6.1 Tra(Post) 30 18.8 4.02 3.28 0.01 Con(Post) 30 28.9 1.51


most of the topics are based upon theimagination and students develop theirown misconceptions about them. Henceclarity at the concept level requires someinnovative strategies like constructivism.

REFERENCES

Bimbola ,O. and Daniel,O. (2010): ‘Effect of constructivist teaching strategy onacademic performance of students in integrated Science at the juniorsecondary school level’. Educational Research and Reviews Vol. 5 (7), pp. 347-

Brooks, M. (1984): ‘A Constructivist Approach to Staff Development’. EducationalLeadership, Vol.43 (3) pp23-27.

Carey, S., Evans, R., Honda, M., Jay E. and Unger, C. (1989): ‘An experiment a studyof grade seven students’ understanding of the construction of scientificknowledge’. International Journal of Science Education, Vol.11 pp 514-529.

Driver, R., Asoko, H., Leach, J., Mortimer, E. & Scott, P. (1994): ‘ConstructingScientific Knowledge in the Classroom’, Educational Researcher, Vol.23

Mahoney, M. (2004): ‘What is Constructivism and why is it Growing? ContemporaryPsychological Review’. Vol.49: 360-363.

Mohan, R (1998): ‘Towards a Model of Constructivist Pre Service Science TeacherEducation’. Indian Educational Review Vol.34 No.2

Parker, V. (2000): ‘Effects of a science intervention program on middle-grade studentachievement and attitudes’. School Science and Mathematics, Vol.100 (5)

Piaget, J. (1950): ‘The Psychology of Intelligence’. New York: Harcout, Brace.Somchai,T.(2004): ‘Constructivism and Traditional class room Strategy: A comparison.’

Journal of Vocational Education Research Vol.29 (3), pp-5.Taber, K. S. (1994): ‘Misunderstanding the ionic bond’. Education in Chemistry, Vol.31Tobin K, (1993): ‘Constructivism as a referent for teaching and learning Constructivism

in classroom research, (2nd edition)’. Burkinham: Open University Press.Vygotsky, L.S. (1978): ‘Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological

Processes’, Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA.

* Dr. Satvinderpal Kaur : Senior Assistant Professor, SDS College ofEducation, Lopon. Distt. Moga, Punjabemail : [email protected]

Also constructivist methods of teachingdevelop scientific attitude, rationality andcognitive skills among the students.Teachers should incorporateconstructivist based teaching strategyinto other methods of teaching.


An Innovative Inquiry-based Approach forScience-Teaching with reference

Constructivism

Abstract



Dr. Shazli Hasan Khan *

Constructivism is a theory of Knowledge and philosophy of learning. Its proponents includePiaget, Vygotsky and Von Glasersfeld etc.. The constructivist philosophy has been adopted inteaching of science by many enthusiastic pedagogues and teachers in many countries. AConstructivist pedagogy consists of several teaching strategies with added responsibility tocreate a conducive classroom environment. Research has established that constructive methodsof science teaching have been much more successful than the traditional methods. In the presentresearch paper the author has identified some of the important reasons for the implementationof constructivist strategy.

IntroductionConstructivism is a theory of knowledge,i.e.; epistemology and a theory of learning.It is not any particular pedagogy.Constructivists believe that humanbeings are active information receivers.They use their existing experience toconstruct understanding that makessense to them. Humans assimilate andaccommodate new knowledge and buildtheir own understanding. Thus,knowledge is the result of individualconstruction of reality. In its essence,constructivism asserts that there is noessential truth, and no objective reality.Knowledge is viewed as personal andsubjective. Reality resides in the mind ofeach person. Learning takes place whenindividuals make use of their existingknowledge and experience. Thus,multiple interpretations of events are

possible, and multiple answers to aquestion are source of creativity inlearners.The importance and role of language wasrecognized early by the constructivists.Language is not only a tool to promotethe construction of knowledge, but in factall “human thought is trapped by thelanguage in which it is encased”(Mathews, 2000). Ideas are not only“communicated” through language, ideasare also “constructed” in the medium oflanguage. Through language learnersbecome aware of their own thoughtswhich facilitate as well as defineunderstanding. Knowledge is notpassively received but actively built upby the learner. Each person builds forhimself an individual perspective ofreality.

It is held by constructivists that learners


An Innovative Inquiry-based Approach .....................by Dr. Shazli Hasan Khan. 103

need time to reflect on their experiencesin relation to what they already know.After some time, they reach consensusabout what specific experience means tothem.Constructivism is an epistemological viewof learning rather than teaching.Students’ previous knowledge and theiractive participation in problem solvingand critical thinking all play a crucial partin the construction of knowledge. One ofthe most important goals ofconstructivism is to develop students’critical thinking skills, which are possibleonly in a conducive learning environmentin the classroom. The teacher mayimprove the day’s lesson or change thesequence of activities, depending on theneeds of the students or due to any otherunexpected development. Such flexibilityis said to be a valuable quality of a positivelearning environment. The following aresome of the important features of aconstructivist learning environment:1.Learners should be challenged by ideas

and problems that generate innercognitive conflicts.

2.Learners are encouraged for activeparticipation in the classroom activitiesand raise questions.

3.Learning environment shouldencourage students to enter intodialogue with the teacher as well as withtheir peers.

4.Students should be given sufficienttime for reflection, for constructingrelationship and for discussion.

Objectives of the Present StudyThe following are the major objectives ofthe present study:1. To explain the Constructivist

Philosophy and to know its majorexponents.

2. To identify important features ofConstructivist philosophy havingrelevance in Science classrooms, and toknow the related pedagogies which canbe usefully applied in Science teaching.

3. To study how far constructiviststrategies have been successfullyemployed in schools, both in India andabroad, and why it has had only alimited success everywhere, especiallyin developing countries.

4. To present a few suggestions to improvethe chances of success for aconstructivist science classroom,including better training of teachers andmore financial and moral support fromthe administration and government.

Methodology of the Present StudyThis research is a descriptive study ofconstructivist philosophy and itsimplementation in academics. Keeping inview of availability of the resources andthe feasibility of the present researchstudy, the author conducted his researchstudies on the basis of secondary sourcesof data. Secondary data has beencollected from several books, researcharticles published in standard andprestigious Journals etc. The author hasincluded the thoughts and views ofvarious important philosophers in thefield.Constructivism in a Science ClassroomThere is no single Constructivist strategyfor instruction in the class. Differentpedagogies and researches havehighlighted various elements in varyingdegrees for the benefit of classroominstructors. Even so, there are severalcommon themes which can be describedhere. Education is a student-centredprocess and the teacher is only afacilitator. Learning depends on sharedexperience with peers and teachers.Collaboration and cooperation is a majorteaching method. Students activelyexplore and use hands-on experience.The constructivist views knowledge asbeing constructed in a social context. Itis an active social process. Learnerscannot construct understanding alone;they do it collaboratively, throughinteractions. Learning is an active


process; hence the learner should beencouraged for guesswork and intuitivelearning.“Thinking” effectively, with focus on theproblem at hand, is an important aspectof Constructivist learning.“Understanding” becomes clear andstrong if the learner “thinks” over theissue at hand and if he can monitor hisown thinking. “Thinking” is also called“self-reflection”. It helps in self-questioning and self-reviewing. It is called“metacognition” or a purposefulthoughtfulness. A motivated and thinkinglearner tries to check his errors and triesto find why he failed in his earlier attempt.Such a learner’s knowledge would bedeep and durable. As Yager says, “Oneonly knows something if one can explainit” (Yager, 1999). On the other hand, anovice leaner does not check for qualityin his work and thus he fails to makeamends to his earlier errors.Teacher’s role in a ConstructivistScience classroomA teacher is not an authority butafacilitator or guide. He helps the learnersto create proper environment in the classso that the students are motivated,challenged and think deeply to arrive athis own conclusion.As a facilitator, the teacher has to supportthe learners in becoming effectivethinkers. Students are to be encouragedto arrive at their own version of truth andthen compare it with that of the instructoras well as with that of their fellowlearners. Teachers have only to observein the beginning of a session and assessthe progress. They should pose questionsto create right environment. They shouldintervene if any “conflict” arises or if theprocess of learning is going astray.An important task for a constructivistScience teacher is to create a “learningenvironment” which facilitates studentsthinking and motivate them to explore.An authentic leaning environment is

obtained if real-life complexities and real-world situation is simulated. A Scienceteacher creates congenial learningenvironment when learning goals arenegotiated through consensus anddialogue with students.Direct instruction is not appropriate.Learning should take place by “activeinvolvement” of the students, by “doing”,by generating their own ideas. In a wellplanned classroom environment,students learn how to learn. Learning islike a spiral. Students reflect on their pastexperience and integrate new experience.Teachers can use various strategies topromote and strengthen students’capacity to think and to “think about theirthinking”. Eggen, P & Kauchak, D, (2007)have suggested the following strategiesfor the purpose:i. Teachers should pose some provocative

questions to students and alsoencourage them to frame their ownquestions on the problem at hand.

ii. KWL Strategy: Teachers should teachthe students to be aware of (a) what theyalready Know, (b) what they Want tolearn, and (c) What they have eventuallyLearnt.

iii. PQ4R strategy: PQ4R is an acronymfor Preview, Questions, Read, Reflect,Recite and Review.

The steps are described below:Preview: The learner surveys the material.Question: Students ask questions on theavailable material.Read: Students read the material to askquestions.Reflect: The learners think about thematerial, relating it to the things theyalready know.Recite: The students practiceremembering.Review: The students review the materialand ask questions.iv) Ideal strategy:IDEAL is an acronym for Identify, Define,Explore, Act and Look. To facilitate

An Innovative Inquiry-based Approach .....................by Dr. Shazli Hasan Khan. 105

Fig. 1:PQ4R Strategy

effective thinking, the teacher can teacheach of these metacognitive skills tostudents. Identify potential difficulties,and define these problems. Then,students explore to find solution. Finally,they have to look and note which actionslead to solutions.Assessment and Examination in aConstructivist Science ClassroomThe traditional system of evaluation andexamination has more or less remainedunchanged in schools. The summativeapproach – an examination at the end ofschool year—promotes accumulation ofknowledge. Most of the students cramtheir notes and resort to rote learning.Such a procedure sends a very wrongmessage to the students—that learningmeans simply reproduce lessons withoutunderstanding it.In a constructivist set up, the traditionalassessment system will defeat the verypurpose of teaching. Learning means“understanding” and which implies thatone is able to explain what one knows. Ina constructivist approach, assessment isinterwoven with teaching. Students’activities, their work and portfolios, areall taken into account. It is theirunderstanding and “knowledge” that isassessed.Though judgments are involved in aconstructivist classroom, but these are

given to community authority andnegotiation rather than to the individualteacher. In addition, assessments aremade using multiple authentic measures,such as observations, dialogue journals,field notes, and portfolios, as well as testscores. These authentic assessmentsencourage students to participate inlifelike problem-situations, which aretherefore long remembered. The realpurpose of assessment should be to assistthe teacher in determining how well thestudent is mastering the concepts. Hencestudents’ performance should bemonitored continually while the lesson istaught.Constructivist view of ScienceTeachingThe Constructivist strategy is not a singlestrategy but a collection of instructionalstrategies like problem solving, projectmethod, inquiry method etc. Scienceeducators take more interest in socialaspect of science. Teachers who follow aconstructivist approach in teaching ofscience have tried to create links betweenthe students’ prior knowledge and thenew information they would get. In manycases learners have successfully mademodifications in the face of newevidences. Though knowledge isindividually constructed but one mustthink both about the learning problem as


well as of learners’ experience andprevious knowledge.ConclusionTo conclude, it can be said thatConstructivist pedagogy is a very effectivemeans of science teaching. However, thesuccess of this pedagogy presupposesthat the teachers should not only be welltrained in a constructivist approach, but

they should also be dedicated enough tofollow its requirements patiently. Thisstrategy is time consuming and requireslot of patience on the part of teachers andadministrators. The teachers should alsobe trained in the use of relevanttechnologies. This all implies massivesupport from administration and thegovernment.

REFERENCES

Gabric, K. et al. (2006). Scientists in their own classroom: the use of type II technologyin the science classroom. Computers in the schools. 22(3-4), 77.

Hassard, J (1999). Students’ experience in constructivist learning environments:An inquiry into teems…….a science teacher education program. Paperpresented at the 6th Nordic Research Conference on Science Education. Joensuu,Finland. Retrieved December 9, 2011, from http://www. gsu.edu. webfs01 /mst/ mstjr/ public_ htm/ teemsfinland.html.

Jonassen, D., Peck, K.L., Wilson, B.G. (1999). Learning with Technology: AConstructivist perspective. New Jersey; Prentice Hall.

Lorsbach, A and Tobin, K. (2012). “Constructivism as a referent for Science Teaching”.Printed in National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST).

Mathews, M.R. (2000). Editorial of the Monographic issue on Constructivism,Epistemology and the Learning of Science’ Science & Education, 9 (3).

Von Glasersfeld, E (1996). Aspects of Constructivism. In C.T. Fosnot (Ed),Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. New York., N.Y. TeachersCollege Press, Columbia University.

Yager, R. (1999). The Constructivist Learning model, towards real reform in Scienceeducation. The Science Teacher. 58(60, 52-57.

* Dr. Shazli Hasan Khan : Asstt. Professor, Dept. of Education & Training,Maulana Azad National Urdu University, (MANUU),Hyderabad-500032 Email: [email protected]

CONSTRUCTIVISM : Examining its Applications in ......................by Rakshinder Kaur 107

CONSTRUCTIVISM : Examining itsApplications in Science Education

Abstract



Rakshinder Kaur *

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning and knowledge based on the premise that by reflectingon our experiences we can construct our own understanding of the world we live in. It isqualitatively different from the traditional behaviourist theory of learning and knowledgeacquisition. This constructivist paradigm of viewing knowledge had an impact on a number ofnational curricular documents and national educational statements. In this context NationalCurriculum Framework also focused on constructivism and child centred education in India.Constructivism in science teaching has both potentialities and challenges. But still differentteaching strategies of constructivism are finding a place in science education and have createda rupture in the traditional didactic methods of teaching where child is just a passive listener.

IntroductionEducation is the process of acquiringknowledge and information and how oneacquires and perceives that informationand knowledge are the pertinentquestions of education. In the post-industrial society, information andknowledge have become key resources inthe same way that labour and capital werecentral resources of industrial societies.Since then the concept of knowledge hasundergone profound changes and hasbeen at the centre of major controversiesso much so that it will not be incorrect tospeak of a deepening sense of crisis inthe modern knowledge system.Indian education system is one of theoldest systems and lot of criticisms islabelled against our education system,because it has traditionally relied on theobjectivist view of knowledge too much.

This view of learning and knowledgeassumes that knowledge can be impartedfrom teacher to learner throughinstruction, lecture and practice.Teaching driven by this philosophydiscourages different views andunderstandings, disregarding differentcontexts and experiences of individuals,and regard individuals as passiverecipients of knowledge. In recent times,educators and institutional discourseshave begun to challenge the objectivistview, with an increasing appreciation ofdifferent ways of knowing the world.Thus, constructivist influence hasextended beyond the research andscholarly community and it has had animpact on a number of national curriculardocuments and national educationalstatements. In this context, NationalCurriculum Framework (NCF2005)



• Meaning is contextualized and rootedin experience.

• The purpose of learning is for anindividual to construct his or her ownmeaning not just memorize the “right”answers.

• Learning should be situated in realisticsettings; testing should be integratedwith the task and not a separateactivity.

NCF (2005) in the chapter ‘Learning andKnowledge’ established the need ofconstructivist perspective in learning. Itstated that ‘child - centered’ pedagogyshould be followed means giving primacyto children’s experiences, their voices andtheir active participation and knowledgewill be the outcome of the child’s ownactivity (NCF, 2005:13). Learning is acollaborative process and each learnerindividually and socially constructsmeaning as he/she learns. Constructingmeaning is learning (Ibid.:17).Constructivism in EducationThe constructivist movement has grownessentially from dissatisfaction witheducational methods where rotememorization, regurgitation of facts anddivision of knowledge into differentsubjects, led to a situation where learnerswere not necessarily able to apply whatthey have learned in real life (Dixon-Kraus,1996 cited in Jha, 2009:16).Constructivism thus goes beyond thestudy of how the brain stores andretrieves information to examine the waysin which learners make meaning fromexperience. This new learning theory hasspawned a changing view on learning andinstruction and is of paramount underst-anding in designing the curriculum.Constructivism is not anotherepistemology, or a way of knowing ratherit is said to be post-epistemological. Itcannot replace objectivism. Rather,constructivism is a way of thinking aboutknowing, a referent for building modelsof teaching, learning and curriculum.


Thus, constructivism in education meansthat teachers should embrace a holisticway of thinking about the nature oflearning, quite apart from themethodology of direct instruction andshould give those experiences to thechildren which are challenging and allowindependent thinking, and multiple waysof being solved.Constructivism in Science EducationConstructivist learning is recognized asa valuable technique to increase thedepth of understanding of scientific ideaswith students building their ownknowledge through inquiry basedexercises. Scott (1987) defines aconstructivist in science as one who“perceives students as active learnerswho come to science lessons alreadyholding ideas about natural phenomena,which they use to make sense of everydayexperiences….Such a process is one inwhich learners actively make sense of theworld by constructing meaning” (cited inJha, 2009:418). No doubt constructivistpedagogy is valuable in science andshould be encouraged, but a questionarises how efficacious is constructivistpedagogy in teaching scientific conceptsat different levels of schooling.Critiques of constructivism have made anunsheathing attack and said thatunrealistic claims have been made by theadvocates of constructivism. Oneprominent constructivist, Richard White,has said, “Although the research onalternative conceptions has sparkedinterest in content, it has not yielded clearadvice about how to teach different topics.Given the necessity for any scienceprogramme to teach the content ofscience this is a serious failure” (cited inMatthews, 2000).The difficulty for constructivism which isposed by teaching the content of scienceis a fundamental theoretical problem, notmerely a practical one. If knowledgecannot be imparted, and knowledge must

be a matter of personal constructionbased on one’s experience, then how canchildren gain knowledge of complexconceptual schemes that have taken thebest minds hundreds of years to build?(Saxena, 2006: 56).Many science educators are interested infinding out how, on constructivistprinciples, one teaches a body of scientificknowledge that is in large part abstract(depending on notions such as velocity,acceleration, force, gene), that is removedfrom experience (propositions aboutatomic structure, cellular processes,astronomic events), that has noconnection with prior conceptions (ideasof viruses, antibodies, molten core,evolution, electromagnetic radiation), andthat is alien to common-sense, and inconflict with everyday experience,expectations and concepts? Teaching abody of knowledge involves not justteaching the concepts, but also themethod, and something of themethodology or theory of method. Howall of this is to be taught, without teachersactually conveying something to pupils,is a moot point (Mathews, 2000).But on the other hand constructivism hasgiven some applicable and child centeredstrategies which can be applied inteaching not all the content of science butmany of the topics can be taught byapplying them. These are:

• Project Based Learning: Project BasedLearning is a strategy that challengesstudents to discover answers to theirquestions through real worldinvestigations. Research projects can begiven where students do research on aparticular topic and present thefindings to the class.

• Problem Based Learning: It is astudent-centered pedagogy in whichstudents learn about a subject in thecontext of complex, multifaceted, andrealistic problems. The goals of PBL are


to help the students develop flexibleknowledge, effective problem solvingskills, self-directed learning, effectivecollaboration skills and intrinsicmotivation. Working in groups,students identify what they alreadyknow, what they need to know, and howand where to access new informationthat may lead to resolution of theproblem. The role of the instructor isthat of facilitator of learning whoprovides appropriate scaffolding andsupport of the process, modelling of theprocess, and monitoring the learning.

• Inquiry Training: The philosophy ofinquiry based learning finds itsantecedents in the work of Piaget,Dewey, Vygotsky and Freire amongothers. There are four levels of inquiry-based learning in science education:confirmation inquiry, structuredinquiry, guided inquiry and openinquiry. With confirmation inquiry,students are provided with the questionand procedure (method), and theresults are known in advance.

