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Chapter 1-9



Chapter 1

What is syntax?

• Syntax is the study of the struture of sentences.

• Syntax ana!y"es ho# #ords combine to form sentenes.

• Sentenes are made u$ of sma!!er units% a!!ed phrases &#hih in turn are made u$ of #ords'

• Syntax

(ro$erties of syntati )no#!ed*e:

-Humans can understand & produce an infinite number of sentences they never heard before

+Some $ur$!e *nats are startin* to tan*o on miro#ave,

-Our grammar can understand and produce long sentences

+-i!! said that he thou*ht that the esteemed !eader of the house had it in mind to te!! the

unfortunate vie $resident that the a!!s that he made from the offie in the White House that

he thou*ht #as $rivate..,

-Determine the grammatical relations in a sentence

Mary hired -i!!. /s. -i!! hired Mary

• Syntax and Meanin*

Nonsense sentenes #ith !ear syntax

o!or!ess *reen ideas s!ee$ furious!y.

ver rum$!ed the mi!).

I *ave the 5uestion a suadivin* e**.

• 6urious!y s!ee$ ideas *reen o!or!ess.

• Mi!) the rum$!ed

• the 5uestion I an e** suadivin* *ave.

Sentenes are om$osed of disrete units that are omined y ru!es. 7hese ru!es ex$!ain ho#

s$ea)ers an store infinite )no#!ed*e in a finite s$ae rain.



Why is syntax im$ortant ?

We s$ea) in sentenes not in #ords. 7o understand the struture of a !an*ua*e it is

neessary to study the struture of sentenes.

If #e !earn to ana!y"e the struture of sentenes% #e #i!! a!so !earn to ana!y"e their

meanin*.

7he study of syntax is the study of the function of #ords% #hih is neessary to

understand the struture and the meanin* of a !an*ua*e.



Chapter 2

Words e!on* to different !asses

1. /er

n introdution to ver !asses

- transitive verbs

- intransitive verbs

/ers and their *rammatia! ate*ories

Tense and aspect

- Mood

- Valency-changing processes

- Agreement

2. Nouns

Semantic roles for noun phrases

Semanti ro!es% a!so )no#n as themati &ortheta' ro!es.

&31' 8ee handed the !etter to 9im.

agent theme recipient

&32' 9im detests s$routs.

experiencer stimulus

&34' 7he f!o#ers #i!ted.

patient

3. detives

• detives indiate $hysia! $ro$erties of nouns% in!udin* their si"e% sha$e% o!ourand so

on. 7hey a!so indiate 5ua!ities% suh as ;*ood< or ;ad<.

1. Positions and functions of adectives

• 7here are t#o asi funtions #hih adetives and adetive $hrases &(s' fu!fi!%



1' 7he attriutive and

2' 7he $rediative funtions.

4. dver = adetive

!dverbs and adectives

• In >n*!ish% entra! memers of the traditiona! #ord !ass of advers are #ords !i)e

suddenly, slowly and gradually. 7hese entra! advers are formed from the re!ated

adetives y an affix ly% #hih turns adetives !i)e sudden into suddenly% and so on.

• Numerous adetives in >n*!ish don<t ta)e the ly affix at a!!: big, small, ill, young and

many more.

Some irre*u!ar >n*!ish advers have the same form as the adetive:

She works fast/hard but not " She works fastly/hardly.

. (re$osition• Identifyin* $re$osition in >n*!ish

In >n*!ish #e usua!!y find $hrases !i)e:

under the f!oor% to#ards that on!usion.

• 7y$ia! ro!e of $re$osition is to mar) !oative and tem$ora! information in a !an*ua*e.



Chapter $

8oo)in* Inside Sentene

6INI7>N>SS N@ ABI8ICI>S

1. Inde$endent !auses sentene that ontains one $rediate. 7he sim$!e sentenes stand a!one: they aren<t

attahed to any other !ause% and are therefore )no#n as inde$endent sentenes or

inde$endent !auses.

>x :a. 9im #aited.

. 7hese *uys !i)e hi$s.