In structured inquiry, the question andprocedure are still provided by theteacher; however, students generate anexplanation supported by the evidencethey have collected. In guided inquiry,the teacher provides students with onlythe research question, and studentsdesign the procedure (method) to testtheir question and the resultingexplanations.

At the fourth and highest level of inquiry,open inquiry, students have the purestopportunities to act like scientists,deriving questions, designing andcarrying out investigations, andcommunicating their results.

• Group Discussion is a strategy wherestudents are divided into groups. Openended questions can be asked wherestudents are given time to discuss,share ideas and express their opinion.

• Cooperative Learning can be practiced

in classrooms which gives learnersopportunity to construct knowledge,problem solving and develop social andpersonal skill. It is a successfulteaching strategy in which small teams,each with students of different levels ofability, use a variety of learningactivities to improve theirunderstanding of a subject.

• Concept Mapping: A concept map is adiagram showing relationships amongconcepts. It is a graphical tool fororganizing and representing knowledge.It can be used to generate ideas,illustrate the relationship betweendifferent components to integrate newknowledge and old knowledge.

• Experimentation: Here studentsindividually or in groups performexperiments and than discuss theresults in the classroom.

• Field Trips: This strategy is very usefulin the teaching of biology. Field tripshelp to put concepts and ideasdiscussed in class in a real worldcontext. Field trips should be followedby class discussions.

The Position Paper on Science of NCF(2005) also gave some strategies tostimulate creativity and inventiveness inScience. It stated: Introduce a paradigmshift in science curriculum at all stages.Emphasize exploration, inventivenessand creativity through activities,experiments, technological modules,contextualized as far as possible. (NCERT,2005: 31).Constructivist AssessmentAssessment and evaluation ofconstructivist learning is also differentthan that of traditional methods. Intraditional methods there is focus on thereproduction of the content, but inconstructivism students’ ability toorganize, structure and use informationin context to solve complex problems isimportant. So, constructivist teachersmust embrace alternative assessment


strategies in order to truly understandwhat students are thinking and to identifythe steps they have taken to constructmeaning out of their learningexperiences. Alternative assessmentstrategies include observation,interviews, concept mapping, open-endedproblems, drawings, performance basedassessment, self assessment etc.Therefore, formative assessment is morevaluable to the learner in theconstructivist paradigm (Dwivedi,2010:17). ConclusionConstructivism has changed the way ofattaining the knowledge. Now knowledgeis not regarded as a product which canbe transmitted by the teachers rather itis now well established that knowledgeis an idiosyncratic, dynamic constructionof human beings. No doubt,constructivism cannot be used in

teaching all the topics of sciences. It hasits own limitations .But still there is muchthat is laudable, insightful, andprogressive about constructivist theoryand practice. It is far superior to thewooden and limiting behaviourist theory.In Indian context it is for the first timethat curriculum is framed on these linesfor school students and it has created arupture in the traditional didacticmethods of teaching where child is just apassive listener. Padma M. Sarangapanihas rightly remarked, “The cognitiverevolution has barely begun in Indianeducation and the concepts and theoriesof ‘constructivism’ are essential for this.At long last through the NCF 2005modern psychology of learning is beingread and debated in a wider arena of non-specialists who contribute to theeducational discourse and action inIndia” (Sarangapani, 2007: 241).

REFERENCESDwivedi, Ramesh Dhar (2010): From Behaviourism to Constructivism: A Paradigm

Shift in Teaching, Learning Process, University News, Vol. 48 (7), 14-18.Jha, Arbind Kumar (2009): Constructivist Epistemology and Pedagogy: Insight into

Teaching Learning and Knowing, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers andDistributors.

NCERT (2005): National Curriculum Framework 2005, New Delhi: National Council ofEducational Research and Training.

NCERT (2006): National Curriculum Framework 2005: Position Paper National FocusGroup on Teaching of Science, New Delhi: National Council of EducationalResearch and Training.

Saxena, Sadhna (2006): Questions of Epistemology: Revaluating Constructivism andthe NCF 2005, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Vol.4 (1), 52-71.

Sarangapani, Padma M. (2007): Revaluating Constructivism and the NCF: AnExamination of Arguments, Contemporary Education Dialogue, Vol.4 (2),238-242.

Matthews, R. Michael (2000): Constructivism in Science and Mathematics Education,

available at http:// wwwcsi.unian.it/educa/inglese/Matthews.html.

* Rakshinder Kaur : Assistant Professor, Department of Education,Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda. Punjabemail : [email protected]


Constructivism: A Student-CentredApproach in Teaching Social Science

Abstract



Sandeep Kumar *

The teaching of social science has not been very effective partly due to the way it is transactedwithin the classroom. The class room process in social science is dominated by teacher talkand note dictation which forces the creation of a passive classroom atmosphere and studentsuncritically accept the information and knowledge posed on to them. Therefore, it is necessaryto revitalize social science teaching, to help the learner to acquire knowledge and skills in aninteractive environment, which can make learning of social science an enjoyable experiencefor students.

IntroductionEducation is a process which empowersthe body, mind and spirit of the personso that one becomes a productive andresponsible member of the family andsociety. The function of education is thusto equip each individual with the skillsand competencies for a successful living.It serves as instrument for the economicand social development of a country. Thegoal of education is the fullest realizationof the possibilities of the individual notonly for his personal welfare but forparticipation and contribution in achanging society. One of the importantgoals of school education is to help pupilsto understand the world in which theylive so they become responsible citizensand this becomes the fundamentalpurpose of social science teaching inschool education. It is crucial thereforefor teachers to not only set in place theknowledge foundations for continued

studies in social science but also developsense of interest towards social scienceand requisite skills among the students.But today in social science teaching whatwe do today is only transfer theknowledge of social science from onebrain to another and therefore studentsof social science should be provided suchlearning environment where they acquireknowledge and skills in an interactiveway.Social Science Teaching and Today’sClassroomThe social studies content requires theeducator to have an academicbackground. The subject areas commonlyassociated with social studies are mainlyfrom history, geography, political scienceand economics. This diverse subjectmatter places a social studies teacher ina position where they must be welltrained in a variety of disciplines.Currently, in many classrooms, social


Constructivism : A Student Centred Approach ......................by Sandeep Kumar 113

studies is taught through teacher-centered activities. This involvestechniques like memorization of facts,lectures and a heavy reliance ontextbooks (Rice & Wilson, 1999).Banarjee (2007), tried to track down theevolution, popularity and utility ofGeography as a school subject in IndianSchools has further stated that theteachers, in most cases, refrained fromexplaining the concept part or thediagrams. A common practice in teachingwas to switch over to the descriptive partand complete the syllabus. Practical skilldevelopment was largely out of reach.This practice over the years has createda kind of fear among pupils aboutgeography, maps and map reading.

Khasnavis (2000) also observed the samesituation and stated that at present inmost of the schools in India, emphasis isplaced on memorization. The schoolsprogramme is dominated social scienceteaching in school education. It is crucialtherefore for teachers to not only set inplace the knowledge foundations forcontinued studies in social science butalso develop sense of interest towardssocial science and requisite skills amongthe students.Almost same situation has been observedin Economics teaching in the Schools ofChhattisgarh where normally the lecturesin economics are done by one-waycommunication, lecture is delivered andit is understood that student understandsthe topic. No attempt is generally madeto get the feedback from the students onhis comprehension. No discussions takeplace in the class room due to the reasonsmentioned above and moreover nopractical problems are given to studentto make him understand the subject.Example quoting is normally missing inthe lecture; therefore, students getdisinterested in the subject. (Swarna,2010).

A similar condition in Andhra Pradeshschools has been found by Nageshwar(2011). According to him Social Scienceteaching in Schools of Andhra Pradesh isdull, passive, teacher and text bookoriented in the state. It is fostering rotelearning with little or no scope forconstructivism. Local specificity andrelevance to real life is also missing.From the above discussions it can be seenthat the present position of social scienceteaching is ill planned and at a lower levelin Indian Schools, which demand a shift.Social Science and ConstructivismSocial science is the study of society andits chief aim is to help pupils tounderstand the world in which they live,so they become responsible citizens.According to Education Commission(1964-66), “Social Studies help thestudents to acquire knowledge of theirenvironment, an understanding of humanrelationships and certain attitudes andvalues, which are vital for intelligentparticipation in the community, the state,the nation and the world”.According to National Curriculum forElementary and Secondary Education(1988) “Social Science is perhaps thesingular curricular area which can proveto be the most effective tool for providingeducation in the context of all the corecomponents indicated in NPE 1986.The present scenario of teaching revealsthat the classroom process in socialscience is dominated by teacher talk andnote dictation which forces the creationof a passive classroom atmosphere andstudent uncritically accept theinformation and knowledge passed tothem. So the teaching in schools runswith parrot like repetition of facts andprinciples, which has very lessapplicability in their future life.Survey conducted by Wipro along with theeducational initiative in 5 metro cities on142 schools over 32000 students revealedthat the students were not able to answer


questions dealing with understandingand application level. The study wasconducted on IV, VI and VIII standardstudents. (Source: Gujarat Samachardated 11.11.09).Studies on teaching of social science atprimary and secondary schools revealthat it is dull, passive and textbookoriented and which demand a shift fromtransactional nature of teaching fromstudent centered teaching.Constructivism is an epistemology,learning or meaning making theory basedon thought process involved in learning.Constructivism views learning as aprocess in which the learner activelyconstructs or builds new ideas onconcepts based upon current and pastknowledge. It has its root from philosophyand psychology and also applied toeducation. The work of Piaget, Dewey,Bruner, Vygotsky provides historicalprecedents for constructivist learningtheory.The learning process in constructivism issupported by two broad principles: first,knowledge is not passively received, butactively constructed by the learner andsecond, learners generate understandingwhen they relate prior knowledge topresent experiences (Wheately, 1991).In a constructivist classroom theteacher’s role is mainly to guide, facilitate,focus, suggest and evaluate the learningprocess in order to encourage thestudents to construct knowledge.The teacher is also a co-explorer, whoencourages learners to question, explain,challenge, discuss, evaluate andformulate their own ideas, opinions,solutions and conclusions. Teachers alsofunction as initiators of activities thatevoke students’ interest and lead to newconstructions instead of telling themwhat to know about specific content areas(Hannafin & Land, 1997). Moreover, inconstructivist terminology, encouragingrather than teaching is used more

frequently because the individualdevelopment cannot be forced (Selley,1999). So it can be stated that inconstructivist classrooms the emphasisis on knowledge construction, notreproduction, the composition ofinformation rather than the imposition ofknowledge; multiple outlooks rather thanmultiple workbooks.Above approach has also been supportedby National Curriculum Framework forSchool Education (NCFSE), 2005 andemphasized that child should be aconstructor of knowledge rather thanmere reservoir of knowledge, further itsuggests that students of social sciencesshould be provided such learningenvironment where they acquireknowledge and skills in an interactiveway. The teaching of social science mustadopt methods that promote creativity,aesthetics and critical perspectives andenable children to draw relationshipsbetween past and present and tounderstand changes taking place in thesociety.Instructional Strategy Based onConstructivism to Teach Social ScienceMany committees and commissions haverecommended for improving the qualityof social science education by movingaway from behaviourist approach ofteaching to constructivist approach ofteaching. The learning cycle idea of 5 EModels can be traced back in 1960. Themodel is grounded in constructivism. Thelearning cycle used in this developmentfollows Bybee’s (1997) five steps ofEngagement, Exploration, Explanation,Elaboration, and Evaluation.Engage:The first phase engages students in thelearning task. The students mentallyfocus on an object, problem, situation, orevent. The role of the teacher is to presentthe situation and identify theinstructional task. The teacher also setsthe rules and procedures for establishing


the task. Successful engagement resultsin students being puzzled by and activelymotivated in, the learning activity. Here,the word “activity” refers to both mentaland physical activity.Explore:Once the activities have engaged thestudents, the students have apsychological need for time to explore theideas. Exploration activities are designedso that the students in the class havecommon, concrete experiences uponwhich they continue formulatingconcepts, processes and skills. The aimof exploration activities is to establishexperiences that teachers and studentscan use later to formally introduce anddiscuss concepts, processes, or skills.The teacher’s role in the explorationphase is that of facilitator or coach.Ifcalled upon, the teacher may coach orguide students as they beginreconstructing their explanations.Explain:The word “explanation” means the act orprocess in which concepts, processes, orskills become plain, comprehensible, andclear. Explanations are ways of orderingthe exploratory experiences. The key tothis phase is to present concepts,processes, or skills briefly, simply, clearly,

and directly and to move on to the nextphase. Teachers have a variety oftechniques and strategies at theirdisposal to elicit and develop studentexplanations. In the end, studentsshould be able to explain exploratoryexperiences and experiences that haveengaged them by using common terms.Students will not immediately expressand apply the explanations-learningtakes time.Elaborate:Once the students have an explanationand terms for their learning tasks, it isimportant to involve the students infurther experiences that extend, orelaborate, the concepts, processes, orskills.This phase facilitates the transfer ofconcepts to closely related but newsituations. In some cases, students maystill have misconceptions, or they mayonly understand a concept in terms of theexploratory experience. Elaborationactivities provide further time andexperiences that contribute to learning.This phase is also an opportunity toinvolve students in new situations andproblems that require the transfer ofidentical or similar explanations.Generalization of concepts, processes,and skills is the primary goal.Evaluation:This is the important opportunity forstudents to use the skills they haveacquired and evaluate theirunderstanding. In addition, the studentsshould receive feedback on the adequacyof their explanations. Informal evaluationcan occur at the beginning andthroughout the 5E sequence. The teachercan complete a formal evaluation after theelaboration phase. As a practicaleducational matter, teachers must assesseducational outcomes. This is the phasein which teachers administerassessments to determine each student’slevel of understanding.


Engage: Teacher will introduce the topic by showing anumber of rubber products (sports balls, gaskets, rubbergloves, etc) and ask students to call out other rubber-baseditems as they think of them. The teacher will compile thislist on the board at the front of the room. Teacher will thenpre-assess what the students know about rubber and fromwhere it comes.

Explore: Working in pairs, students will be assigned acountry from the list above to search online or through othersources provided by the teacher and/or library. Studentswill be assisted in their search by adhering to a guidedworksheet that will ask them to look up and provide specificinformation about their topic. It must be stressed that theworksheet is merely a tool to assist in research. It shouldonly be viewed as contributing to part of the research. (Forexample, the worksheet does not ask for any pictures,references, country flag, map, or many descriptors of culture,yet students should be encouraged to include such thingson their poster.) The goal for each student pair is to gatherand absorb wide-ranging information that will give them abroad scope of knowledge about the social, political andeconomic makeup of their assigned country.

Explain: Here students will be asked to perform two specifictasks. The first is to take the information they gathered inthe research stage and display it on a poster board using avariety of media (printed word, images). Each student pairwill create a poster that demonstrates a strong foundationalunderstanding of the cultural background of their assignedcountry. The second task each student pair must perform isto present their poster to the class. This presentation mustcover the specified criteria of the assignment and will serveas an opportunity for students to demonstrate theirknowledge of the topic.

Elaborate: Teacher will engage the students in a discussionafter the presentations have been completed. Through guidedquestioning, the students must make observations and mustcompare and contrast the different areas that producerubber. They will be reminded of their earlier discussionand the list that was created at the beginning of the lesson.Students will have an opportunity to identify how theirknowledge of the topic has changed their perceptions andmay now, with more guided questioning by the teacher, alter

Assessment: Teacherwill use guidedquestioning todetermine whatinformation thestudents possess onthis topic.

A s s e s s m e n t :Students will turn intheir searchworksheets at theend of the project,along with theirposters. However,during theExploration stage theteacher will onlymonitor student toensure that studentsare properly pacingthemselves.

Assessment: Teacherwill assess both theposter and thepresentation. Thestudents mustunderstand that bothare contributing totheir score on theproject.

A s s e s s m e n t :Students must writea journal entryreflecting on thisexperience. They areexpected to discusstheir perceptions andlevel of knowledgethat existed before

Illustration of Constructivist Approach:RUBBER (PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION)


their original list of information about rubber-producingcountries. At the conclusion of the class, the teacher willshow a video about natural rubber production.

Evaluation: At every stage the teacher evaluates thestudents learning and provides feedback. Evaluation itselfis an indirect feedback to the teacher regarding the entireprocess.

beginning this activityand must describebriefly what theylearned and explainhow their perceptionschanged through thecourse of the project.Assessment: Summative evaluationcan be done to test thestudents improvementand educationaloutcomes.

ConclusionWhen the educational philosophy ofconstructivism is applied to a classroomenvironment, it impacts every facet of theclass. The author feels that if teaching ofsocial science will be done by using 5 Ecycle model than the students willunderstand and comprehend theconcepts and able to apply in the day today life situations. Constructivism affects

the way a classroom is managed and therole teacher plays in its operation. Othermethods which are based onconstructivist philosophies can also beused to teach social science as a student-centered approach so that the aims andobjectives of social science teaching andrespective skills can be developed amongthe students and the quality of socialscience teaching can also be improved.

REFERENCESAtkin, J. M., & Karplus, R. (1962). Discovery or invention? Science Teacher, 29(5),Banarjee, B. K. (2007). Geography education in Indian schools. Retrieved on July

29, 2011 from http://www.gei.de/fileadmin/bilder/pdf/Publikationen/ISF/28_3Banerjee.pdf

Bybee, R. (1997). Achieving scientific literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Hannafin, M. J. & Land, S. (1997). The foundations and assumptions of technology

enhanced student-centered classrooms. Instructional Science, 25, 167-202.Khasnavis, P.K. (2000). Teaching of Social Studies in India. Abhinav Publi., New Delhi.Kurrien, J. (2007). Say no to rote learning, Times of India, 17 Dec, 0001 hrs IST.Marlowe, A. B. & Page, L. M. (1998) Creating and sustaining constructivist classrooms.

California: Corwin Press, Inc.Nageshwar, D. (2011). Position Paper on social science in Andhra Pradesh Education.

Retrieved August 13, 2011 from http://indiacurrentaffairs.org/position-paper-on-social-sciences-in-andhra-pradesh-education/

National Curriculum Framework- 2005. Report of NCERT, New Delhi. National FocusGroup on Teaching of Social Science. (2006). NCERT, New Delhi.

Rice, M. L. & Wilsion, E. K. (1999). How Technology Aid Constructivism in the SocialStudies Classroom. The Social Studies, 90, 28-34.

Selley, N. (1999). The art of constructivist teaching in the primary school. London:David Fulton Pub.

* Sandeep Kumar : JRF, CASE, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara,Gujarat. e-mail : [email protected]


Critical Inquiry Pedagogy in Social ScienceClassrooms

Abstract



Dr. Beena K. *

Critical pedagogy as a field of study and a set of practices emerged during the 1970s. It is anattempt to transform education and pedagogy as part of the project of radical democracy, aimingto encourage the development of a more democratic culture and active citizenry. Critical pedagogyactually questions the reproduction of knowledge and it believes that students can generateknowledge on their own. Students are made able to critically examine the society in which theyare growing up and to criticize the kind of enterprise, the value system which they are imbibing.It is only through education that we develop the capacity to critically analyze the situation andtake appropriate decisions. It is in this context critical pedagogy becomes very crucial.

Introduction :Critical Pedagogy is based upon thephilosophy of John Dewey. Deweysupported a type of education that wouldcreate a society that was more mindful ofissues of social justice and equity. Hecalled for teachers to use the classroomto build a socialist society and for teachersto become leaders, not just in their schoolsor local communities, but also as aneffective, powerful political force.Critical pedagogy has its roots in thecritical theory of the Frankfurt school,whose influence is evident in theemancipatory works of Paulo Freire, themost renowned critical educator. ForFreire, laboratory education focuses on thedevelopment of critical consciousness,which enables learners to recognizeconnections between their individualproblems and experiences and the socialcontext in which they are embedded.

Critical inquiry pedagogy is aconstructivist approach to knowledgeformation that critiques traditionalknowledge constructs and includesessential elements of critical theory andother progressive educational theories.Critical inquiry pedagogy seeks to exposestudents to debates on issues of socialjustice. According to Fecho (2000), criticalinquiry pedagogy facilitates environ-ments, where students can come to theirown conclusions about other currentstatus and future direction of democracy.Critical pedagogy is an approach inplanning teaching-learning experiences.Its framework helps the learners to relatethe underlying social issues of thecontent to their day-to-day life to makechoices in varied situations, and todevelop the ability for good decisionmaking. Critical pedagogy is only aprogramme of action. It is not a theory.


Critical Inquiry Pedagogy in Social ......................by Dr. Beena, K. 119

It means the development of capability ofcritically assimilating knowledge and skillin whatever form it is provided to him orher. It means a level of self reflexivity, thatis understanding oneself and reflexivelychanges oneself.It means critically assimilating the socialconditions in which he or she grows upas well as the reasons for the developmentof such conditions. Critically evaluatingthe targets set before him and using hisher own options to accept or reject thosetargets and finally examining one’s ownfuture including the social future andability to pose it oneself clearly and socialtransformation. Critical pedagogy,therefore, doesn’t reject any knowledgesystem. Rather, it enhances the capacityof the students to transform it, ifnecessary.Students are critical observers of theirown conditions and needs, and shouldbe participants in discussions andproblems solving related to their presentand future opportunities. Hence learnersneed to be convinced that theirperceptions and experiences areimportant. They must be alwaysencouraged to develop the mental skillsso as to think and reason independentlyand have the intellectual honesty andcourage to dissent.A critical frame work helps children tosee social issues from differentperspectives and understand how muchissues are connected to their lives. Foreg. Understanding of democracy as a wayof life can be chartered through a pathwhere children reflect on how they regardothers (eg. Friends, neighbours, theopposite sex, elders etc.) and how theycultivate the ability to make decisions.Likewise, issues related to human rights,caste, religions and gender can becritically reflected on by children in orderto see how these issues are connected totheir every day experiences, and also howdifferent forms of inequalities become

compounded and are perpetuated.Critical pedagogy facilitates collectivedecision making through opendiscussion and by encouraging andrecognizing multiple views.Critical pedagogy is particularlyconcerned with reconfiguring thetraditional student/teacher relationship,where the teacher is the active agent theone who knows, and the students are thepassive recipients of the teacher’sknowledge. Instead, the classroom isenvisioned as a site where new knowledgegrounded in the experiences of studentsand teachers alike, is produced throughmeaningful dialogue.

Application of the principles of criticalPedagogy in classroomIn order to foster a more critical citizenryand facilitate the construction of moresocially and politically active students,social studies teachers are obligated tointegrate discussions of these issues intothe classroom. The following practices arerecommended for the implementation ofcritical pedagogy in social studiesclassroom.1. Facilitate constructivist approaches

to knowledge construction Instead of teaching progressive ideas

to students from a bully pulpit, socialstudies teachers should create anenvironment, where these ideas areconstructed and developed by thestudents themselves through criticalinquiry of established knowledge.

2. Facilitate safe and co-participatorylearning environments:

Social studies teachers should createreciprocal co-participatory learningenvironments and encourages toconstruct their own knowledge, socialidentities and philosophies withinthem. This can be facilitated throughpeer teaching and the fostering of a safelearning environment for students. Asocial studies teacher needs to create


an environment where students feelcomfortable to express personal beliefsand safely interrogate status quoknowledge. Such a reconceptualizationrequires new patterns of teaching andlearning that involve deliberate powersharing on the part of teachers withstudents through non hierarchicalclassroom discourse.

3. Embrace democratic citizenshipeducation:

Schools are appropriate places fordemocratic education because theypossess essential aspects of ademocratic society. Social studiesteachers should introduce students tomodels of citizenship and democracythat transcend passive or participatorymodels. Social studies teachers shouldembrace democratic citizenshipeducation models that promote socialcooperation and democraticparticipation. Through the impleme-ntation of critical inquiry pedagogies,social studies educators can begin torectify the failing of traditionalpedagogies and foster political andsocial activism among students.

4. Dialog towards the development ofa critical social consciousness

Social studies teachers move towardsmore egalitarian and equitableconstruction of democracy and away

from inequitable and Eurocentricparadigms.

5. Supplement text books with morebalanced educational resources

In order to foster critical discourse ofsocietal and historical realities in socialstudies classrooms, teachers need toinclude non-traditional sources thatcontain revisionist historical analysis insocial studies curriculum.

Conclusion :Social Studies teacher should keep inmind that many of the topics, issues, andproblems studied in the social studiesmay be of a controversial nature. Everyeffort should be made to develop thescientific approach to problem-solving ofvarious issues. They should not avoidmaterial likely to feed to controversialissues. Critical pedagogy provides anopportunity to reflect critically on issuesin terms of their political, social, economicand moral aspects. It entails theacceptance of multiple view on socialissues and a commitment to democraticforms of interaction. In short, socialstudies teachers should facilitate studentknowledge construction through criticalinquiry pedagogy. Students of all social,racial, gender, and cultural backgroundsneed and deserve a curriculum thatcultivates the construction of democraticideas of equity and social justice.

REFERENCES

Fecho, R.(2000): Developing Critical Mass: Teacher Education and Critical InquiryPedagogy. Journal of Teacher Education 51(3),194-199.

NCERT 2005 : National curriculum Frame Work, New DelhiPathak.A (2002) : Social Implications of Schooling Knowledge, Pedagogy and

Consciousness. Rainbow Publications, Delhi.

* Dr. Beena, K. : Asst Professor of Social Science, Keyi Sahib Training College, Karimbam, Taliparamba, Distt. Kannur. Kerala


Constructivist Lesson Plan : ......................by Dr. A. Ramakrishna & Ms. Sonia Sawhney 121

Constructivist Lesson Planning:Theory and Practice



Dr. A. Ramakrishna * & Ms. Sonia Sawhney **

This research article aims at developing a constructivist lesson plan in biology for high schoolstudents. Though the teachers are familiar with the concept of constructivism, they face difficultyin organizing a class. This is probably due to the reasons such as extensive preparation,availability of resources – infrastructure and instructional and above all professional excellenceinvolved in conducting a constructivist lesson in classroom. Authors through this study explorethe ways and means of organizing a constructivist lesson and illustrate a lesson in actionwhich was held during the student teacher’s internship.

Abstract

IntroductionLearning is not complete unless it isbeneficial to the learners in their dailylife. Lesson planning in the B.Ed. courseis based on Herbartian Approachdeveloped many decades ago. Till today,we are following this approach for lessonplanning. Now, when our country hascome up with reforms in Education(School & Higher levels), it is apt to takea cue from the latest Educational policiesin vogue so as to keep our citizenryabreast and empower them to meet thedemands of the society.Developments in ConstructivismThe concept of constructivism has itsroots in Socratic Dialogue. Then, JeanPiaget and John Dewey’s contribution ledto the evolution of constructivism. LevVygotsky introduced social aspect oflearning while Jerome Bruner initiatedcurriculum change based on the notionthat learning is active, social processes

in which students construct new ideasor concepts based on their currentknowledge. Constructivist environments(using ICT) were dramatically changedwith the groundbreaking work ofSeymour Papert.Today, Constructivist approach is widelydiscussed and used in may of the schools.National Council for Teacher Education(NCTE) and National Council forEducational Research & Training(NCERT) in their documents forcurriculum revision emphasized theconstruction of knowledge. This ispossible when a teacher usesconstructive lesson planning.Simple put, constructivist learning isbased on students’ active participation inproblem-solving and critical thinkingregarding a learning activity which theyfind relevant and engaging. The emphasisis on integrating already existingapproaches with alternatives presented



by other team members, research sourcesor current experience. Here, pre-existingviews and approaches regarding aconcept is balanced with new onesthrough trial and error therebyconstructing a new level ofunderstanding. A teacher in the truesense is a facilitator and coach while alsobeing a co-learner who guides studentswhile stimulating and provoking theircritical thinking. To do this aconstructivist teacher uses the followingtechniques in the teaching process –• Inquiry: Prompt students to formulate

their own questions;• Multiple Intelligences: Allow multiple

interpretations and expressions oflearning;

• Collaborative learning: Encourage groupwork and the use of peers as resources.

Constructivist Learning DesignThe above mentioned techniques requirea constructivist learning design whichemphasizes six important elements ofteaching and learning process. These are:1. Developing a situation: Teacher has to

develop a situation for the studentsrelated to the learning process.

2. Grouping: It involves grouping ofstudents and learning materials

3. Bridging: This is done to developing abridge between what the studentsalready know and what they areexpected to learn.

4. Questioning: Herein the teacheranticipates questions to and from thestudents. For this the class needs to beprepared accordingly.

5. Exhibiting: It includes encouragingstudents to exhibit a record of theirthinking by sharing their knowledge inthe class.

6. Reflecting: Here the teacher has tosolicit the student’s reflections on theirlearning.

A teacher’s decision regarding the kindof approach to be used for planning theirlessons depends on factors such as the

type of content; availability of resources;teaching; presentation andcommunication skills of teachers;constraint of time and so on.ObjectiveThe main objective of this research articleis to develop a constructivist lesson planin Biology for high school students.MethodologyOne of the students constructed thefollowing lesson plan under first author’sguidance and taught in the school duringinternship.The first few aspects such asPreliminaries, Objectives andSpecifications, and Teaching LearningPoints are similar to a TraditionalHerbartian Lesson plan. Preliminariesinclude the details of the name of thestudent teacher, name of the school, date,period, duration, subject, unit, topic,teaching aids and references. Theobjectives and specifications area dealswith the purposes of teaching learning interms of cognitive, affective andpsychomotor domains with the specificaspects of behavioural outcomes. Then,teaching learning points discuss thecontent given as concepts.The steps of the constructivist lesson planare:1. Engagement: The main emphasis here

is to stimulate curiosity and activateprevious knowledge of the students.Questions are raised wherein studentsare motivated to discover more aboutthe concept.

2. Exploration: Here the students activelyexplore the concept through hands-on-activity. This allows the students toshare ideas about the concept.

3. Explanation: New scientific terms areexplained during the discussion. Themost important step wherein theexplanations based on observationsenable them to construct newunderstanding and have a clear focusfor additional learning.


4. Elaboration: During interaction,students are encouraged to apply,extend and enhance the new conceptand other related terms. This providesadditional active learning opportunitiesand to conform to mental constructswhich expands their understating.

5. Evaluation: Here the students’ progressreflects their understanding of theconcept. This also enables the teacherto know the additional experiencesrequired for the student to constructknowledge as well as to refineunderstanding of the concept.

Conducting a constructivist lesson inthe classroomThe classroom is organised with fivetables and six chairs per table forstudents to begin the first activity of‘engagement’. Or else the conventionalclassroom be organised so as to arrange/ seat six or seven students facing eachother. They are given specimens of plantsand models of animals. Five minutes areallocated for the students to understandthe concept “Economic Importance ofPlants and Animals”. Later, the lessonproceeds as given in the next page.DiscussionFeedback regarding the effectiveness ofconstructive lesson planning wasobtained from IX class students and thepre-service teacher who had practiced theabove lesson. Students felt very happyand showed keen interest towards thetopic. As the way of teaching was differentfrom traditional Herbartian lesson plan,they were more interested andenthusiastic to know more about thesubject. Through this innovative type ofteaching a teacher while providingknowledge about the subject cansimultaneously relate the knowledge toits utility in daily life. A teacher candevelop moral values among thestudents. A teacher can exhibit inherenttalents through this type of constructivelesson plan. The benefits ofconstructivism are:

1. Students learn more and enjoy theactivities.

2. It concentrates on learning how tothink and understand.

3. Learning in these situations istransferable.

4. It gives students ownership of whatthey learn, since learning is based onstudents’ questions and explorations,and often students have a hand indesigning the assessments.

5. Students in constructivist classroomslearn to question things and to applytheir natural curiosity to the world.

6. It promotes social and communicationskills by creating a classroomenvironment that emphasizescollaboration and exchange of ideas.Critics of constructivism raise thequestion of its applicability todisadvantaged children, who lackresources of the elitist group, as they onlybenefit from explicit instruction. Further,a few students’ voices or interpretationsdominate the group’s conclusions insocial constructivism producing a‘tyranny of the majority’. A study reportedthat students in these classrooms lagbehind those of traditional type in basicskills.ConclusionAny theory would have merits anddemerits, advantages and disadvantages,certain limitations. In case ofconstructivist lesson planning, theteacher needs to decide what content andskills can be taught through conventionaland what content and skills throughconstructivist mode. As the benefits ofusing constructivist classroom learningdesign outweigh that of traditional type,teachers have to prefer constructivistmode of teaching provided the studentsare motivated, availability ofinfrastructure and text material and soon. Above all, the most important is theaptitude or inclination of teachers to excelin professionalism.


Steps

1. Engagement

2. Exploration

3. Explanation

4. Elaboration

Teacher’s activity

Teacher keeps cereals, pulses, oil seeds, sugars, spices, drugs, fibres, coir,timber, resins, gums, fruits, vegetables, dyes, meat, skin and fur, eggs,wax, silk, honey and lac on the table.

1.Name the living resources of nature.2. What type of resources are these plants and animals?They can be

produced as quickly as it is used – when you cut few branches / pluckfew leaves / flowers of a plant.

3. What do you call plants present in a region?4. Similarly, name the animals present in a region?

Teacher allows the students to feel the things provided on the table.1.How are plants useful to us?Gum is the solid form of the liquid oozed out

from gum plants.2. How are animals useful to humans?Lac is obtained from lac insects.

Teacher asks the students to see what’s in their lunch box.1.Your lunch box has rice and red gram.2. How do we obtain rice, rye, green gram, black gram, beans, etc?

3. How are these prepared by plants?

4. Since the plants prepare their own food, what do we call them?5. How are animals helpful to us?

1.What are the uses of wood?

2.How do you obtain wood?

Teacher displays a chart showing different types of wood:3.Name some trees which provide hard & strong timber.4.What is the use of sandal wood?

5. What is this?6. How do you obtain coir?7. Which plants yield coir?8.How is cotton different from coir?9.Name a few fibre yielding plants.

CONSTRUCTIVIST LESSON-PLAN


Pupils’ activity

Students are curious to know about these things as is reflectedon their facial expressions / murmurs / taking to each otherthemselves.

1. Plants and animals2. Renewable resources. Why are they called renewable?

3.Flora4.Fauna.

Students take things on the table into their hands and exploretheir familiarity.

1.Plants provide us cereals, pulses, oil seeds, sugars, spices,drugs, fibres, coir, timber, resins, gums, fruits, vegetables,dyes, etc. Is the gum in this bottle, a plant product?

2.Animals give meat, skin and fur, eggs, wax, silk, honey, lac,etc. How is lac obtained?

One student opens a lunch box and asks1.What kind of pulse is this food made of?2.We obtain rice, rye, green gram, black gram, and beans from

plants.

3.They are prepared through Photosynthesis with the help ofsolar energy in the presence of carbon dioxide and chlorophyll.

4.Primary producers.5.We obtain meat, milk, skin and fur from animals.One student shows curd rice that he brought for lunch.

1.Wood is used for construction of buildings, boats, furniture,toys & sports goods, packing. Tables, chairs and board aremade of wood.

2.As plants become old, cells in stems are strengthened bysecondary growth deposits.

Students identify different types of wood:3.Teak, sal, neem, deodar, dalbergia, pine.

4.Making perfumes & talcum powder.

5.Coir.6.Long thread like material taken from bark, stem, leaves and

fruits.7.Coconut, palm, date plants.8.Cotton is called fibre & it is more flexible & soft than coir.9.Cotton and jute.

Tea./Lear.Resources

Samples of rice, rye,green/black gram,beans, ground nut,mustard, sugar,pepper, cloves,cinnamon, etc.

Models of Sheep,buffalo, hen.

A piece of wood.

chart - different typesof woodA piece of sandalwood.A bunch of coir.

A boll of cotton.

CONSTRUCTIVIST LESSON-PLAN


Summary of the LessonPlants and animals present in a region are called flora and fauna. Plants are calledprimary producers. They give several products like cereals, pulses, oil seeds, sugars,spices, drugs, fibres, coir, timber, resins, gums, fruits, vegetables, dyes and so on.Animals provide meat, skin and fur. These are renewable resources and are to beused judiciously.

REFERENCES

Mohan Radha (2004): Innovative Science Teaching for Physical Science Teachers.Prentice Hall India Private Limited. New Delhi.

Jasim Ahmad (2011): Teaching of Biological Sciences. PHI Private Limited, NewDelhi.

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/demonstration1.html

10.What are the uses of fibres and coir?

11.Identify these specimens.

12.What are the uses of tulasi and neem leaves?

13.What are the uses of skin and fur?

14.Which other products are obtained from animals?15.Name the oil obtained from animals.

16.What types of human activities endanger the plant & animal species?

17.Which methods are adopted for preservation of flora & fauna?

1.What have you learnt from this lesson?

2.Can you show me what you have learnt through charts, collections ordrawings?

3.What do you understand about plants & animals?

5. Evaluation

Steps Teacher’s activity


10.Coir is used to prepare ropes, mats and stuffing material inpillows, mattresses and sofas and seats while fibre is used formaking garments, paper & cardboard.

11.Tulasi and neem. We have these in our school garden and athome.

12.They are used in medicines. My mother gives me to chew tulasileaves for stopping cough.

13.Skin is used to prepare leather which in turn used for makinggarments, footwear, belts & toys. Hair is used for making wool &brushes.

14.Oils, wax, silk, honey and lac.15. Cod liver oil. I took cod liver oil when I was very young to grow

taller.16.Deforestation, overgrazing, conversion of forest land to

agricultural land & agricultural land to house or industrialplots, indiscriminate killing of animals for their products &pollution.

17.Afforestation, preventing overgrazing, proper land managementand so on.

1.One student says that plants and animals are important in ourdaily life. Another student replies that what we eat, wear is allgot from flora and fauna. Third student says we should use allthese resources judiciously.

2.One student says – I will collect these and other plants from myhome and bring to the class tomorrow.Another student says – Iwill draw these animals on the chart.Yet another student says –I will bring cloth, honey, a wooden toy, an egg and milk.

3.Plants & animals are renewable resources and are to be usedjudiciously and carefully. If proper care is not taken, these maydisappear totally from earth’s surface.

Tulasi and neemleaves

Pupils’ activity Tea./Lear.Resources

* Dr.A.Ramakrishna : Professor, IASE, Osmania University,Hyderabad. Andhra Pradeshe-mail: [email protected]

** Ms. Sonia Sawhney : UGC Junior Research Fellow, Faculty ofEducation,Osmania University, Hyderabad. (A.P.)e-mail: [email protected]


Teaching of History through Constructivism

Abstract



Ajit Kumar Bohet *

History as a field of study is a very lively discipline. It is full of imagination, creativity, as wellas controversy. History is a bridge connecting the past with the present and pointing the road tothe future. But, the methods which are used to teach this lively subject are not capable enoughto create an interest for the subject among the students. Constructivism is a way through whichthe subject can be really fruitful for the students. Present article focuses on the constructivismas a learning theory for teaching the subject like “HISTORY”. How constructivism can be usedin the history class? How can it be benefitted for the students?