. 7he firstyear students in our de$artment ou*ht a !ot of oo)s at this sta*e in theyear

2. 6initeness ver that is finite is a!!o#ed to e the on!y ver in an inde$endent !ause %therefore% if

you find an inde$endent !ause #ith ust one ver in it% it is !i)e!y to e finite. In

>n*!ish% finite vers are those ex$ressin* tense.

3. Main /ers and /era! uxi!iaries

main ver ty$ia!!y has a muh heftier semanti ontent &D meanin*' than an auxi!iary.

6or that reason% !in*uists a!so refer to main vers as !exia! vers. n auxi!iary% ita!#ays oours #ith a main ver%

4. Moda! auxi!iariesModa! auxi!iaries are a *rou$ of inde$endent #ords in >n*!ish #hih ex$ress suh

one$ts as $ermission% neessity or ai!ity.

. Have and e : main vers and as$etua! auxi!iaries7he e!ements have and e in >n*!ish have t#o distint uses: they an e either main

vers or auxi!iaries. >!!i$sis aside% #hen they a$$ear as the on!y ver in the !ause% then

y definition they must e the main ver.-e &in o!d' :

9im isn%t sure aout that.

I had a o!d !ast #ee).

!re you a friend of 9im<s?

s$et is a *rammatia! ate*ory of vers #hih ex$resses suh information

as #hether the ation of the ver is om$!eted or unfinished .



E. oordination Ff !auses

om$!ex sentenes are sentenes that onsist of more than one !ause. Fne #aythat om$!ex sentenes are formed is y oordination

>x : 9im arrived ear!y.

8ee #as ha!f an hour !ate.

eri didn<t even sho# u$.

9im arrived ear!y and 8ee #as ha!f an hour !ate% but eri didn<t even sho# u$.



Chapter &

Heads and @e$endents

What is a head?

In any $hrase% #e distin*uish et#een the #ord that is the overa!! head of the $hrase% and other #ords #hih are de$endents to that head. 7he heads of the $hrases in&1' G in o!d G are

ra)eted% and their #ord !ass indiated #ith a susri$t: ;N<for noun% ;/< for ver% ;< for

adetive and ;(< for $re$osition. !! the other #ords or $hrases are de$endents to those heads:

a. very ri*ht N sunf!o#ers . / overf!o#ed 5uite 5ui)!y

. very ri*ht

d. 5uite dv 5ui)!ye. ( inside the house

7he head is the most im$ortant #ord in the $hrase% first eause it ears the ruia! semantiinformation: it determines the meanin* of the entire $hrase. So the $hrase very bright sunflowers

is ;aout< sunf!o#ersJ overflowed quite quickly is aout somethin* overf!o#in*% and so on. 7o

ta)e other exam$!es% a brass statue means a kind of statue% not a )ind of rass% so the head is

statueJ vegetable stew is a kind of ste#% not a )ind of ve*eta!e% so the head is stew. 7he #ord!ass of the head therefore determines the #ord !ass of the entire $hrase. Sine very bright

sunflowers in &1a' is headed y a noun% it is a Noun (hrase &N('J overflowed quite quickly in &1'

is headed y a ver% so is a /er (hrase &/('J very bright in &1' is an detive (hrase &('Jquite quickly in &1d' is an dver (hrase &dv('J and in &1e'% inside the house is a (re$osition

(hrase &((' headed y the $re$osition inside.

7he inf!uene of heads on their de$endents

Heads $!ay a ruia! ro!e in determinin* ertain $ro$erties of their de$endents. 7his setionexamines three )inds of de$endenies invo!vin* a re!ationshi$ et#een a head and its

de$endent&s'.

6irst% in a!! !an*ua*es% heads se!et de$endents of a $artiu!ar #ord !ass: on!y de$endents of a

ertain ate*ory an our #ith eah )ind of head. 6or exam$!e% in >n*!ish% a head noun an emodified y an adetive suh as bright as in &1a'% ut a noun an<t e modified y an adver

suh as brightly: Kvery brightly sunflowers. nd a head ver is modified y an adver rather than

an adetive% so #e *et spoke sincerely% ut not K spoke sincere.



Chapter '

Ho# do #e identify onstituents?