Introduction:History is that, which happened in thepast and it is the intellectualreconstruction of these happenings at asubsequent time (John Dewey, 1990).Past influences our present in manyways. In fact, our present is the sum totalof achievements, aspirations, andfrustrations, that our forefathersexperienced in the by-gone ages. E. H.Carr (2008) explained that “history is acontinuous process of interactionbetween the historian and his facts,unending dialogue between the presentand the past.” The importance of historyis in its capacity to help one to drawconclusions from the past events. Itsheds the light of the past upon thepresent. History enables one to graspone’s relationship with in one’s past.That’s why History is a major subjecttaught at school. We can’t neglect the

study of history because it enablesstudents to settle themselves in time andplace and it makes them acquireknowledge in humanity. It builds acritical mind to students and helps themto understand the world in a meaningfulcontext. History gives the opportunity tounderstand the world and society; it helpspupils to understand why and how theworld that surrounds us has changedbecause the past causes the present andso, the future.The importance of history is in its capacityto help one to draw conclusions from thepast events. The value of history, in fact,is looked upon from diverse perspectives.Report of National Advisory Committee,1993 (Yashpal Committee) found that theaim of teaching history is defeated inschools because children are not enabledto relate to their own heritage as historyis presented in the form of packed boxes


Teaching of History through ......................by Ajit Kumar Bohet 129

of information which has no scope forcritical thinking. The study of Historyshould enable the children to form anoverall picture of the ‘whole’ of India andenable the students to analyze,understand, and reflect on the problemsand priorities of socio-economicdevelopment Kothari commission (1964-66) desired to use history to promotecritical thinking, national integration aswell as moral and spiritual values. TheCommission emphasized that there wouldbe no contradiction between the generaleducational task history shares withother fields of study and the special oneassigned to it. But when we come to thequestion of teaching History in schools,we have to see that the eagerness of mento learn about his past should be sochannelized that helps the child in manyother ways. It is not to overemphasize theimportance of history when we say thathistory teaching is capable of addingmany more feathers to the overallpersonality of a student: History shouldbe taught with the intent of enablingstudent better understand their ownworld and their own identities came intobeing shaped by a rich and varied past.History helps to discover processes ofchange and continuity in their world andto compare ways in which power andcontrol were, and are exercised.”(NCF2005)Burston and Green (1962) said that “theproblem for historians and the historyteacher is how to demonstrate therelevance of history to the present in asufficiently convincing manner to gain theinterest of the students”. This is as truetoday as it was in 1962. One must lookfor opportunities to relate the past to thepresent and the future so that studentscan ‘see the point’ of learning about thepast. In the present educational scenariothe whole system is emphasizing onmemorizing knowledge. Rote learning isthe order of the day, then how can history

teaching be untouched. During theteaching learning process in historymemorizing historical facts, dates, andcauses of events is emphasized so muchthat this is all that we perceive as historyteaching. Nobody cares of what and howmuch has been understood by thestudents and as a result history becomesboring, uninteresting, and a burden forstudents. Students are consequently notable to relate historical knowledge withtheir lives and their own experiences.Using constructivism while teachinghistory can be very helpful in this contextas this learning theory gives ample spaceto the students to construct their ownknowledge.ConstructivismConstructivism is a theory which regardslearning as an active process in whichlearners construct and internalize newconcepts, ideas, and knowledge based ontheir own present and past knowledgeand experiences.• It says that people construct their own

understanding and knowledge of theworld, through experiencing things andreflecting on those experiences.Knowledge is constructed rather thanreceived.

• Constructivism is a view thatemphasizes the active role of the learner(who understands and makes sense ofinformation).

• It is basically a theory based onobservation and scientific study abouthow people learn.

• When learners encounter somethingnew, they have to reconcile it with ourprevious ideas and experiences to makethe concept relevant.

Teaching-Learning process:John Dewey (1956) believed educationmust engage with and expand experience;those methods used to educate mustprovide for exploration, thinking, andreflection; and that interaction with theenvironment is necessary for learning.


Dewey advocates the learning process ofexperiential learning through real lifeexperience to construct andconditionalize knowledge, which isconsistent with the Constructivists.• Learning as an active process where

learners should learn to discoverprinciples, concepts, and facts forthemselves, hence the importance ofencouraging guesswork and intuitivethinking in learners.

• Learners should constantly bechallenged with tasks that refer to skillsand knowledge just beyond theircurrent level of mastery. This capturestheir motivation and builds on previoussuccesses to enhance learnerconfidence.

• Learning is contextual. One do not learnisolated facts and theories in someabstracts airy land of mind separatefrom rest of our lives, learner learn inrelationship to what else he/she know,what he/she believe, his/her prejudicesand fears.

• People learn to learn as they learn. Eachmeaning the learner construct makeshis/her better able to give meaning toother sensations which can fit intosimilar pattern.Teaching of History through

ConstructivismConstructivism is a broad theory with avariety of perspectives. However the basictenet of constructivism is that learningis an active process where the learnerconstructs knowledge rather thanacquiring it. The emergence of an inquiry-based approach to history educationalong with the new opportunities madepossible by advances in technology, havemade constructivist approaches quiteapplicable in today’s history classroom.There is a growing emphasis in historyeducation on students being able toconstruct and analyze historicalknowledge. Some of the ways throughwhich constructivism can be made

applied to the history classroom, are asfollows:• Students learn from experience from the

constructivist view, a main function ofthe teacher is to shape thoseexperiences. For example, sendingstudents to an archive for an hour mightnot be the most productive way for themto learn how to construct an historicalknowledge. While students learn fromexperience from the constructivist view,a main function of the teacher is toshape those experiences.

• Modeling how to construct an historicalknowledge is also an important role ofthe history teacher. While an inquiryapproach to history education is on theupswing, many students have beentaught to simply recall facts. Studentsshould inquire about the past, buthistory teachers still need to providebackground materials for students.

• Problem-Solving is an important skill todevelop at school level as it is neededand used everywhere in our life.Constructivist methods focus ondeveloping this skill in the students tohelp them become better learners.History is a subject which can providestudents with this opportunity asstudents have to critically examine eachfact and information and then drawconclusions which are relevant. Historydevelops the skill of selecting relevantfact to support their argument or tosolve the problem.

• By directing the students to history thatis more relevant to them (modernhistory) the lesson will be learnt withoutany undue friction. One constructivisttechnique is to have the students writetheir own narrative history in additionto those written by others. Byincorporating their lives as examples,then important incidents events (forexample Indian Freedom struggle) of thehistorical past should be easierunderstood by the students.

Teaching of History through ......................by Ajit Kumar Bohet 131

• Teacher can present lots of informationand facts in front of the learners andasked them to think critically and drawconclusions or classify the information.In order to make the process of learningparticipative, debate and discussionshould be used rather than impartingthe information.These types of activitiesdefinitely help learners to think andargue themselves to defend their place.It will provide them with an opportunityto think about the facts. For e.g. a fieldvisit to National museum can beplanned to discuss about HarappaCivilization instead of showing picturesof the materials of that time. This willprovide firsthand experience to learnersas they can observe themselves anddraw conclusions.

• Visiting to the various historicalmonuments is more fruitful for learnersinstead of sitting in the classroom andstudying about it. Students ofelementary school are taught about thearchitectural designs of themonuments, pictures are drawn on theblackboard, but all these things arewaste of time as it will not capturestudent’s interest. They can be given anopportunity to physically go andobserve the architectural designs sothat they can create meaningthemselves and curiously find out theanswers of all the queries. It will alsoprovide them a chance to think howthese designs are created? Can therebe any another way of designing thesemonuments? Why are thesemonuments still relevant for all of us?Learners can explore answers to thesetypes of questions themselves if they areprovided the opportunity and it willsurely create an interest for the subject.

• History is a subject which cannot beexperimented again and again toprovide students with the firsthandexperience so it is very necessary todraw relation between the lives of the

learners and the content. Local and oralhistory should be incorporated in thecurriculum so that children are able torelate with it and it can only be done ifconstructivist pedagogy is being usedas it stressed on the connections ofcontent with the previous backgroundof the students.

• Collaborative learning is the right handof constructivist paradigm andhistorical knowledge is constructedthrough collaborative learning aslearners argue with in themselves andtry to find out the correct and relevantfacts which are related to their lives.

Thus, there are lots of ways throughwhich constructivism can be applied tothe history classroom.Conclusion:The theory of constructivism is not aprescription for how to teach, but ratherprovides a useful way for teachers to thinkabout their practice because it is theteaching practices which do not let thestudents think themselves and find outthe answer to the queries. History is amajor subject at school level but theteaching methods which are used to teachthe subject make it uninteresting andirrelevant for the students. The mainproblem is not history itself but the wayhistory is taught. The study of history canbe fun by using the local communityresources like monuments andmuseums. The classroom interaction willbe enhanced and communications will bewidened for the purpose of visualization,observation, and critical thinking of thestudents. This will enable them to createknowledge on their own so as not to feelthat history is an unpleasant subject.Constructivism can solve these issues asit will handle history according to thecognitive level, interest, and pace of thestudents. Learning in the constructivisthistory classroom is based on the priorknowledge of the students. Historicalfacts create disequilibrium in the


student’s mind and this state of mindmotivates the learner to explore ananswer. Students explore and reflectthemselves and thus learning is longlasting. Constructivism provides studentsto observe and inquire the firsthandinformation and then an opportunity toreflect upon it. This paradigm definitely

REFERENCES

Bohet, A.K. & Mukesh (2011): A Study of the Factors Affecting the Selection of Historyas a Subject at Senior Secondary Level: Mangalmay Journal of EducationAnd Pedagogy, Vol.–2: Uttar Pradesh.

Carr, E.H. (2008): what is History; MacMillan Publication: UK.Chaudhary, K.P. (1975): The Effective Teaching of History in India: A Handbook for

History Teachers; National Council of Educational Research and Training:New Delhi.

Dewey, J. (1990): The School and Society; University of Chicago Press: Chicago.Dewey, J. (1938): Education and experience; Macmillan: New York.Dewey, J. (1956): The child and the curriculum; University of Chicago Press: Chicago.Piaget, J. (1926): The language and thought of the child; Routledge & Kegan: London.National Curriculum Framework (2005), National Council of Educational Research

and Training: New Delhi.Position Paper on Teaching of Social Science (2005), National Council of Educational

Research and Training: New Delhi.Report of Kothari Commission. (1964-66): MHRD: New Delhi.Report of National Advisory Committee (1993, Yashpal Committee): MHRD: New Delhi.Woolfolk, A. (2007): Educational Psychology (10th Edition); Pearson Publishers: CanadaVygotsky, L.S. (1978): Mind in Society; Harvard University Press: Cambridge.

* Ajit Kumar Bohet : Assistant Professor, I.A.S.E., Faculty of Education,Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-25e-mail: [email protected]

creates an interest among the studentsfor the subject. So, it can be concludedthat applying constructivism in thehistory classroom is not difficult but itstrongly requires motivation from theteacher to change his teaching methodsas well as to think differently from thelearner’s point of view.

Constructive Learning Approach for ......................by Dr. S. Pany & Ms. Gayatri 133

Constructivist Learning Approach forEnhancing Academic Achievement of

Seventh Class Students in Science

Abstract

Dr. S. Pany * & Ms. Gayatri

The present study has been conducted to assess the effectiveness of Constructivist LearningApproach in enhancing Academic Achievement of Seventh Class Students. For this purposenon equivalent control group design of quasi experimental research was followed. A sample of80 students consisting experimental and control groups each of 40 was taken for the study.From the analysis of the obtained data it is concluded that the constructivist learning approachhas significant impact on the academic achievement of the learners and the traditional methodof teaching has no significant impact on the academic achievement of the learners.



IntroductionTeaching is no more concerned with themere process of imparting knowledgerather it is the process of generation ofknowledge through the active interactionof children among themselves and theteacher as a facilitator. The traditionalmodel of teaching based on objectivistparadigm has been shifted towardsconstructivist paradigm with theassumption that knowledge is subjectiveand children construct knowledgethemselves in a free and fearlessenvironment.The pioneers in the field of constructivismlike Piaget, Vygotsky and Novak havepropounded different theories onconstructivism. According to Piagetchildren construct knowledgeindividually, Vygotsky believes thatchildren construct knowledge throughsocial interaction and according to Novakchildren construct knowledge through

classroom interaction. Analysis of allthese viewpoints reveal that knowledgeconstruction is beyond from impositionof pre fixed ideas rather it is the freeinterplay of ideas and feelings aboutconcepts. Constructivism is not a way ofteaching rather it is a theory of learningbased on the proposition that the childrenlearn actively by means of creating,interpreting and reorganizing knowledgein a collective way. Here interactionamong the children is the main focus. Theteachers have to provide a very authenticlearning situation where the children canbe involved in inquiry activities, problemsolving discussions with peers anddiscovery etc. Now in our countryteachers are focusing on it since it hasbeen highlighted by national Council ofEducational Research and Training(NCERT) in its National CurriculumFramework (NCF) in terms of a paradigmshift from rote memory to Learning by


understanding. Very few researchevidences are there with regard to theapplication of constructivist learningapproach in Indian classroom set up.Padmanabhan and Rao (2011) in theirstudy reported the positive impact ofconstructivist approach in enhancing theproblem solving ability of class 7th

students in science and Nayak (2012)conducted a study on effectiveness ofConstructivist Approach on Learningprocess, Learning Achievement inMathematics and Creativity of PrimarySchool children in which the investigatorreported the effectiveness of constructivistapproach in enhancing the academicachievement of children in mathematics.But this area need a very urgent attentionof all because it can go a long way inproving real education to the children andwe can regain the fame that our Indianbrains are superior to others.ObjectivesThe objectives of the present study areas follows;1.To study the impact of teaching of

science through constructivist learningapproach on academic achievement ofthe seventh class students.

2.To study the impact of teaching ofscience through traditional method ofteaching on academic achievement ofthe seventh class students.

HypothesesThe study proceeded with the followinghypotheses;H1 There exists significant difference on

the impact of teaching of sciencethrough constructivist learningapproach on academic achievement ofseventh class learners.

H2 There exists significant difference onthe impact of teaching of sciencethrough traditional method of teachingand academic achievement of seventhclass learners.

The Research DesignThe design of the study was non-

equivalent control group design of thequasi-experimental type. This design hasbeen employed to study the impact ofteaching of science through constructivistlearning approach on academicachievement of seventh class learners ofdistrict Mandi, Himachal Pradesh.

The SampleOut of 140 secondary school of Mandidistrict the investigator purposivelyselected ten secondary schools thosewere more or less apparent in nature withregard to their nature of management,infrastructure, teacher strength, studentstrength, year of establishment andstudent result etc. Out of these tenapparently equivalent schools theinvestigator randomly (by lottery method)selected two schools for the purpose ofexperimentation.As such the seventh class learners of theGovernment Secondary School, Kanaidwere taken as the subjects of theexperimental group and seventh classlearners of Government secondarySchool, Chambi were taken as subjectsof control group.The number of subjects of theexperimental group and control groupwas 40 and 40 respectively.The ToolsIn the present study the investigator usedparallel forms of self made achievementtest in the subject of science.The two parallel forms of the achievementtest were directed to experts checking andconfirmation for getting their approvalregarding its authenticity and classroomapplicability. Each parallel forms of selfdeveloped achievement tests constitutethree parts covering a variety of items.

The TreatmentBoth of experimental group and controlgroup were pre-tested and the treatmentis given to experiment group. Thestudents of Government SecondarySchool, Kanaid i.e. the experimentalgroup were taught by the investigatorthrough constructivist leaning approach.The treatment of teaching through therespective approaches, to both theexperimental group and control groupswere conducted by the investigator andthe regular subject teacher of thecontrolled school respectively. Theinvestigator herself did not taught thesubjects of the control group in order toavoid the carry over effect. Theinvestigator supervised the teaching ofthe regular teacher. The details of pre andpost tests to both the experimental andcontrol groups are discussed insucceeding section.Procedure of Data CollectionGovernement High School, Chambi wastaken as the control group for presentinvestigation. All the 40 students of classseventh of this school constituted thesample of control group. The achievementTest was administered to control groupto assess their status just at thebeginning of the experiment. On the sameday in the afternoon session sameachievement test was administered to 40students of Government SecondarySchool Kanaid taken as experimentalgroup. After the conduction of pre-test,from the next day, control group wastaught through old traditional method ofteaching by their regular classroomteacher. As per the request of investigatorthe regular class teacher prepared lessonplans on five chapters for implementation.These lesson plans were verified byinvestigator prior to implementation.From the same day 40 students of theExperimental group were taught byinvestigator through constructivistlearning approach. One period of school

Table 1Design of the teaching programme onthe science subject and testing to boththe experimental and control groups

Pre testAchievementtest inS c i e n c e(Deve lopedby theinvestigator)

Part I –M u l t i p l echoice Typeof questions.

Part II – Opene n d e dquestion.

Part III –C o n c e p tM a p p i n gb a s e dquestions.

Content1. Heat2. Fibre to

Fabric3. Physical

andChemicalchanges

4. Soil5. Electric

Current andits effects

6.Water : ApreciousResource

7.AnimalRespiration

8.PlantRespiration

9.Living andNon-Livingbeings

10.Magnet

Post testAchievem-ent testin science(Developedby theinvestig-ator)Part I -MultipleTypechoice ofquestions.

Part II –Openendedquestion.

Part III –ConceptMappingbasedquestions.

time table was devoted to teach eachtopic. As such, as a whole eighteenteaching days were spent to teach all thetopics under the respective five chapters.At the end of teaching the post-test wasadministered to both groups. A minimumgap of 4 weeks was maintained betweenthe successive administration of pre-testand post-test.Statistical Techniques EmployedThe collected data were analyzed withregard to finding out the initial differenceif any between the pre-test scores of boththe groups on each dependent variable.In order to test the normality ofdistribution of the data at the pre-testlevel the descriptive measures of statisticslike Mean, Median, Mode, Skewness,


Kurtosis were applied and to test theimpact of the independent variables theinferential statistical measure‘t’ testtechnique has been used.

Analysis and InterpretationA. Analysis of pre-test scores on

academic achievement of both thecontrol and experimental groups

The Table-2 shows the descriptivemeasures of the pre-test scores of thesubjects of control and experimentalgroups indicate that the values of mean,median and mode of both the groups arevery close to each other indicating thescores to have been distributed almostnormally. Moreover, the obtained valuesof skewness and kurtosis in case of thecontrol group being -1.75 and 0.278respectively are very close to such valuesneeded in case of a normal distributionof scores, that is, 0 and 0.263respectively. Therefore, the investigatorcan safely conclude that the groups aremore or less equivalent in nature and theconstruct value is approximately normallydistributed in the sample.On the other hand the pre-test scores ofthe experimental group on academicachievement show the values of mean,median and mode to be 44.1, 44.5 and45.3 respectively. Such values indicatethat though both the mean and medianvalues appear to be almost very close toeach other but the value mode seems todeviate slightly. However, the skewnessand kurtosis values of the distributionbeing -1.15 and 0.274 respectively appearto be very close to the correspondingvalues as required in case of a normaldistribution.

Groups N Mean Median Mode SD Skewness Kurtosis

Control 40 43.95 44.5 45.6 13.57 -1.75 0.278

Experimental 40 44.1 44.5 45.3 13.70 -1.15 0.274

Table- 2Descriptive measures of the pre-test scores on academic achievement of both

the control and experimental groups.

Table-3Significance of mean differences of pre-

test academic achievement scores ofboth control and experimental groups

Groups Tests N Mean SD df t

Control Pre 40 43.95 13.57 79 .04

Experi. Pre 40 44.1 13.70

Therefore, it may be interpreted that theinitial mean differences that existbetween the control and experimentalgroups with regard to academicachievement is not significant. As such,both the groups may be considered tohave almost equal level of academicachievement. In other words, both thegroups may be considered to beequivalent so far as their academicachievement is considered.B. Impact of constructivist learning

approach on academic achievementof experimental group

The following table shows difference ofmean scores, standard deviation and ‘t’

From the forgoing discussion it may beconcluded that the pre-test scores onacademic achievement of the control andexperimental groups are almost normallydistributed. Hence, the statisticaltechnique of ‘t’ test may be applied tostudy the significance of differencebetween the means of the control andexperimental groups. The results of thepre-test scores concerning the differencein the academic achievement of thesubjects of control and experimentalgroups obtained through t test arepresented in table-3.An analysis of thedata reveals the t value of 0.04.In thepresent case the obtained‘t’ value being0.04 is found not significant at 0.05 level.

Constructive Learning Approach for ......................by Dr. S. Pany & Ms. Gayatri 137

Table-4Significance of difference of mean

scores on academic achievement ofexperimental group at pre-test and post-

test level Tests N Mean SD df t

Pre 40 44.1 13.7 39 2.36*

Post 40 50.85 11.89* Significant at 0.05 level

From the above table‘t’ value for the pre-test and post-test of experimental groupwas found to be 2.36 which is more thantable value of ‘t’ i.e. 2.02 at 0.05 level ofsignificance for df 39. Thus the obtainedvalue of‘t’ is significant at 0.05 level ofconfidence. Thus it shows that learningwith the help of constructivist approachhas positive impact upon academicachievement and as such the hypothesisi.e. “There exists significant difference onthe impact of teaching of science throughconstructivist learning approach onacademic achievement of seventh classlearners” is accepted.C.Impact of traditional approach of

teaching on academic achievementof control group

The following table shows difference ofmean scores, standard deviation and ‘t’value of control group at pre-test andpost-test level.

From the above table ‘t’ value for the pre-test and post-test of control group wasfound to be 0.15 which is less than tablevalue of ‘t’ i.e. 2.02 at 0.05 level ofsignificance for df 39. Thus the obtainedvalue of‘t’ is not significant. It shows thatteaching through traditional approach

value of experimental group at pre-testand post-test level.

Table-5Significance of difference of mean

scores on academic achievement ofcontrol group at pre and post-test level

Tests N Mean SD df t

Pre 40 43.95 13.57 39 0.15

Post 40 44.4 13.11 NS

does not put any impact on the academicachievement of control group that meansthe hypothesis i.e. “There exists significantdifference on the impact of teaching ofscience through traditional method ofteaching on academic achievement ofseventh class learners” is rejected.D. Comparative Impact ofConstructivist Learning Approach andTraditional Approach on AcademicAchievementThe following section deals with thecomparative impact of constructivistlearning approach and traditionalapproach of teaching on dependentvariable academic achievement. As suchthe scores obtained in case of the posttest of both the control and experimentalgroup have been presented in thefollowing table-6It is evident from the above table that theobtained ‘t’ value is 2.31which is morethan the table value of ‘t’ i.e. 2.02 at 0.05level of confidence for df 39.

Table-6Significance of mean differences of

post-test academic achievement scoresof both control and experime. groups

Groups Tests N Mean SD df t

Control Post 40 44.4 13.44 79 2.31

Experi. Post 40 50.85 11.89

Thus, the obtained ‘t’ value is significantat 0.05 level of confidence. This indicatesthat the traditional and constructivistlearning approach has significant impacton the academic achievement of thestudents of both experimental and controlgroup.Major Findings of the StudyFrom the analysis of the obtained datawe can conclude that;i. The constructivist learning approach

has significant impact on the academicachievement of the learners.

ii. The traditional method of teaching hasno significant impact on the academicachievement of the learners.


ConclusionIt can be concluded that constructivistlearning is more effective for hedevelopment of academic achievementthan traditional lecturing methods. It alsoshows that constructivist learning

REFERENCES

Agrawal,Mamta.(2007):Constructivism and Public Evaluation. Journal of IndianEducation, Vol. XXXIII, No.1, pp.17-25.

National Curriculum Framework (2005):Learning and Knowledge: New Delhi: NationalCouncil for Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, pp.17-

Nayak, R.K.(2012): Effectiveness of Constructivist Approach on Learning process,Learning Achievement in Mathematics and Creativity of Primary Schoolchildren. An unpublished Ph.d theis, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.

Nayak, R.K. & Senapaty, H.K. (2010): Effect of Constructivist Approach on Students’Learning Achievement in Mathematics at Primary Level. GYAN- The Journalof Education, 7(1), 53-60. A peer Reviewed International Journal

Padmanabhan,J,Rao,P.(2001):Constructivist Approach and Problem solving abilityin Science:Journal of Community Guidance and Research,Vol.28,No-1,pp.56

Padmanabhan,Vasundhara.(2007):Constructivism and Reflective Teaching TeacherEducation.Edutracks Vol.7, No.4, pp.14-15.

Vygotsky, L. (1973):Thought and Language, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. In SharmaSantosh (2006) Constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. NewDelhi: NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, pp. 1-4.

Walia, Jyoti (2007):A preliminary Study to evaluate the impact of Problem-basedleaning on intelligence and academic achievement of eighth class learners.M.Ed. Dissertation, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla (H.P.) India, pp.75-

* Dr. S. Pany : Principal, Krishma P.G.College of Education, Vill-Dadour,P.O.-Dhaban, Dist-Mandi. Himachal PradeshE-mail :[email protected]

**Ms. Gayatri : Lecturer in Education, Krishma P. G. College ofEducation Vill-Dadour, P.O.-Dhaban, Dist-Mandi, (HP)

approach is one of the potent ways ofimparting science education andcommunicating science and technologicaladvancements in the integrated andholistic manner.

Teaching Economics through Constructivist ..................by Dr. Kartar Singh 139

Teaching Economics throughConstructivist Approach



Dr. Kartar Singh *

Abstract

Constructivism is based on the idea that learner constructs knowledge on the basis of his/herprevious knowledge in real world. Constructivism is basically a theory of learning which isbased on the principle that knowledge cannot be supplied but it is generated in the mind oflearners on a given environment. It recognizes that the role of a teacher in the constructivistclassroom is as a guide, facilitator, supervisor, motivator, manager etc. Learners need autonomyin the teaching-learning process in the classroom. The constructivist approach (Problem Solving)is used to teach a topic of economics; price rise. It is the need of present time to ensure qualityin education.

ConstructivismThe basic idea of constructivism is thatthe learner constructs knowledge; theteacher cannot supply it. Constructivismis one of the theories of learning basedon the idea that knowledge is constructedby the learners based on their lifeexperiences. Learners are considered tobe actively seeking meaning from thevarious situations based on theirpotential and perceptions.Driver andEasley (1978) states that interventionsprovided in the classroom can helpchildren to construct their own concepts.They believed that learners constructknowledge on the basis of their priorknowledge and personal experience. TheNational Curriculum Framework (2005)also recognizes that. “In the constructivistperspective, learning is a process of theconstruction of knowledge. Learners

actively construct their own knowledgeby connecting new ideas to existing ideason the basis of materials/activitiespresented to them.” It is clear thatconstructivism is the need of present timeto ensure quality in education.Principles of Teaching throughConstructivist ApproachConstructivist teaching is based onconstructivist learning theory.Constructivist approach to learning is thecontribution of the Gestalt psychologistsand other cognitive and socialpsychologists like Piaget, Vygotsky, andBruner etc. It believes that learnersconstruct their own knowledge on thebasis of their prior knowledge andinteraction with the environment all aloneor in a group quite independently orassisted or guided by their teachers,elders and knowledgeable peers for



attaining the desired learning outcomesin a given teaching-learning situation.The constructivist paradigm as advocatedby Piaget and Bruner stresses thatwhatever gets in to the mind has to beconstructed by the learner throughknowledge discovery. This approachholds the view that learning is an activeprocess in which learners construct newideas or concepts based upon theircurrent or past knowledge. Following areconsidered as principles of teaching-learning through constructivist approach:• Learning should take place in authentic

and real world environment.• Learning should involve social

negotiation and meditation.• Content and skills should be made

relevant to the learner.• Content and skill should be understood

within the framework of the learner’sprior knowledge.

• Students should be assessedformatively, serving to inform futurelearning experiences.

• Students should be encouraged to become self-regulatory, self-mediated,

and self-aware.• Teachers serve primarily as guides and

facilitators of learning, not instructors.Characteristics of ConstructivistTeachingOne of the primary goals of usingconstructivist teaching is that studentslearn how to learn by giving them thetraining to take initiative for their ownlearning experiences.The mainCharacteristics of constructivism are:• Learners are actively involved in

teaching-learning process.• Classroom environment is democratic.• Activities are interactive and learner-

centered.Teaching-Learning Environment ofConstructivist ClassroomA constructivist classroom obviouslyoperate in the backdrop of constructivistlearning environments and key principles

of constructivism. In the constructivistclassroom, the focus tends to shift fromthe teacher to the students. Theconstructivist teacher sets up problemsand monitors student exploration, guidesthe direction of student enquiry, andpromotes new patterns of thinking.Brooks and Brooks (1993) states that aconstructivist classroom should bear thefollowing characteristics:• Student’s autonomy and initiative are

accepted and encouraged.• The teacher asks open-ended questions

and allows wait time for responses.• Higher-level thinking is encouraged.• Students are engaged in dialogue with

the teacher and with each other.• Students are engaged in experiences

that challenge hypotheses andencouraged discussion.

The constructivist learning is the presentneed. We need our pupils to becomeactive and independent learners anddiscover of the knowledge instead ofremaining passive listeners in theclassroom. Constructivists suggest thatlearning is more effective when a studentis actively engaged in the learning processrather than attempting to receiveknowledge passively.Constructivism theory differs fromtraditional approaches of teaching andlearning in the classroom, theconstructivist view of learning can pointtowards a number of different teachingand learning practices.Various Constructivist Approaches ofTeaching and LearningThere are many approaches which can beused as a constructivist approach someof them are:• Concept Mapping• Problem Solving• Investigatory Approach• Social inquiry Approach.Before teachers apply above mentionedapproaches in the classroom, they mustensure that these should not be grafted


on traditional methods of teaching; theseneed a change in the culture – a set ofnorms, attitudes, beliefs and practicesthat constitute constructivist culture.

An Illustration from Economics1. Introduction.Economics deals economic activities ofmankind in ordinary business of life. It isthe study of consumer behavior at microlevel and national income andexpenditure at macro level. The scope andimportance of economics has beenincreasing day by day. Everyone isinvolved in economic transactions in his/her life. This subject is offered as aseparate subject at senior secondary leveland one of the subjects of social scienceat secondary level in many parts of thecountry. There are some challenges whichour Indian Economy has been facingtoday like Poverty, unemployment, self-reliance, price rise etc. The problem ofprice rise is selected here to teachthrough constructivist approach. Thetopic is relevant for class XI th and atsecondary level also.2. Topic: Price Rise (Inflation).3 Behavioral Objectives.After teaching through constructivistapproach pupils will be able to:• State the meaning by price rise.• List the factors responsible for price rise

of essential commodities in aneconomy.

• Distinguish between demand pull andcost push factors.

• Explain the impact of price rise onProduction of goods, employment andfinal consumers.

• Give short term and long termsuggestions to overcome on problem ofprice rise.

4. Constructivist Approach:Problem Solving.According to Daughtrey (1974) “Theproblem approach attempts to examineall elements of a problem with a view

towards finding the alternatives available,a workable solution”. According toCallahan and Clark (1977) “The problemsolving activity is one that requiresthought and a search for solution whichmay be a generalization or a conclusion”.It is clear from these two definitions thatproblem solving approach is thatapproach which solves of a problem afterexamining its elements systematically.This involves following six main steps:• Identification and selection of a

problematic topic.• Formulation of objectives.• Divide the class into different groups

and assign them work with materials.• Invite group leader from each group for

presentation.• Review of responses with teachers and

students feedback.• Generalizations.5. Procedure.After selecting the problem of price riseand formulation of objectives, you mayfollow the following steps:5.1 Step-1. Divide students into fivegroups comprising 6 students in eachgroup.• Group-1. Assign the work of meaning

by price rise. The focus should be on acontinuous rise in the prices ofessential commodities with a decreasein value of money and decrease inpurchasing power of consumers.

• Group-2. Assign the work searchingfactors responsible for price rise. Thefocus should be on increase in moneysupply, low rate of interest, low cashreserve ratio, low bank rate, increasein cost of production, low supply ofgoods, hoardings etc.

• Group-3. Assign the work of identifyingimpact of price rise on supply of goods,employment and consumers. The focusshould be on to produce more of goods,employ more labors and adverse impacton consumers.

• Group-4. Assign the work of exploring


short term measures to control price risesituation. The focus should be onequitable distribution of goods andactively control on black marketing andhoardings, increase in cash reserveratio, increase in bank rate, increase inrate of interest etc.

• Group-5. Assign the work of exploringlong term measures to control price risesituation. The focus should be onchange in scale of production.

5.2 Step-2. Give 10 to 15 minutes to eachgroup to complete the assigned work.Teacher may supervise the process ofeach group work and may encouragethem for discussions along with hisguidelines.5.3. Step-3. Invite group leader from eachgroup for presentation. The students ofother groups may ask questions on theirdoubts and give some valuable feedback.5.4 Step-4. Review the presentation ofeach group along with feedback and drawgeneralizations.6. Conclusion. After the exercise thestudents will have known meaning ofprice rise, factors responsible for pricerise, impact of price rise and measures tocontrol the situation of price rise ineconomy. They will be more interactiveto each other and more responsivetowards the teacher. They would also liketo study more of topics throughconstructivist approach.Role of Teacher under Teachingthrough Constructivist ApproachConstructivist teachers pose questionsand problems, and then guide studentsto help them find their own answers.Constructivist teachers encouragestudents to constantly assess how theactivity is helping them gainunderstanding. One of the main roles ofthe teacher is to encourage learning andreflection process. Moreover, the role ofteacher under constructivist teaching isobserved as facilitator, supervisor,manager etc.

Role of PupilsStudents’ role in the constructivistteaching-learning process changes fromknowledge acquisition to knowledgeconstruction. Student asks questionsfrom teacher and other students’ ideas,gives predictions about phenomenon,suggests activities to solve problems anddiscusses results. The student verifiesand validates his/her own ideas.Constructivism allows academic freedomto students, encourages co-operativelearning and sharing of thought amongpeers. They should be well behaved,obedient and regular towards their study.Merits Constructivist Approach• Achievement level of learners increase

through constructivist teaching.• Retention level of learners is high

through constructivist teaching.• Constructivism promotes social and

communication skills by creating aclassroom environment thatemphasizes collaboration and exchangeof ideas.

• Children learn more, and enjoy learningmore when they are actively involved,rather than passive listeners.

• Education works best when itconcentrates on thinking andunderstanding, rather than on rotememorization. Constructivismconcentrates on learning how to thinkand understand.

• Constructivist teaching-learningdevelop ability in among learners tocome up on solution of a problem withgeneral consensus.

• Constructivism gives studentsownership of what they learn, sincelearning is based on students’ questionsand explorations, and often thestudents have a hand in designing theassessments as well. Constructivistassessment engages the students’initiatives and personal contributionsin physical models and presentations.Engaging the creative instincts develops


students’ abilities to express knowledgethrough a variety of ways. The studentsare also more likely to retain andtransfer the new knowledge to real life.

• By grounding learning activities in anauthentic, real-world context,constructivism stimulates and engagesstudents. Students in constructivistclassrooms learn to question things andto apply their natural curiosity to theworld.

• Prompt students to formulate their ownquestions.

• Allow multiple interpretations andexpressions of learning.

• Encourage group work and the use ofpeers as resources.

Limitations of Teaching throughConstructivist Approach• It needs skilled teachers to act as guide

students on every aspects of learningexperience.

• It needs co-operation of fellow teacherstowards use of this approach.

• It needs positive and adaptive attitude of school principals towards use of this

approach.

• It needs learner centered curriculumand classroom settings.

SummaryAccepting learner as constructor ofknowledge and an active participant inthe process of learning are the bases ofconstructivist teaching and learning.Constructivism is based on a type oflearning in which the learner constructsknowledge. The teacher is seen as afacilitator of learning, where learners arepermitted to move around freely, use oftime is flexible rather than structured. Ina constructivist classroom, the teacherassumes the role of a facilitator and guide.Students take the responsibility of theirown learning. They question, stateproblems, design projects and discusstheir results with others. Studentsconstruct knowledge and do not receiveknowledge as passive learners. The useof constructivist teaching-learningdepends on co-operation of fellowteachers and administrators of schoolsystem.

REFERENCES

Daughtrey, A. S. (1974), Methods of Basic Business and Economic Education, South-Western Publishing Co., Cuicinnate.

National Curriculum Framework (2005), NCERT, New Delhi.Sharma, S. (2005), Constructivism, in Constructivist Approaches to Teaching and

Learning-Handbook of Teachers of Secondary Stage, NCERT, New Delhi.Sharma, S. (2005), Learner Centred Approaches, in Constructivist Approaches to

Teaching and Learning-Handbook of Teachers of Secondary Stage, NCERT,New Delhi.

Senapaty, H. K. and Pradhan, N. (2005), Constructivist Pedagogy in Classroom-AParadigm Shift, Pages 5-14 in Journal of Indian Education, Volume XXXI,Number 1, May 2005, NCERT, New Delhi.

* Dr. Kartar Singh : Assistant Professor, IASE, Faculty of Education,Jamia Millia Islamia. New Delhi.e-mail: [email protected]


E-Learning : Concept, Meaning and Scope

Abstract



Dr. Vidya S. Bharambe *

E-learning focuses on self-learning through electronic devices. It is an advanced concept whichwill provide students the appropriate support and atmosphere for self learning achievingmaximum knowledge. E-learning takes place as a result of experiences and interaction in aninternet environment. E-learning involves greater variety of equipment than online training oreducation. E-learning permits the delivery of knowledge and information to learners at anaccelerated pace opening new vistas of knowledge transfer. Distance education provided thebase of e-learning development. The major advantage is consistency that e-learning provides,e-learning is self paced and learning is done at the learners pace. The content can be re-repeated until it is understood by trainees.

IntroductionE-Learning focuses on self learningthrough electronics devices. It is anadvanced concept which will providestudents the support and atmosphere forself learning achieving maximumknowledge. For this, CD materials are tobe provided properly. The CD for selflearning should be made attaining qualityand taking the individual difference intoconsideration also there is an importantaspect attached to this that is advancedand complete facility for reference andresources viz. the facilities virtual libraryshould be provided along with this CAL,CAI, CAT, Tele Conferencing and VideoConferencing technique should beutilized properly. Distant learning canform chat-groups and connect them fordiscussing by doing this the traditionalmethod for providing knowledge,

information which has many limitationswill be illuminated and teacher trainingwill be able to get latest and completeinformation, according to the capacity ofteacher trainee.E-LearningIt is a type of learning which takes placeas a result of experiences and interactionin an environment. It is not restricted toa regular school day and can take placein a variety of location including home,school and community location. Example:library and cafe etc.The delivery of learning, training andeducational programmes by electronicmeans is E-Learning. E-learning involvesthe use of computer or electronic devicesuch as mobile phone, in some way toprovide training, educational or learningmaterial.E-Learning can involve a great variety of

Miscellaneous

E-Learning : Concept, Meaning and......................by Dr. Vidya S. Bharambe 145

equipments than on line training oreducation, for as the name implies,online, involves using the internet or anintranet, CD-Rom and DVD can be usedto provide learning material.Distance education provided the base ofE-Learning development. E-Learning canovercome the limitations viz., timing,attendance and travelling difficulties.State of E-LearningE-Learning permits the delivery ofknowledge and information or learns atan accelerated pace, opening new Vistasof knowledge transfer. Early adopters arecompanies that have tried to supplementface to face meeting demonstration,training classes and lectures with thistechnology. The adoption of E-Learningin all spheres-corporate, school,universities, etc. is low at present. TheIndian market is not substantial when

compared to international market.E-Learning in India has been mostsuccessful in corporate segment where itis seen as a means of achieving businessgoals and motivating employers.Although e-learning has potential inIndia, adoption has been slow and willneed a major marketing and awarenessefforts – Megha Banduni.Changing Role of Teachers and theClassroom Environment with theAdvent of E-LearningMany words have been written about theinternet and the possibilities for its usein e-education but little has beenresearched about how teachers effectivelymodify their practice to work in the newenvironment. It is just because, teachersin schools have teacher educationqualification, which did not prepare themto be e-teachers. Being able to teach

Conventional LearningStudents attend a school in their localcommunity or attend a boarding orcorrespondence school.

Classes are scheduled according toschool hours and timetables.

Students are directed to workindividually or in groups.

Classes are synchronous and teachersand students interact in real time.

Students are generally enrolled with oneschool.

Learning objectives are set by theteachers and institution.

Teachers work in one school.

E-LearningStudents participate from variety oflocation and may attend multiplelearning institution or their local schools.

Students may determine the schooltimes when they access e-learningopportunities.

Students can choose to work individuallyor collaboratively with people who mayor may not be in regular classes.

Classes may be synchronous o rasynchronous.

Students may take classes from morethan one school.

Student may set their own objective andexplore their own learning needs andagendas.

E-teachers can work more than oneschool.