7he sentene fra*ment test is one of the forma! tests for onstituent struture. Asin* suh tests%

#e an disover #hether t#o a$$arent!y simi!ar sentenes in fat have different strutures.onsider the exam$!es in &10' and &11': oth ontain #ords of exat!y the same syntati

ate*ories or #ord !asses% and in ust the same order% as &12' sho#s &to remind you% @ is the

ate*ory ;determiner<'.

&10' 9im #rote that oo) #ith the !ue over.

&11' 9im ou*ht that oo) #ith her first #a*es.

&12' N / @ N ( @ N

We mi*ht assume% then% that these sentenes share a syntati struture. Ho#ever% natives$ea)ers fee! instintive!y that &10' and &11' are differentJ the sentenes tend% for instane% tohave a different intonation $attern. In &10'% with the blue cover is a $hrase &a ((' modifyin* the

head noun book G a book with a blue cover is a ty$e of oo). So this (( e!on*s #ith that book %

formin* a onstituent #ith it in &10'.

-ut in &11'% the (( with her first wages te!!s us ho# she ou*ht the oo)% and not anythin* aout

the oo) itse!f. So that (( modifies bought – it is an adunt toL bought . ruia!!y% the (( in &11'

doesn<t modify the noun book % and so doesn<t form a onstituent #ith it.

7he sentene fra*ment test for onstituent struture su$$orts these intuitive fee!in*s. In eah

ase% #hen #e as) a 5uestion% #e *et different sentene fra*ment ans#ers:

&13' What did she #rite? 7hat oo) #ith the !ue over

&14' What did she uy? a. 7hat oo)

What did she uy? . K7hat oo) #ith her first #a*es.

>xam$!e &13' sho#s that the entire se5uene that book with the blue cover is a onstituent of

&10': it an e a sentene fra*ment. >xam$!e &14a' onfirms that the se5uene that book is aonstituent of &11'. nd ruia!!y% &14' sho#s that the se5uene that book with her first wages is

not a onstituent of &11': it an<t e a sentene fra*ment &rememer that the asteris) indiates an

un*rammatia! exam$!e'. ontrastin* *rammatia! and un*rammatia! exam$!es% as #e havedone here% is essentia!: you shou!d use the un*rammatia! exam$!es to sho# that some se5uene

of #ords is not a onstituent of the sentene you are #or)in* on. aO (!ease rememer from

no# on that in the sentene fra*ment test% the 5uestion you as) shou!d a!#ays e a grammatical one: the test is the ans#er itse!f. aO If a strin* of #ords from the ori*ina! sentene an form a

*rammatia! sentene fra*ment% it is !i)e!y that this se5uene is a onstituent of the ori*ina!

sentene. aO If the strin* of #ords is not *rammatia! as a sentene fra*ment% it most !i)e!y is

not a onstituent of the ori*ina! sentene. aO S5uare ra)ets are used to sho# #here aonstituent e*ins and ends. (!ease do not $ut ra)ets round a $hrase unless it is a onstituent.



Pou may find it usefu! to use a #avy under!ine for a strin* of #ords #hih is not a onstituent% as

I have done in &14'.

.1.2.2 he echo question test

>ho 5uestions are our next test for onstituent struture. 7hese 5uestions are used in >n*!ish

#hen the s$ea)er doesn<t hear $art of the sentene% or e!se is rather inredu!ous: e.*. !ou sawwhat" We use a wh#ord &what % which% who% when% why and so on% and in!udin* how' or a wh

$hrase &!ou saw which film"' to re$!ae ust the $art of the sentene that #e #ant re$eated%

other#ise ;ehoin*< the s$ea)er<s #ords.

7he wh#ord or $hrase doesn<t re$!ae a random strin* of #ords% ut an on!y stand

for a onstituent of the sentene:

&1' K9im #rote #hat #ith the !ue over?&1E' 9im ou*ht #hat #ith her first #a*es?