Comparison of Conventional Learning and E-Learning


confidently in one environment is not aprecursor to success as an e-teacher invery different environment. The e-teacher,who is surrounded by rapidly changinge-environment and technology must attimes feel like they are trying to changetype on a moving vehicle. When exploringthe challenge and changing role for e-teachers it is a little like encouragingthem to be information and environmentarchitect. The environment they createmay well be totally being aligned with thework of regular classroom so that e-learning become an integral part of it.Alternatively it may be virtual classroomwhere the students only visitelectronically.E-Learning and it’s Impact onTeachers.The network environment of this newinternet, connected world has expandedthe opportunities for teaching andlearning in ways that we are onlybeginning to understand what makes theimplementation of e-teaching sochallenging that we are asking teachersof the dot.com as to teach in way in whichthey have never be taught when they wereat school. They will work in anenvironment in which they have neverbeen learners and may have few first handexperiences.Advantages of E-Learning‘Nothing can replace classroom traditionalteaching, but e-learning complements theprocess and can help reach out themasses’ Gautam Goradia, ManagingDirector of remit tag Software Company.The biggest advantage of e-learning liesin teacher’s ability to cover distances foran organization that is spread acrossmultiple locations. Traditional trainingbecomes a constraint as all the traineesneed to come to classroom to get trained.The major advantage is consistency thate-learning provides, e-learning is selfpaced, and learning is done at thelearners pace. The content can be re-

repeated until it is understood by thetrainees. It can be made compelling andinteresting with multimedia, and thetrainee can be given multiple learningpaths depending on his or her needs.1. Electronic learning:-• changes the way of imparting and

receiving education.• it eliminates barriers of time and

distance.• information through internet is easily

available.• accountable and reliable.Today more than 70 million students are

educated through internet.2.It helps:-• in increasing knowledge of the content.• delivery of knowledge in multiple

formats.• management of learning experiences

and network community of learner’sand experts.

3.E-learning provides for:-• faster learning.•Re-search study, find that learning

occurs 50% faster on-line thanclassroom.

• cost of education is 40 to 60% lower.• any combination of subjects of learner’s

choice is possible.•eliminates needless repetition of

programmes and subjects content andorganizational learning gaps.

• contents can be captured by usingSlides, Audio, Video and CD’s.

4.The systems of e-learning also can beworked out for

•Workshops, Seminars, Testing the capacity of learner, interaction with the

teachers and group discussion.Importance of E-LearningThe importance of e-learning can’t beignored as across the world, studentshave saved time, money and managed toget easy accessibility of the knowledge,irrespective of their place. E-learningsolutions in business have improved theirprofitability. Students need not to spend

E-Learning : Concept, Meaning and......................by Dr. Vidya S. Bharambe 147

REFERENCES

Http://www.eindia.net.in/2010/digitallearning/index.asp.18/6/2010http://cms.steo.govt.nz/nr/rdonlyres/c11315DE-804A-4831-AB75-

3D4E77393DD8/0/0/ete...18/6/2010http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/distance education 18/6/2010

* Dr. Vidya S. Bharambe : Asst. Professor, Rashtrasant Tukodoji MaharajNagpur University’s Br. S. K. Wankhede College of Education,Nagpur. (M.S.). e-mail : [email protected]

on travelling accommodation, food andhigh fees for tutor’s.With easy access, e-learning programmeshave become more complex. New trendslike the expansions of application aredeveloped by constant training. Blendede-learning is also become the latest trend.To facilitate such programmes somecompanies are providing e-learningsolutions. They have developed custom-made integrated e-learning contentsolutions in many languages and multiinteractive forms of learning solutions.Trends in E-LearningIt is clear that e-learning is a self learningwith electronic devices, stimulation,gaming and interactivity are some of thetrends which are popular in e-learning.These trends enrich e learning. Researchshows that understanding and retentionof students improves when they learn by

experience technologies such ascollaboration, interacting modeling,stimulations, virtual reality interfaces andgaming. It will help student to enrich theirknowledge and develop life skills.ConclusionAforesaid discussion clears that e-learning is an advanced concept. Itfocuses on self learning throughelectronic devices. It provides supportand atmosphere for self learningachieving maximum knowledge. Itsimportance cannot be ignored. It savestime, money and students manage to geteasy accessibility of e-learning solutionsirrespective of their place. It changes theway of imparting and receiving education.So now it’s the time we should accept e-learning and provide such facilities to ouryoung ones.


Impact of Music-Fused Teaching on thePerformance in Mathematics of Students

at College Level

Abstract



Kirupa Kani, J. * & Dr. William Dharma Raja, B. **

Music is a magical medium. It can impart a sense of stability, order, predictability, safety andcreates a mentally stimulating environment for learning. If teachers can create an emotionalconnection between students and curriculum, the battle is almost won. Having this as the base,the investigators attempted to study the difference, between the conventional method of teachingand music fused teaching in terms of the learning objectives ‘knowledge’ and ‘understanding’of college students in Mathematics. The study revealed that in the post test, although the twogroups did not significantly differ but significant difference was found in the delayed post-testbetween the two groups in terms of the learning objective ‘understanding’.

Introduction :Music is intermingled as a magicalmedium in every aspect of life. It is apowerful aid to cure diseases, keep upmental health, motivates students forlearning tasks and many more. Ifstudents actively involved in constructionof knowledge through multisensoryexperiences, the learning environmentwill become more positive (Sandra, 1997).Music can impart a sense of stability,order, predictability, safety and creates amentally stimulating environment forlearning. It can create an atmosphere thatencourages emotional well-being withina positive learning environment (Campell,1997). Students can learn and recallbetter when the physiological states arematched. If students learn a material witha particular music at the background,they will also do better during test.

Staying focused for long period of timewhile sitting and studying or writing canbe deadly. If background music is used,it will help the mind and body to be in analternative state (Brewer, 2004). Music atthe background can make the classroomsoothing and calming, stimulating andengaging. It improves spatial-temporalreasoning, a neurological process neededto understand Mathematics (Willingham,2007). Teachers know that if they cancreate an emotional connection betweenstudents and curriculum, the battle isalmost won. Music and learningmathematics is a perfect match in thiscontext.The resume of reviewed researchesreveals that although the findings of somestudies (Hoffman, 1995, Crosswhite,1997, Kluball, 2001) were not favour ofmusic fused teaching, but in majority,

Miscellaneous

Impact of Music-Fused Teaching on ...by Kirupa Kani, J. & Dr.W. Dharma Raja, B. 149

instrumental music has significantimpact with reading (Trent, 1997;Cardarelli, 2004; Eaton, 2007), languagedevelopment (Trent, 1997), and academicachievement in English and Mathematicsperformance (Trent, 1997, Hallam, 2000,Whitehead, 2002, Vardareli, 2004,McLellend, 2005).Significance of the StudyThe teachers have to set their mind toinnovative practices for the cause ofmaking their wards to be good learners.Music can create an atmosphere thatencourages emotional well-being withina positive learning environment. Havingthis as base, the investigators believedthat music fused teaching of Mathematicswill enhance learning. The investigatorshave chosen the piano music pieces toplay in the classroom as they haveminimum knowledge in playing andunderstanding piano with the belief thatthe attempt would be helpful to bring apleasant situation in the higher educationclassroom.ObjectiveThe objective of the present study is:i) To study the effect of musically fused

teaching method over the traditionalteaching method with respect to theperformance of students inmathematics.

Hypothesesi) There will be no significant difference

between the control and experimentalgroups in the post-test with regard tothe performance of students inmathematics.

ii)There will be no significant differencebetween the control and experimentalgroups in the delayed post-test withregard to the performance of studentsin mathematics.

Design of the StudyIn this study, the post-test onlyequivalent group design was followed(Best & Kahn, 2006). The control groupand the experimental group were given

conventional teaching and piano musicintervened teaching of Mathematics. Thetreatment lasted for 15 days and both thegroups were taught by the same teacher.Post-test is conducted on the very nextday of the last class of the treatment anddelayed post-test is conducted after 15days from the post test.Selection of SampleIn this study, the population is the undergraduate first year college studentsstudying Mathematics as major subjectin the college affiliated to ManonmaniamSundaranar University, Tirunelveli.Twenty two first year B.Sc. Mathematicsstudents of Rani Anna GovernmentCollege for women, Tirunelveli wereselected for the study. They were equallyassigned to control and experimentalgroups by intelligence test scores.Tools UsedThe tools used in this study wereAchievement Test in Mathematics (ATM)and Ahuja’s Intelligence Test.Achievement Test in Mathematics (ATM)was developed by the investigators. ATMis an objective type test with 24 questionscovering the topic selected for theexperiment.

Data Analysis Arithmetic mean, SD and t-test for smallsample independent variables wereemployed for data analysis.

Table 1Significance of difference in Performance inMathematics in the post-test between the

control and experimental groups

Cate. Group N Mean SD t- Siggory ValueKnow. Cont. 11 53.5 20.9 0.638 NS

ledge Expt. 11 58.6 15.8

Unders Cont. 11 64.2 7.9 1.066 NS

tanding Expt. 11 67.7 7.2

Total Cont. 11 60.7 7.1 1.135 NS

Expt. 11 64.4 7.9


Table 2Significance of difference in Performance in

Mathematics in the delayed post-testbetween the control and experimental

groups

Learn. Group N Mean SD t- SigObje. ValueKnow- Cont. 11 53.6 10.9 1.52 NS

ledge Expt. 11 60.6 12.5

Unders Cont. 11 54.5 14.8 2.41 NS

tanding Expt. 11 69.9 15.0

Total Cont. 11 54.2 10.2 2.1 NS

Expt. 11 66.9 9.9

S- Significant NS-not significant

Findings1. There is no significant difference in

performance in Mathematics in thepost-test between the control group andexperimental groups.

2. There is no significant difference in the performance in Mathematics in the

post-test in terms of the learningobjective – ‘knowledge’ between thecontrol group and experimental groups.

3. There is no significant difference inperformance in Mathematics in thepost-test in terms of the learningobjective – ‘understanding’ between thecontrol group and experimental groups.

4. There is significant difference inperformance in Mathematics in thedelayed post-test between the controlgroup and experimental groups.

5. There is no significant difference inperformance in Mathematics in thedelayed post-test in terms of thelearning objective –‘knowledge’ betweenthe control group and experimentalgroups.

6. There is significant difference inperformance in Mathematics in thedelayed post-test in terms of thelearning objective –‘understanding’between the control group andexperimental groups.

Educational ImplicationsFrom the present study, it is revealed thatmusic influences learning and it acts asa memory aid for learning. So music fusedteaching can be implemented in thetertiary level classroom.The teaching faculties may read literatureon ‘importance on music in learning’government may also provide training forteachers to implement music in theclassroom as teaching tool. Educationalplanners may have forums to fuse musicin teaching the subjects at college leveladministrators can be supportive forimplementing music fused teaching inschools and colleges.Music departments can make attemptsin finding the impact of instrumentalmusic on the performance of students atcollege level. The educational institutionsmay consider music to be played in theclassroom at least on an experimentalbasis to find out the performance ofstudents in learning and retainingcapacity.The students who feel bored during theconventional method of teaching may bebenefited by the novel attempt of music-fused teaching. School students can alsoimplement music in the classroom forbetterment of teaching and learningprocess. There is plenty of literature tosupport the music fused Mathematicsteaching. So Mathematics teachers canuse instrumental music so that it createsinterest towards Mathematic amongpupils. Music fused teaching may beimplemented in the classroom for thelearning of all the subjects at school leveland college level.Since music acts as a memory aid,parents may encourage their wards tolearn by listening to music. Music makesan environment which is conducive forlearning. So students may useinstrumental music in the backgroundwhile studying at home.

Impact of Music-Fused Teaching on ...by Kirupa Kani, J. & Dr.W. Dharma Raja, B. 151

REFERENCES

Best, John W. & Kahn, James V. (2006).Research in Education(9thed.) New Delhi:prentice Hall of India.

Brewer, Chris Boyd (1995) ‘Music and Learning Integrating Music in theclassroom’ <www.music and learning.com> retrieved on 12-11-2008.

Campbell, Don (1997. The Mozart Effect. New York: Avon Books.Cardarelli& Diane M (2004). “The Effects of Music Instrumental Training on

Performance on the Reading and Mathematics Portions of theFloridaComprehensive Achievement Test for Third-GradeStudents”.Dissertation Abstract International 64(10): 3624-A.

Crosswhite&Jeanette.E.(1997) “Effect of Music Instruction on Language Developmentof Preschool Children”.Dissertation Abstract International 57 (12): 5092-A.

Hoffman & Deborah Smith.(1995) “Relatonship between Academic Achievement andParticipation in a Comprehensive and Sequential Keyboard-based PublicSchool Music Education Program”.Dissertation Abstract International 56 (6):2161-A.

Kani, J Kirupa& Raja, B.W.D (2008).”The Infusion of Music in College Teaching” Paperpresented at the National Seminar on Institutional Building in TeacherEducation.ManonmaniamSundaranar University, Tirunelveli.

Kluball& Jeffery Lynn (2001).”The Relationship of Instrumental Music Instructionand Academic Achievement for the Senior Class of 2000 at Lee Country HighSchool, Leeburg, Georgia”.Dissertation Abstract International 61 (11): 4320-A.

Mchelland& Martha (2007).”The Impact of Instrumental Music on Student AcademicAchievement”.Dissertation Abstract International 65(12): 4503-A.

Sandra Adkins (1997). “Connecting are Powers of Music to the Learning of Languages”.<www.njcu.edu/cill/vol4> retrieved in 15/03/08.

Trent & Erick, Daryl (1997).”The Impact of Instrumental Music Education onAcademic Achievement”. Dissertation Abstract International 57(7): 2933-A.

Whitehead & Judge, Baruch (2002). “The Effect of Music Intensive Intervention onMathematic scores of Middle and High School Students”.DissertationAbstract International 67 (8): 2710-A.

Willingham, Theresa (2007). “Teaching Science, Art withMusic”.<www.accessmylibrary.com/com> retrieved on 29/02/2007.

* J. Kirupa Kani : Assistant Professor, Bethlahem College of Education,Karungal, Kanyakumari, (T.N.) Pin. 629 157 e-mail- [email protected]

** Dr.B.William Dharma Raja : Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education,Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli. Tamilnadu.Pin.627 012, Tamilnadu. e-mail - [email protected]


fufeZroknh vf/kxe i)fr;k¡ ,oa mudh izklafxdrk

MkW- jkd¢”k dVkjk * ,oa /kzqo dqekj feÙky **

ckyd ftl izdkj ls vuqHko ysrk gS] ftl lekt o laLÑfr esa jgrk gS] vkSj ftl rjhd¢ ls vFkZ <w¡<rk gS] oSlk gh ogKku fufeZr djrk gSA f”k{kd] fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds e/; Kku dh lk>snkfj;ksa d¢ volj fodflr djd¢ Kku d¢ fuekZ.k esa enndj ldrk gSA blds fy, fo|kFkhZ esa izR;{khdj.k djus dh {kerk fodflr djus dh fof/k;k¡ f”k{kd dks ryk”kuh pkfg,AKkusfUnz;k¡ ftruh LoLFk gksaxh rFkk iwokZxzgksa ls eqDr gksaxh ckyd mruk gh Li’V izR;{khdj.k djsxk vkSj ;g izR;{khdj.kckyd d¢ efLr’d esa Kku dk fuekZ.k djus esa ennxkj gksxkA lh[kuk lanHkksZa ls tqM+h gqbZ izfØ;k gSA fo|kfFkZ;ksa }kjk fn,x, mÙkjksa dh f”k{kdksa dks dHkh mis{kk ugha djuh pkfg, cfYd mls ikjLifjd ln~Hkkoukiw.kZ fopkj&foe”kZ }kjk la”kksf/krvkSj ifjekftZr djok;k tkuk pkfg,A “kS”kokoLFkk esa tks f”k”kq ftruh vf/kd fØ;k,¡ djrs gS] oLrqvksa d¢] inkFkks± d¢]?kVukvksa d¢ izR;{k lEidZ esa vkrs gSa os mrus gh vf/kd vuqHkoksa dks izkIr djrs gq, Hkfo’; esa fufeZr fd, tkus okyslEizR;;ksa ds fy, iwoZ Kku izkIr dj jgs gksrs gSaA

lkjka”k



izLrkouk %&xsLVkYV vf/kxe mikxe ds fofHkUu {ks= ,oa lajpukokndh foek ls la;qDr gksdj laKkukRed ifjn”; dkfodkl gksrk gS] tks bl rF; ij d¢fUnzr gS fd genqfu;k dks dSls tkurs gSaS\ laKku ¼Cognition½ Kkugksus dh izfØ;k gksrk gS] blds vUrxZr fpUru] le>]izR;{khdj.k] Lej.k djuk] leL;k lek/kku dh ;ksX;rkrFkk vU; vusd ekufld izfØ;k,¡ vkrh gSa] ftllsgekjk nqfu;k dk Kku fodflr gksrk gS] ge nqfu;kdks tku ldrs gSaA ;g gesa bl yk;d cukrk gS fdge okrkoj.k ds lkFk fof”k’V rjhds ls lek;ksftrjg ld¢A dbZ laKkukRed euksoSKkfud euq’; efLr’ddks dEI;wVj rduhd dh rjg ,d lwpuk izØe.k ra=d¢ :i esa ns[krs gaS vFkkZr~ gekjk efLr’d og dEI;wVjgksrk gS] tks fofHkUu Kku d¢ lzksrksa ls fofo/k lwpukvksa

dks KkusfUnz;ksa ds ek/;e ls izkIr djrk gS] mldkizR;{khdj.k djrk gS] la”ys’k.k&fo”ys’k.k ;qDr izØe.kdjrk gS] la”kks/ku ;k ifjorZu vFkok :ikUrj.k djrkgS] Kku dks vkadM+ksa d¢ :i esa lafpr djrk gS rFkkvko”;drk iM+us ij Lefr esa lafpr Kku dh iqu%izkfIrdjrk gSAvk/kqfud laKkukRed euksoSKkfud ekuo dks mud¢lkekftd ,oa HkkSfrd okrkoj.k d¢ vUos’k.kksa ds }kjkvius eu dh lfØ; jpuk djus okys ds :i esa ns[krkgS bl fopkj/kkjk dks fufeZrokn ¼Constructivism½

Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA cky fodkl ds fo’k; esa thufi;kts dk fl)kUr fufeZfr ijd fl)kUr Hkh dgktkrk gSA :l ds euksoSKkfud O;xkV~Ldh ¼Vygotasky½

us dgk fd euq’; efLr’d dk fodkl lkekftd ,oalkaLÑfrd izfØ;kvksa ds ek/;e ls gksrk gSA tgk¡

Hindi Section

fufeZroknh vf/kxe i)fr;k¡ ,oa -------------------------- }kjk] MkW- jkds”k dVkjk ,oa /kzqo feRry 153

fi;kts ekurs gSa fd cPps vius eu dk fuekZ.k lfØ;:i ls djrs gS ogha O;xkV~Ldh ¼Vygotasky½ dk ekuukgS fd eu ,d la;qDr lkaLÑfrd fufeZfr gS rFkko;Ldksa ,oa cPpksa dh vUr%fØ;k ds ifj.kkeLo:imn~Hkwr gksrh gSAlfn;ksa ls euq’; ;g tkuus dk iz;kl dj jgk gSfd&Þekuo fdl rjhds ls lh[krk gS vkSj mld¢vf/kxe dks fdl izdkj izHkkoh cuk;k tk ldrk gSAßlaKkukRed vf/kxe {ks=] raf=dk foKku {ks= rFkkf”k{k.k vf/kxe {ks= esa gq, fofHkUu vuqla/kkuksa d¢ izHkkols vf/kxe izfØ;k ijEijkxr ifjHkk’kkvksa d¢ ifj/kkuls fudydj ml uwru izfof/k esa izos”k ik pqdh gS tgk¡Kku dks ysuk vkSj nsuk bruk egRoiw.kZ ugha ekuktkrk gS] ftruk fd Kku dks fuekZ.kkRed izfof/k d¢:i esa ekuk tkrk gSA Kku vuqHko] vH;kl vkSj iz;klds }kjk vf/kxedrkZ dks Lo;a vftZr djuk gksrk gSA

ijEijkxr ,oa fufeZroknh i)fr %&ijEijkxr :i esa ;g ekuk x;k gS fd xq: dk okD;czã okD; gksrk gS vkSj fo|kFkhZ dks fcuk fdlh gLr{ksids mls eku ysuk pkfg,A ysfdu fufeZroknhfopkj/kkjk xq: d¢ czã okD; dks fcuk rdZ] fcukla”ys’k.k&fo”ys’k.k] fcuk fopkj&foe”kZ vkSj fcuk fdlhizek.k d¢ ekuus d¢ fy, fo|kFkhZ dks ck/; ugha djrhgSA D;ksafd vU/kkuqdj.k] jVUr vFkok vfoosd }kjkvftZr Kku vf/kxedŸkkZ esa leL;k&lek/kku dh ;ksX;rk]fu.kZ; ysus dh ;ksX;rk] ltukRedrk rFkk jpukRedfpUru dk fodkl ugha dj ldrk gSAge ftl fo”o esa jgrs gSa mld¢ vuqHkoksa ij fpUrudjd¢ gh mldk vocks/k fufeZr djrs gSaA egkRek xkSrecq) us Hkh vius n”kZu esa fufeZroknh fopkj/kkjk dkt;?kks’k djrs gq, Li’V dgk gS fd&ÞvIi nhiks Hko%ßvFkkZr~ vius vuqHkoksa ls Kku dh Lo;a fufeZfr djrsgq, izdkf”kr jgksA okLro esa vuqHkoksa d¢ vHkko esa dksjkgLrkUrfjr Kku va/kdkj d¢ leku gh gksrk gSA vr%fufeZrokn] vf/kxe dk n”kZu gSAfufeZrokn ,d lrr~ lEizR;kRed og izfof/k gS ftlsfo|kfFkZ;ksa dks Lo;a ds iz;klksa] dk;ksZa] iwoZ vuqHkoksa ,oafofo/k izfØ;kvksa d¢ ek/;e ls lEiUu djuk gksrk gSvkSj fo|kFkhZ vius laosnukRed Kku dks izR;{khÑrKku esa] izR;{khÑr Kku dks lEizR;kRed Kku esa fufeZr

djus dh i)fr dks viukrs gq, ftl Kku dks izkIrdjrk gS og mlds nh?kZdky rd n<+ jgus okyk KkumiyC/k djokrk gSA Qyr% dgk tk ldrk gS fdfufeZrokn Kku dk gh ,d vfr izkphu ml Kku dkfl)kUr gS tks uohu lUnHkksZa d¢ vuqlkj O;fDr viusfoosd ls tkxzr djrk gSA vk/kqfud f”k{k.k i)fr;ksa esafufeZroknh leUo; d{kk&d{k f”k{k.k esa f”k{kd d¢:i esa gesa fuEufyf[kr i)fr;k¡ viukuh pkfg,&

* d{kk&d{k dk okrkoj.k oSpkfjd lEizs’k.k vkSjikjLifjd vUrlZEcU/kksa dk fuekZ.k djus okyk gksA

* fufeZroknh vf/kxe izfØ;k lfØ;rk;qDr gksrh gS]vr% d{kk f”k{k.k vf/kxe dh fofHkUu fof/k]izfof/k vkfn lfØ;rk ij vk/kkfjr gksa tSls&izkstsDVdk;Z] izk;ksfxd dk;Z] vUos’k.k dk;Z] [kkst dk;ZvkfnA

* fo|kFkhZ] vius efLr’d esa ftl Hkh laizR;; dk tksHkh vFkZ fufeZr djrk gS] mldh fo’k; izklafxdrkdh mis{kk djrs gq, Hkh f”k{kd dks vf/kxedrkZ}kjk fufeZr vFkZ dh vfHkO;fDr dks ;Fkksfpr voljiznku djuk pkfg,A

* Kku d¢ fofHkUu mÌhidksa ,oa lzksrksa dks izkIr djusdk ,dek= lalk/ku vf/kxedrkZ dh KkusfUnz;k¡gksrh gSaA vr% f”k{kd dks d{kk esa ,slh xfrfof/k;k¡][ksydwn ,oa igsyhuqek dk;Z djokus pkfg, tks fdKkusfUnz;ksa dks lfØ; ,oa LoLFk j[kus d¢ lkFk&lkFkmudk lgh mi;ksx djuk Hkh fl[kk,¡A

* fufeZroknh vf/kxe izfØ;k fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh ikjLifjdfØ;kvksa] lgHkkfxrk] lkekftd lUnHkksZa ,oalg;ksxkRed vf/kxe dh i)fr;ksa dk Hkh leFkZudjrh gSA vr% d{kk f”k{k.k esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds e/;dqN bl izdkj dh leL;k,¡ nh tk,¡ ftlesa fo|kFkhZNksVs&NksVs lewgksa esa ijLij vUr%fØ;k,¡ djrs gq,lg;ksx o izHkko ds vk/kkj ij vius }kjk fufeZrKku dks izcyrk ls vfHkO;Dr dj ik,¡A blesaf”k{kd mud¢ }kjk fufeZr Kku dk Li’Vhdj.k ,oaljyhdj.k djsA lkFk gh f”k{kd ml Kku {ks= dhHkkoh laHkkoukvksa ds ltu gsrq vf/kxedrkZ lsfopkj foe”kZ Hkh djsA

* okLro esa vf/kxe dksbZ rkRdkfyd ?kVuk ugha gSa]Kku dh fufeZfr esa i;kZIr le; dh vko”;drk


jgrh gS vr% fufeZroknh i)fr;ksa esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks/kS;ZiwoZd lrr~ dk;Z djus dk izf”k{k.k ,oa vH;kldk volj miyC/k djok;k tkuk pkfg,A

* Kku dh fufeZfr esa iwoZKku rFkk iwoZ vuqHkoksa dkegRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku gksrk gSA vr% “kS”kokoLFkk ls ghf”k”kqvksa dks fofHkUu oLrqvksa ds vkUrfjd izfrfuf/kRodk Lo:i ;k Ldhek ¼Schema½ fodflr djus dkvolj fn;k tkuk pkfg,A

* Hkk’kk fo’k;ksa rFkk dyk fo’k;ksa esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa dksviuh dYiuk dks mM+ku nsus d¢ vlhfer vkSjeqDr volj miyC/k djokus pkfg,A

* Kku dh fufeZfr yksdrkaf=d ewY;ksa dh f”k{kk dsvHkko esa v/kwjkiu fy, gq, gksrh gS] bl dkj.kvf/kxedrkZ d¢ ifjokj] fo|ky; ,oa d{kk&d{k esaiztkrkaf=d okrkoj.k dk fuekZ.k djuk pkfg, ftlesavf/kxedrkZ dks vfHkO;fDr dh Lora=rk izkIr gksA

* fufeZroknh vf/kxe izfØ;k esa dksbZ Hkh lEiw.kZ ughagksrk gS] bl dkj.k f”k{kd dks vius fo|kfFkZ;ksa d¢lkFk ,d f”k{kd ds :i esa ugha cfYd ,d ofj’BNk= dh Hkwfedk esa vius mŸkjnkf;Roksa dk fuoZgudjuk pkfg,A

* cw>ks tks tkusa] oxZ igsfy;k¡] vUR;k{kjh] vehj [kqljksadh yksd igsfy;k¡] dchj dh myV ck¡fl;k¡ vkfn,sls dbZ i{k gSa tks Hkk’kk {ks= esa Kku dh fufeZfrdh egRoiw.kZ i)fr;k¡ gSaA budk eq[; mís”; fo|kFkhZd¢ fopkjksa dks fpUru ds fofo/k {ks=ksa esa lfØ;djrs gq, vilkjh ,oa vfHklkjh fparu dh “kSfy;ksadk vH;kl djokuk gksuk pkfg,A

* fufeZroknh vf/kxe i)fr;ksa esa f”k{kd dks ;gbZekunkjh ls Lohdkj djuk pkfg, fd izR;sdfo|kFkhZ vius ifjos”k ls izkIr vuqHko d¢ vk/kkjij] okrkoj.k vkSj ikjLifjd fØ;k }kjk ekufldizfr:i cukrs gaS] ;s gh izfr:i mldh Kku fufeZfrdk lk/ku gSaA Kku dk fuekZ.k vuqHkoksa ls gksrk gSvr% lkekftd ifjizs{; esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks vuqHkoiznku djus dh lwpuk rduhd vk/kkfjr i)fr;ksadk Hkh p;u djuk pkfg,A

* fufeZroknh vf/kxe i)fr;k¡ O;k[;ku esa ugha cfYdlaokn o ifjppkZvksa esa fo”okl djrh gSA

* fufeZroknh i)fr;k¡ izfr”kr] Js.kh ;k d{kk esa

LFkku ds fy, Kku ugha nsrh gS cfYd os vf/kxedrkZdks vocks/k ,oa leL;kvksa dk lek/kku djus dhfo/kk,¡ crkrh gSaA

* fufeZroknh i)fr;k¡ Kku dks ijh{kkvksa ds lkis{kugha ns[krh cfYd os Kku dh fufeZfr dkslkekU;hdj.k o ljyhdj.k;qDr i)fr;ksa ds lkis{kns[krh gSaA

* fufeZroknh i)fr;k¡ lekos”kh f”k{kk dh i)fr;ksadk vkJ; fy;k djrh gSA

* “kSf{kd Hkze.k ;k i;ZVu fo|kfFkZ;ksa d¢ Kku fuekZ.kesa ,d egRoiw.kZ ,oa mi;ksxh i)fr gksrh gSA

* Hkkjrh; euh’kh egkRek xka/kh] vjfoUn] foosdkuUnvkfn us Kku dh fufeZfr dks mlh :i esa Lohdkjfd;k gS ftl :i esa Ýkscsy] eksUVsUljh rFkkfdyiSfVªd us fd;k gS] Kku fufeZfr dh ogfof/k fØ;kRed fof/k Hkh dgykrh gSA ftlesa rRijrk,oa tkx:drk vf/kd egRoiw.kZ gksrh gS blesa rhuizdkj dh fØ;k,¡ egRoiw.kZ gksrh gSa&

I. Kku izkIr djus okyh fØ;k,¡A

II. Kku O;Dr djus okyh fØ;k,¡A

III. vuqHko izkIr djus okyh fØ;k,¡A

* izR;sd fo|kFkhZ O;fDrxr fofHkUurk fy, gq, gksrk

gS] QyLo:i fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh xfrfof/k;k¡ mudh

jpuk,¡ vkSj Kku fufeZfr ls izkIr vFkksZa esa Hkh

fofo/krk,¡ gks ldrh gSA vr% fufeZroknh f”k{kd

dks fo|kfFkZ;ksa d¢ e/; vuko”;d rqyuk,¡ ,oa

izfrLi/kkZ,¡ vk;ksftr ugha djuh pkfg,A

* fufeZroknh vf/kxe izfØ;k esa ckyd¢fUnzr] LokHkkfodfØ;k vk/kkfjr rFkk Lor% vuqHko d¢ vk/kkj ijKku izkfIr d¢ volj miyC/k djokus okyhfof/k;k¡ viukuh pkfg,A

* fufeZroknh fof/k;k¡ fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks voyksdu] laxzg.k]Hkze.k rFkk ijh{k.k d¢ fy, Hkh izksRlkfgr djrh gSaA

milagkj %&mDr lHkh lUnHkksZa ij fpUru djus ls Kkr gksrk gS fdorZeku lnh esa ijEijkxr izfrekuksa dks ifjekftZrdjuk gksxkA f”k{kd dks f”k{k.k vf/kxe i)fr;ksa esafufeZroknh i)fr;ksa d¢ vuqlkj ifjorZu djuk pkfg,AlfØ;rk] lkekftdrk] lUnHkksZa] lEizs’k.k ,oa lg;ksxkRed

fufeZroknh vf/kxe i)fr;k¡ ,oa -------------------------- }kjk] MkW- jkds”k dVkjk ,oa /kzqo feRry 155

lEizR;;ksa ds vHkko esa vf/kxedrkZ d¢ vuqHko lkFkZdugha gks ldrs gSa] vkSj Kku dh fufeZfr dHkh fujFkZdugha gksrh] QyLo:i gesa eqDr eu ,oa ân; ls

lanHkZ xazFk lwph

ik.Ms;] dYiyrk ¼2007½ % f”k{kk euksfoKku Hkkjrh; ,oa ik”pkR; nf’V] izFke laLdj.k VkVk eSDxzksfgyifCyf”kax dEiuh fyfeVsM] ubZ fnYyh] i-la- 52&54

flag] v:.k dqekj ¼2010½ % vk/kqfud lkekU; euksfoKku] prqFkZ laLdj.k] eksrhyky cukjlhnkl izdk”ku] ubZfnYyh] i`-la- 593

is;~;sfV] jktkdqekj ¼2008½ % euksfoKku] ,u-lh-bZ-vkj-Vh- Jh vjfoUn ekxZ] ubZ fnYyh] izFke iqueqZfnzr laLdj.k]i`-la- 10

;”kiky ¼2006½ % jk’Vªh; ikB~;p;kZ dh :ijs[kk] izFke laLdj.k] ,u-lh-bZ-vkj-Vh- Jh vjfoUn ekxZ] ubZ fnYyh]i`-la- 14&28

ewjtkuh] tkudh ¼2007½ % lkekftd euksfoKku] izFke laLdj.k] vkfo’dkj ifCy”klZ] t;iqj] i`-la- 228&230jk;tknk] fofiu flag ¼1992½ % cky euksfoKku] izFke laLdj.k] jktLFkku fgUnh xzaFk vdkneh] t;iqj] i-la- 227iqjksfgr] txnh”k ukjk;.k ¼2008½ % Hkkoh f”k{kdksa d¢ fy, vk/kkjHkwr dk;ZØe] nloka laLdj.k] jktLFkku fgUnh

xzaFk vdkneh] t;iqj] i`-la- 503] 511] 521f=ikBh] “kkfyxzke ¼1992½ % f”k{k.k dyk] izFke laLdj.k] jk/kk ifCyd¢”kUl] nfj;kxat] ubZ fnYyh] i-la- 333lwn] ts-d¢- ¼2003½ % foKku f”k{k.k] izFke laLdj.k] fouksn iqLrd eafnj] vkxjk&4] i`-la- 118&220

fufeZroknh i)fr;ksa dks viuh orZeku f”k{k.k O;oLFkkesa fcuk iwokZxzg d¢ leqfpr ,oa lEekutud LFkku nsusdk iz;kl djuk pkfg,A

* MkW- jkd¢”k dVkjk % O;k[;krk] jktdh; mPp v/;;u f”k{kk laLFkku&vtesjjktLFkkuA e-mail : [email protected]

** /kzqo dqekj feÙky % “kks/k Nk=] f”k{kk “kkL=] esokM+ fo”ofo|ky;] fpÙkkSMx<jktLFkkuA E-mail id : [email protected]


oSfnd xf.kr fof/k o ijaijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k dk 9ohad{kk ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh xf.kr esa miyfC/k ds ifjizs{; esa

rqyukRed v/;;u

izLrqr “kks/k ds varxZr 9 oha d{kk ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh oSfnd xf.kr fof/k o ijaijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k esa miyfC/k dsifjizs{; esa rqyukRed v/;;u fd;k x;kA ”kks/k ds fy, egw ”kgj ds fo|ky;ksa esa v/;;ujr 9oha d{kk ds 50fo|kfFkZ;ksadks U;kn”kZ ds :i esa fy;k x;k FkkA “kks/k ds fy, iwoZ ijh{k.k i”p ijh{k.k fu;af=r lewg izkdYi dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kftlesa iz;ksxkRed lewg dks oSfnd xf.kr fof/k ls rFkk fu;af=r lewg dks ijEijkxr fof/k ls 20 fnuksa rd izfrfnu45 feuV dh vof/k rd i<+k;k x;kA iznRrksa ds ladyu ds fy, ”kks/kdrhZ }kjk LofufeZr miyfC/k ijh{k.k dk mi;ksxfd;k x;k FkkA izkIr iznRrksa ds fo”ys’k.k ds fy, t- test dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA ifj.kkeksa ls iznf”kZr gqvk fd oSfndxf.kr fof/k] ijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k ls lkFkZd :i ls izHkkoh ik;h x;hA

lkjka”k



MkW- vpZuk nqcs * ,oa vkjrh “kkD; **

izLrkoukxf.kr ekuo efLr’d dh [kkst gSA ;g ,d ,slklk/ku gS ftlds ek/;e ls Nk= ;qfDr ;qDr <ax lsfparu] cks/k] rdZ] fordZ] fo”ys’k.k ,oa Li’Vhdj.kdjus dh ;ksX;rk vftZr djrk gSA ,d fof”k’V fo’k;gksus ds vfrfjDr xf.kr dks ,sls fdlh Hkh fo’k; dklgorhZ ekuk tkrk gS ftuesa fo”ys’k.k o rdZ ”kfDrdh vko”;drk gSAosn dk vFkZ^osn* ”kCn dh O;qRifRr ls tks vFkZ fudyrk gS] mldkrkRi;Z gS fd osnksa esa ekuo lekt ds fy, vko”;d udsoy vk/;kfRed oju~ bgykSfdd] lkalkfjd ;kO;kogkfjd lEiw.kZ Kku gksrk gS] vkSj lkjh ekuo tkfrds fodkl dh ftruh Hkh fn”kk,¡ laHko gSa] mudslokZaxh.k] lEiw.kZ rFkk vf/kdre lQyrk ds fy,vko”;d Kku gksrk gSA muesa fufgr Kku ij fdlhHkh fo’k; esa fdlh Hkh fn”kk esa lhek cka/kus okyk

fo”ys’k.k ;k ca/ku ugha gks ldrkA Hkkjrh; laLdfr esapkj osn gSa vkSj muds pkj miosn gaS rFkk Ng osankxgSaA ;s lHkh feydj ml fnO; Kku dk vHkkT; laxzgcukrs gSaA

osn miosn_Xosn vk;qosZnlkeosn xka/koZosn;tqosZn /kuqosZnvFkoZosn LFkkiR;osn

oSfnd xf.kr ds eq[; xq.k1- lw= xf.kr dh lHkh ”kk[kkvkas ds lHkh v/;k;ksa dslHkh foHkkxksa ij ykxw gksrs gaSA

2- lw= lgt gh le> esa vk tkrs gaS] mudk vuqiz;ksxljy gS] os lgt gh ;kn gks tkrs gSa rFkk lkjhizfØ;k ^ekSf[kd* gSA

3- dbZ iSfM+;ksa dh izfØ;k okys tfVy iz”uksa dks gydjus esa vk/kqfud ik”pkR; fof/k ¼izpfyr½ dh vis{kk

Hindi Section

oSfnd xf.kr fof/k o ijEijkxr xf.kr -------------------- }kjk] MkW- vpZuk nqcs ,oa vkjrh “kkD; 157

oSfnd fof/k ls ,d frgkbZ] pkSFkkbZ] nlok¡ rFkkmlls Hkh de le; yxrk gSA

vkSfpR;ok?k ¼1991½ us fHkUu la[;k esa lqq/kkjkRed dFku ds :iesa d{kk 8oha ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds fy, Multimedia