7he *rammatia! eho 5uestion in &1E' is fine eause what re$!aes that book % #hih is aonstituent of &11'. -ut &1' is un*rammatia! eause that book is on!y $art of a !ar*er

onstituent that book with the blue cover in &10'J ruia!!y% that book itse!f is not a onstituent in

this ase% and so an<t e re$!aed y a wh#ord. &We an% ho#ever% eho ust a head noun on its

o#n: for exam$!e% in &10' #e an re$!ae book #ith a wh#ord% *ivin* #im lost that what withthe blue cover" 7he reason for this is that sin*!e #ords are a!so onstituents.'

In fat% #e<ve a!ready used this test ear!ier: the eho 5uestion% he boy and who stayed to

dinner"% on!y #or)s #hen who re$!aes a onstituent% suh as the girl$s uncle. So it<s the 5uestion#e<d as) if #e #ere sure that t#o $eo$!e stayed to dinner% and that one #as the oy% ut #e

#eren<t sure #ho the other $erson #as.

7o summari"e: in the eho 5uestion test% a wh#ord or $hrase an re$!ae a onstituentJ if the

resu!tin* 5uestion is un*rammatia!% thou*h% the strin* of #ords #hih you<ve re$!aed is

$roa!y not a onstituent.

.1.2.3 he cleft test

further test for onstituent struture onfirms our findin*s: the t#o sentenes in &10' and &11'

have different strutures. In the !eft onstrution i!!ustrated in &1Q'% the strin* of #ords in the;fous< $osition must e a onstituent. So in &1Q'% #e an fous on the #ho!e se5uene that book

with the blue cover % sho#in* that this is a onstituent: &1Q' It #as that oo) #ith the !ue over

that 9im #rote. -ut in &1R'% the se5uene that book with her first wages is not a onstituent% andso an<t our in the fous $osition of a !eft sentene. 7his onfirms #hat #e sa# in &14': &1R'

KIt #as that oo) #ith her first #a*es that 9im ou*ht.

Cememer that #e on!y ra)et a strin* of #ords #hih is a onstituent% so #e ra)et that book with the blue cover in &1Q'% ut not that book with her first wages in &1R'. Fur ori*ina! sentene

in &11' does% ho#ever% ontain other #ord se5uenes #hih #i!! fit into the fous $osition of a

!eft sentene. 6or instane% #e an fous on either that book or with her first wages% sho#in*that oth these $hrases are se$arate onstituents of &11':

&1' a. It #as that oo) that 9im ou*ht #ith her first #a*es.



. It #as #ith her first #a*es that 9im ou*ht that oo).

(uttin* to*etherthe information from a!! three tests% #e an sho# #hat #e<ve !earnt so far aoutthe onstituent struture of &10' and &11' y usin* ra)ets% as

&20' 9im #rote that oo) #ith the !ue over .&21' 9im ou*ht that oo) #ith her first #a*es .

7he #ho!e sentene is a!so in ra)ets in eah ase% sine oth exam$!es our as inde$endentsentenes% and are therefore onstituents G if sentene fra*ments are onstituents% then it<s not

sur$risin* that #ho!e sentenes are a!so onstituents. !thou*h there are other onstituents in

eah sentene% the ra)ets in &20' and &21' sho# as muh information as #e have u$ to no#.

Ff ourse% for our onstitueny tests to have rea! si*nifiane% #e must e a!e to a$$!y them to!an*ua*es other than >n*!ish% a!thou*h not a!! tests a$$!y e5ua!!y #e!! in a!! !an*ua*es% eause

ertain syntati onstrutions may e asent. !eft onstrutions our #ide!yJ in the Irish

exam$!es that fo!!o#% &22a' sho#s the asi #ord order% and &22' is a !eft onstrution #ith the

noun $hrase an fear ;the man< in the fous $osition:

&22' a. -hi an fear a* $einteTi! athaoir. &Irish'#as the man $ro* $aint hair

;7he man #as $aintin* a hair.<

. Is e an fear a hi a* $einteTi! athaoir.is it the man #ho #as $ro* $aint hair

;It<s the man #ho #as $aintin* a hair.<

Simi!ar!y in the next exam$!es% from 8e)eitio -as5ue% &23a' has asi #ord order% #hi!e &23' isa !eft onstrution% #ith fous on the fronted noun $hrase orreri mutillari ;that oy< &the dative

ase mar)in* on this N( does the #or) of the $re$osition ;to< in >n*!ish% sho#in* the oy as the

rei$ient':