Instructional System dk fodkl fd;k rFkk ik;kfd Nk= fHkUu la[;k rFkk mldh fØ;kvksa] fr;Zdxq.kk]tksM+&?kVkuk] xq.kk] Hkkx esa lkekU; rkSj ij xyfr;k¡djrs gS rFkk MMI fof/k ijEijkxr fof/k ls vf/kdle> iSnk djrh gSAHkkxor ¼1992½ esa xf.kr esa cgqfn”k mRiknu izdkj dhleL;kvksa ds fy, iqat dk fuekZ.k fd;k rFkk iqat dsiz;ksx ls ik;k fd yM+dksa rFkk yM+fd;ksa ds cgqfn”kfparu ds fodkl esa lkFkZd lgk;rk feyhA fo|ky;huNk=ksa dk bl dh lgk;rk ls ltukRed fodkl gqvkAnRr ¼1990½ us xf.kr f”k{k.k ds fy, n”; &JO;lkexzh dk fuekZ.k fd;k rFkk ”kks/k }kjk ik;k fdn”;&JO; lkexzh ds ek/;e ls js[kk xf.kr laca/khladYiuk esa fo|kfFkZ;ksa esa :fp ikbZ xbZ vkSj Li’VrkrFkk /kkj.k djus dh ”kfDr dk fodkl gksrk gSAjko ¼1983½ us xf.kr esa vfHkØfer vf/kxe vkSjijEijkxr fof/k dk rqyukRed v/;;u fd;k rFkkik;k fd&vfHkØfer vf/kxe fof/k dk ek/; miyfC/kQykad ijEijkxr fof/k ds ek/; miyfC/k Qykad dhrqyuk esa lkFkZd :i ls vf/kd gSAfeJk ¼1991½ us The Mathematics Education

if=dk esa izdkf”kr ys[k esa oSfnd xf.kr dkf=dks.kferh; mi;ksx crk;k x;k gSA f=dks.kfefr esavk;ZHkV~V] xksfoUn Lokeh] vk;ZHkV~V izFke bR;kfn xf.krKksa}kjk izfrikfnr fl)karksa rFkk lw=ksa dks crk;k x;k gSAyky }kjk ¼1982½ ¼1983½ ¼1985½ esa izkphu xf.kr tSuxf.kr ij The MathematicsEducation if=dk esavusd ys[k izdkf”kr fd, x;s ftlesa izkphu osnksa rFkkmiosnksa esa xf.kr ds fofHkUu fo’k;ksa ij fy[ks ”yksdksadks foLrkj ls le>k;k x;k rFkk orZeku esa mldhmi;ksfxrk crkbZ xbZ gSAdksYgs ¼2004½ us oSfnd xf.kr fof/k o ijEIkjkxrxf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k dk rqyukRed v/;;u 9 oha d{kkds Nk=ksa dh xf.kr esa miyfC/k o izfrfØ;kvksa dsifjizs{; esa v/;;u fd;kA dksYgs us ik;k fd oSfnd

xf.kr fof/k fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh xf.kr esa miyfC/k ds lanHkZesa ijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k ls izHkkoh ik;h xbZAoSfnd xf.kr fof/k ds izfr izk;ksfxd lewg ds Nk=ksa dhizfrfØ;k ldkjkRed ikbZ xbZAizk;% ns[kk x;k gS fd ijEijkxr f”k{k.k fof/k lsfo|kFkhZ d{kk esa uhjl jgrk gSA f”k{kd d{kk esa ,d ghfof/k dk mi;ksx djrk gSA xf.kr dks :fp dj cukusds fy, ;w-lh- ekl] xf.kr esa iz;ksx rFkk oSfnd xf.krdk mi;ksx djuk pkfg,A oSfnd xf.kr ls fo|kFkhZizfr;ksxh ijh{kkvksa esa de le; esa xf.kr ds iz”uksa dksgy dj ldrs gSaAorZeku le; izfr;ksfxrk rFkk ifjorZu dk le; gSftlesa O;fDr viuh fLFkfr dks cuk, j[kus ds fy,lnSo iz;Ru”khy jgrk gSA Nk= f”k{k.k {ks= esa Hkhviuh Js.kh cuk, j[kus ds fy, vFkd iz;kl djrs gaSAfofHkUu fo’k;kas esa vf/kd vad izkIr djus ds fy, Nk=vyx&vyx izdkj dh fof/k;kas ls v/;;u djrk gSAxf.kr tSlk dfBu fo’k; ftlesa Nk= ek= mRrh.kZgkssus dh mEehn djrs gSa o ,slh fof/k pkgrs gaS tksljy gks ftldh lgk;rk ls iz”u de lksikuksa esa gygks tk,AizkIr “kks/kksa ls Kkr gksrk gS fd orZeku xf.kr f”k{k.kesa vfHkØfer vf/kxe lkexzh] lax.kd dk;ZØe] dEI;wVjlgk;d vuqns”ku n”;&JO; lkexzh] vfHkØferikB~;iqLrd rFkk [ksy bR;kfn fof/k;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;ktk jgk gSA [ksy fof/k dk xf.kr f”k{k.k esa iz;ksx ek=izkFkfed Lrj rd gh fd;k tk ldrk gSA mPp d{kkds fy, bl fof/k dk iz;ksx ugha dj ldrsA vfHkØfervf/kxe lkexzh rFkk lax.kd dk;ZØe] dEI;wVj lgk;dvuqns”ku] n”;&JO; lkexzh vfHkØfer ikB~;iqLrddh fof/k;k¡ dqN fo”ks’k fo|ky;kas rd gh lhfer gaSAbudk iz;ksx djuk lkekU; fo|ky;ksa ds fy, laHkougha gS rFkk izR;sd Nk= rd bldk ykHk igqapkuklaHko ugha gSA oSfnd xf.kr izkphu osnksa ls cuk, 16lw=ksa ij vk/kkfjr gaSA xf.kr dh if=dk The

Mathematics Education esa izdkf”kr ys[kksa ls Kkrgksrk gS fd oSfnd xf.kr] xf.kr dh lHkh ”kk[kkvksa esami;ksxh gSAKkr ”kks/kkas ls irk pyrk gS fd oSfnd xf.kr fof/k lslacaf/kr dqN gh lw=ksa dks ysdj ”kks/k dk;Z fd;k x;k


gSA izLrqr ”kks/k dk;Z esa vU; u;s lw=ksa dks Hkh ”kkfeyfd;k x;k gSA izLrqr ”kks/k oSfnd xf.kr fof/k dhizHkkfork dk irk yxkus ls lacaf/kr gSA bl ”kks/k ds}kjk ;g tkuus dk iz;Ru fd;k x;k gS fd D;k oSfndxf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k ijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k lsrqyukRed :i ls izHkkoh gSAmís”;oSfnd xf.kr fof/k ,oaijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/kls izkIr miyfC/k ds ek/; Qykadksa dk rqyukRedv/;;u djukAifjdYiuk1- oSfnd xf.kr fof/k ,oaijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.kfof/k ls izkIr miyfC/k ds ek/; Qykadksa esa dksbZlkFkZd vUrj ugha gksxkA

U;kn”kZizLrqr ”kks/k dk;Z ds fy, ;”koar ifCyd gk;j lsds.Mªhfo|ky; egw ds 9 oha d{kk ds nks oxksZa dks fy;k x;kftlesa Nk=ksa dh dqy la[;k 50 FkhA fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks nkslewgksa esa ;knfPNd fof/k ls foHkkftr fd;k x;kAizFke lewg esa 25 fo|kFkhZ o f}rh; lewg esa 25 fo|kFkhZFksA izFke lewg dks izk;ksfxd lewg o f}rh; lewg dksfu;af=r lewg uke fn;k x;kA mijksDr lHkh fo|kFkhZek/;fed f”k{kk e.My Hkksiky ds fu;fer rFkk fgUnhek/;e ds fo|kFkhZ Fks ftudh mez 15&16 o’kZ ds e/;FkhAmidj.k%miyfC/k ijh{k.k”kks/k dk;Z esa pjksa ds ekiu ds fy, ”kks/kdrzhZ }kjkLor% miyfC/k ijh{k.k dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;kAmiyfC/k ijh{k.k esa dqy 15 iz”u FksA izR;sd iz”u dslgh mRrj ij 5 vad rFkk xyr mRrj ij ”kwU; vadiznku fd, x,A miyfC/k ijh{k.k esa oxZ] ?ku] xq.ku[k.M]Hkkx rFkk lehdj.k Kkr djus dh fof/k;ksa ij iz”uksadk fuekZ.k fd;k x;kA miyfC/k ijh{k.k ds iz”uksa dsfy, dqy vad 75 j[ks x;s FksA iz”uksssa dks gy djus dsfy, 35 feuV dh le; lhek fu/kkZfjr dh x;h FkhAoSfnd xf.kr i<+kus ds fy;s p;fur izdj.k fuEufyf[krgSa%&1- oxZ Kkr djus dh fof/k;k¡

v- ,dkf/kdsu iwosZ.kc- ,dU;wusu iwosZ.k

l- ;konwua rkonwuhdR; oxZ p ;kst;sr~2- ?ku Kkr djus dh fof/k;k¡` v- oSdfYid fof/k

c- fuf[kye~ lw= fof/k3- xq.ku[k.M Kkr djus dh fof/k;k¡

v- lewgu fof/kc- vkn~;su&vUR;e~ vUR;su fof/kl- m/oZfr;Zd fof/k

4- Hkkx fof/kv- ijkoR;Z fof/k

5-lehdj.k gy djus dh fof/kv- ijkoR;Z fof/k }kjk ;qxir ljy lehdj.k

iznRr ladyu dh fof/kiznRr ladyu gsrq d{kk 9 oha dh xf.kr dh ikB~;iqLrdds oxZ] ?ku] xq.ku[k.M] Hkkx rFkk lehdj.k izdj.kksadk p;u fd;k x;kA oxZ Kkr djus dh fof/k;ksa esa,dkf/kdsu iwosZ.k] ,dU;wusu iwosZ.k] ;konwua rkonwuhdR;oxZ p ;kst;sr~A ?ku Kkr djus dh fof/k;ksa esa oSdfYidfof/k] fuf[kye~ lw=A xq.ku[k.M Kkr djus dh fof?k;ksaesa lewgu fof/k] vkn~;su&vUR;e~ vUR;su fof/k]m/oZfr;Zd fof/kA Hkkx Kkr djus dh fof/k esa ijkoR;Zfof/k rFkk lehdj.k gy djus esa ijkoR;Z fu;e }kjk;qxir ljy lehdj.k fof/k dk mi;ksx fd;k x;kAiznRr dk ladyu lmn~ns”; U;kn”kZ fof/k }kjk p;furfo|ky; esa fd;k x;kAloZizFke nksukas lewgksa ij “kks/kdrzhZ }kjk fufeZrmiyfC/k ijh{k.k ¼iwoZ ijh{k.k½ iz”kkflr fd;k x;kAblds ckn izk;ksfxd lewg dks oSfnd xf.kr fof/k ls20 fnu rd 40 feuV izfr dkyka”k rFkk fu;af=rlewg dks ijEijkxr fof/k ls 20 fnu rd 40 feuVizfr dkyka”k izfrfnu i<+k;k x;kA 20fnu ds i”pkr~nksuksa lewgksa dks i”p miyfC/k ijh{k.k iz”kkflr fd;kx;kA

ifj.kke] foospuk ,oa ppkZizLrqr ”kks/k v/;;u ls lacaf/kr iznRrksa dk fo”ys’k.k t-

test }kjk fd;k x;kAblds ifj.kke lkj.kh Øekad 1 esa izLrqr fd, x, gSaA

oSfnd xf.kr fof/k o ijEijkxr xf.kr -------------------- }kjk] MkW- vpZuk nqcs ,oa vkjrh “kkD; 159

lkj.kh Øekad 1izk;ksfxd ,oa fu;af=r lewg dk miyfC/k ds vk/kkj

ij ek/;] ekud fopyu o t- eku Lkewg la[;k Ekk/; Ekkudt -eku

fopyu izk;ks- lewg 25 48-8 10-4 3-384 **

fu;a- lewg 25 38-2 11-5** 0-01 Lrj ij lkFkZd gSLkkj.kh Øekad 1 ls ;g Li’V gksrk gS fd t-eku 3-384gS tks fd 0-01 Lrj ij lkFkZd gS] tcfd df=48 gSAbldk vFkZ gS] fd izk;ksfxd lewg ,oa fu;af=r lewgds Nk=ksa ds ek/; miyfC/k Qykdksa es lkFkZd varjgSA vr% mijksDr vk/kkj ij “kwU; ifjdYiuk ßoSfndxf.kr fof/k ,oa ijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k lsizkIr miyfC/k ds ek/; Qykadksa esa dksbZ lkFkZdvUrj ugha gksxk ÞfujLr dh tkrh gSA nksuksa lewgksads ek/;ksa dk voykssdu djus ls Hkh ;g Li’V gS fdizk;ksfxd lewg ds Nk=ksa ds ek/; miyfC/k Qykad48-8 gS tks fd fu;af=r lewg ds Nk=ksa ds ek/;miyfC/k Qykadks 38-2 ls lkFkZd :i ls mPp gSAifj.kkeoSfnd xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k] ijEijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.kfof/k ls lkFkZd :i ls izHkkoh ik;h x;hAifj.kkeksa dh foospuk”kks/k ls izkIr ifj.kkeksa ls ;g fu’d’kZ fudyrk gS fd

oSfnd xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k] ijaijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.kfof/k ls izÒkoh gSA oSfnd xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k ds izÒkohgksus ds fuEu dkj.k gks ldrs gSa &• oSfnd xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k] ijaijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.kfof/k ls :fpdj gksus dss dkj.k] Nk=ksa dks vPNhyxhA oSfnd xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k] ijaijkxr xf.krf”k{k.k fof/k dh rqyuk es lh[kus es ljy gSA

• oSfnd xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k esa iz”uksa dks gy djus dhfof/k;k¡ lw+++= c/n gSa] ftlds dkj.k bu fof/k;kssssa dks;kn j[k ikuk vklku gSA

• oSfnd xf.kr fof/k ls lokykas dks gy djus ds fy,ijaijkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k dh rqyuk esa delksikukas dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] ftlls lokykas dsmRrj de le; es rFkk vklkuh ls izkIr gks tkrs gaSo lksikukas dks ;kn j[kuk ljy jgrk gSA

• ,d gh izdkj ds lokykas dks gy djus ds fy, vusdlw=ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA

• bl fof/k ls lokykas dk mRrj tYnh izkIr gksrk gS] rksNk=ksa dks mRrj izkfIr ls vkRe larqf’V dh vuqÒwfrgqbZ gksxhA

• vkRe larqf’V ds dkj.k Nk= bl fof/k ls vf/kdlokyksa dks gy djus ds fy, iszfjr gq, gkasxsA

• bl fof/k ds }kjk Nk= lokyksa dks ekSf[kd :i ls Òhgy dj ldrs gaSA

lanHkZ xazFk lwph

ck?k (1991)% fHkUu la[;k eas lq/kkjkRed dFku ds :i esa d{kk 8oha ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds fy, Multi Media

Instructional Systemdk fodkl] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k¼vizdkf”kr½] nsohvfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 1991-csrky] vkuan (1981) % oSfnd xf.kr] lq:fp lkfgR;] >aMsokyk] ubZ fnYyh] 1981-Buch, M.B. (Ed.): Chitkara, M. (1985) : Effectiveness of Different Strategies of Teaching

on Achievement in Mathematics in relation to Intelligence, Sex andPersonality. Ph.D. Education, Panjab University,(1985).

Buch, M.B. (Ed.): Bhalwankar, A.G.(1985) : A Study of Effects of Expository andGuided Discovery Methods of Teaching Mathematics on the Achievement ofStudents of Different Levels of Intelligence. Ph.D. Education, PanjabUniversity,1985.

ns”keq[k] nsosUnz jko (1985) % oSfnd xf.kr] fo|ky; Hkkjrh e/;izns”k] Hkksiky] 1985-Garrett, H.E., &Woodworth,R.S. (1981): Statistics in Psychology and Education,Vakils

Feffer and Simons Ltd, Bombay, 1981.


Good, C.V. (1952): Dictionary of Education, McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., NewYork, 1952.

dksYgs] euh”k (2004)% oSfnd xf.kr o ijEIkjkxr xf.kr f”k{k.k fof/k dk rqyukRed v/;;u 9oha d{kk dsNk=ksa dh xf.kr esa miyfC/k o izfrfØ;kvksa ds ifjizs{; esa] ,e-,M- y?kq “kks/k izca/k] f”k{kk laLFkku]nsoh vfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 2004-

yky (1985)% izkphu osnksa rFkk miosnksa esa xf.kr ds fofHkUu fo”k;ksa ij fy[ks “yksdksa dk foLrkj ls v/;;u],e-,M- y?kq”kks/k ¼vizdkf’kr½] 1985-

uyf;uh (1991)% izkFkfed Lrj ij vad xf.kr eas vad [ksy fof/k ls v/;kiu dh izHkkfork dk v/;;u] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k ¼vizdkf”kr½] nsoh vfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 1991-

ukxj (1988)% fo|ky; Lrj ij xf.kr f”k{k.k eas dEI;wVj dh izkHkkfodrk dk v/;;;u] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k¼vizdkf”kr½] nsoh vfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 1988-

izHkk (1992)% xf.kr esa vfHkØfer iqLrd fof/k vkSj ijEijkxr fof/k ls f”k{k.k esa izkIr miyfC/k ds chplaca/k dk v/;;u] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k ¼vizdkf”kr½] nsoh vfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 1992-

jkor] ,e-,e-(1995)% xf.kr f”k{k.k] fouksn iqLrd eafnj] vkxjk] 1995-lse] ”kekZ (1989)% d{kk 8oha ds xf.kr ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa ij ewY;kadu fof/k vkSj ijEijkxr fof/k dh izHkkfork dk

izk;ksfxd v/;;u] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k ¼vizdkf”kr½] nsoh vfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 1989-“kekZ] jkeukFk (1979)% oSfnd xf.kr] rkjk iqLrd HkaMkj] cStukFk] fgekpy izns”k] 1979-flag (1989)% The Mathematics Education if=dk esa izdkf”kr ys[k Hindu Arithmetic and Operations mlds

vUrxZr cht xf.krh; lw=ksa dk v/;;u] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k ¼vizdkf”kr½] nsoh vfgY;k fo”ofo|ky;]bUnkSj] 1989-

flag (1992)% KkukRed vkSj vKkukRed pjksa ij Computer Assisted Instruction vkSj ijEijkxr fof/k dhlgk;rk ls xf.kr esa f”k{k.k dh izHkkfodrk dk v/;;u] ,e-,M- y?kq”kks/k ¼vizdkf”kr½] nsoh vfgY;kfo”ofo|ky;] bUnkSj] 1992-

* MkW- vpZuk nqcs % jhMj ] f”k{kk v/;;u “kkyk ,oa foHkkxk/;{k] lkekftd foKkuv/;;u ”kkyk] nsoh vfgY;k fo”o fo|ky;- bankSj ¼e-iz-½E-mail : [email protected]

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EDUSEARCH - ISSN : 0976 - 1160 Vol. 3 No. 2 Oct. 2012 161

RESEARCHERS ORGANIZATION, BILASPUR. Chhattisgarh.The facts and figures stated, conclusions researched and views expressed in thearticles are of the authors concerned and should not be attributed to the editors ofthe journal or to Researchers Organization, Bilaspur. (C.G.)

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SBI Bank Draft should be drawn in the name, Researchers Organization,Bilaspur (C.G) Payable at Bilaspur, (C.G.) along with subscription form may besent to The Secretary, Flat H/2, Vaishali Nagar, Ward-13, Bilaspur. (C.G.)Pin. 495001.Subscription may directly be deposited SBI A/C No. 31577384568,Researchers Organization, Bilaspur. (Intercity Collection Charges Rs. 25.00must be added to the subscription).Articles/Papers authored by two researchers, shall be treated as two individu-als for the subscription point of view.


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Researchers Organization Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh invites unpublishedresearch articles in Education for publication in EDUSEARCH.Research Articles based on primary data shall be preferred.

The objective of this is to provide a platform to the teachers, teacher-educators, educational administrators, and researchers to share theirresearch experiences on improved educational practices, presentation ofnovel ideas and critical appraisal of educational problems etc.You may send research articles in about 4000 words/8 printed pages(double space printing) including an abstract in about 150 words, eitherin Hindi or English. Every article should contain following essentialelements-introduction, related study, research questions, objectives,hypotheses, methodology, sample, tools used, data analysis, findings,discussion and reference. Reference style to be used as -

Kapoor, J. N. (2003, May) : ‘Raising the Standard of Ph. D. Programmes: Some Suggestionsin Scientific Research in Indian Universities. New Delhi: AIU.

In order to save the environment and time, soft copies (CD) and e-mailservice etc. are preferred.Fonts to be used :English- Times New Roman - size 12Hindi - Krutidev 010 - size 14

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Every article should bear with a certificate (signed hard copy) mentioningunpublished article for publication in EDUSEARCH along withmembership/subscription amount.Articles/Papers authored by two researchers, shall be treated as twoindividuals for the subscription point of view.Your response and valuable suggestions in this regard are highly solicited.Address for communicationDr. B.V.Ramana Rao, Flat-H/2, Vaishali Nagar, Ward - 13 Bilaspur. Pin. 495001. [email protected].

Please mention youre-mail, Mob. No. andaddress on the top ofthe article.

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