&23' a. $remiUua orreri muti!!ari emonaVOdot"e. &-as5ue'

$ri"e that.dative oy.dative *iveaVOaux;7hey have *iven the $ri"e to that oy.<

. orreri muti!!ari da $remiUua emon dot"eaVOna.

that.dative oy.dative is $ri"e *ive auxaVOthat

;It<s to that boy that they have *iven the $ri"e.<6rom &23'% #e an te!! that orreri mutillari is a onstituent of &23a'.

.1.2.4 Displacement and dependency7he onstrutions in Setion .1.2 a!! i!!ustrate an im$ortant $ro$erty of human !an*ua*e: the

ai!ity to dis$!ae or move a $hrase from its asi $osition. 7he ha!!mar) of suh dis$!aement is

that a $hrase is understood semantia!!y as if it #ere in one $osition in the !ause% ut ours $hysia!!y &syntatia!!y and audi!y' in a different $osition in the !ause. We an i!!ustrate usin*

the !eft exam$!es seen ear!ier:

&24' It #as N( that oo) that 9im ou*ht #ith her first #a*es.



&2' It #as (( #ith her first #a*es that 9im ou*ht that oo) .

7he *a$ in these exam$!es sho#s the ;ori*ina!< $osition of the dis$!aed $hrases. In other #ords%#hen you hear an exam$!e !i)e &24'% you understand it as if the dis$!aed N( that book #ere sti!!

in its norma! !inear $osition% fo!!o#in* the ver bought . Im$ortant!y% the ver bought on!y has

one diret oet% and that syntati fat does not han*e ust eause the oet is dis$!aedfrom its asi $osition in the usua! onstituent order. 7he same a$$!ies to &2': the dis$!aed ((

is understood as if it #ere in the ty$ia! adunt $osition% fo!!o#in* the diret oet.

7he dis$!aement of a $hrase sets u$ a de$endeny et#een the dis$!aed $hrase and the ;em$ty< $osition assoiated #ith it: the dis$!aed e!ement $rovides the $hysia! #ords #e need% ut its

asi $osition s$eifies its syntati ro!e% for instane the ro!e of ;diret oet< in &24'. 7he

dis$!aed e!ement and the assoiated *a$ are of ourse one and the same entity G movin* the

oet that book does not a!ter the ar*ument struture of the ver bought .It is !i)e!y that a!! !an*ua*es have instanes of dis$!aement of one )ind or another. We #i!! see

other exam$!es as #e *o a!on*.

.1.2. %ummary

>ah of the tests for onstituent struture in Setion .1.2 #or)s y harnessin* the intuitions of native s$ea)ers of a !an*ua*e. 7he fat that s$ea)ers share *rammatia!ity ud*ements G

intuitions aout #hih sentenes are $ossi!e and #hih aren<t G sho#s that #e have anunonsious )no#!ed*e of the #ord *rou$in*s in a sentene. 7he tests for onstituent struture

are ust $artiu!ar syntati environments #hih an e fi!!ed on!y y onstituents. Whenever #e

$ut a strin* of #ords that isn<t a onstituent into one of these environments% theresu!t sounds im$ossi!e to native s$ea)ers. 7his un*rammatia!ity &the tehnia! term for suh

resu!ts' te!!s us that in suh ases% the strin* of #ords isn<t a onstituent.

So far in Setion .1% I have introdued these syntati tests for onstituent struture: &1'

re$!aement y a $ronounJ &2' sentene fra*mentsJ &3' eho 5uestionsJ and &4' !eft sentenes.7he information aout onstituent struture #hih resu!ts from our tests an e re$resented y

usin* s5uare ra)ets to mar) off the onstituents% as I have done so far% or a!ternative!y y usin*

tree dia*rams. We turn next to this to$i.

.1.3 Introdution to onstituent struture trees

In &2E' and &2Q'% I re$resent the struture of our t#o sentenes in &10' and &11' y usin* treedia*rams. s you an see% these are u$sidedo#n trees% #ith the root at the to$% and ranhes

desendin* from that root. 7he root of the tree is !ae!!ed ;S< for ;Sentene<% and the !ause is

divided into t#o main ranhes% the suet and the $rediate% as disussed in Setion 3.1.1.

&2E' S

N( /(

/ N(



9im #rote that oo) #ith the !ue over

&2Q' S

N( /(

/( ((

/ N( #ith her first #a*es

9im ou*ht that oo)

8et<s no# *o throu*h these tree strutures. In eah ase% there is a maor s$!it et#een the suet

N( on the !eft ranh and the $rediate /( on the ri*ht ranh. -oth trees have a suet% #im.7he differene in struture in our t#o sentenes !ies #ithin the /(% as #e disovered from our

tests on onstituent struture% and this differene is ref!eted in the form of the t#o trees.

In &2E'% I have su**ested that the ver and its oet to*ether form a ver $hrase &/('. 7he /(has t#o ranhes% / &for ver' ontainin* ust the transitive ver wrote% and N(% the noun $hrase

#hih is the om$!ement of wrote. 7his se5uene% that book with the blue cover % is sho#n as a

trian*!e% #hih indiates that the #ho!e se5uene forms a onstituent. 7hat doesn<t mean thatthere is no more interna! struture #ithin that N(% ust that so far% this is a!! #e<ve disovered.

In &2Q'% #e a*ain have a /( onsistin* of the transitive ver bought $!us its om$!ement% theoet N( that book . Ho#ever% #e a!so have an adunt here% name!y the (( with her first wages.

Cea!! from ha$ter 4 that an adunt is a onstituent #hih is syntatia!!y o$tiona!% in other

#ords not re5uired in order to ma)e the sentene *rammatia!: adunts are not ar*uments of thever% and are therefore nonessentia! onstituents. 7he struture that I<ve su**ested for &2Q'

ref!ets this y sho#in* that if #e add an adunt to the /(% #e don<t *et a different kind of

$hrase G it<s sti!! a ver $hrase% ut ust one that ontains more information. 7he struture is

reursive% in that it has a /( #ithin a !ar*er /(. In re$resentin* /(s in eah tree% I have atua!!ysho#n more struture than I *ave in the ra)ets for eah sentene in &20' and &21' G those

exam$!es did not in!ude a set of ra)ets round the ver and its de$endents. So #e ou*ht to

he) that the /( rea!!y is a onstituent in eah ase. We an do this y usin* a different test for onstitueny: the do so test. /( an e re$!aed y do so &or did so in the $ast tense' as

fo!!o#s:

&2R' I thou*ht that Me! /( #rote that oo) #ith the !ue over.

NoT 9im /( did so.

&2' I thou*ht that Me! /( ou*ht that oo) #ith her first #a*es



NoT 9im /( did so.

7he do so test #or)s y re$!ain* the entire /( #ith somethin* that stands for it% and it on!y#or)s if the se5uene ein* re$!aed rea!!y is a onstituent. In &2'% I<ve re$!aed the #ho!e

!ar*er /( bought that book with her first wages #ith did so. -ut note that &2Q' a!so ontains a

sma!!er /(% bought that book . If our test is to have any va!idity% this shou!d a!so e re$!aea!e ydid so. nd indeed it is:

&30' I thou*ht that Me! /( ou*ht that oo) &#ith some of her inheritane'. NoT 9im /( did so #ith her first #a*es.

We an a!so use the do so test to onfirm that the se5uene wrote that book on its o#n does not

form a /( onstituent in &2E'. Fne a*ain% the ontrast in *rammatia!ity demonstrates thedifferene in struture et#een the t#o exam$!es:

&31' I thou*ht that Me! #rote that oo) #ith the !ue over.

NoT K9im did so #ith the !ue over.

7he reason that wrote that book does not at !i)e a /( here is eause the se5uene that book isitse!f not a onstituent in this ase% ut rather is $art of the N( that book with the blue cover % as

#e sa# in Setion .1.2. 7his #ho!e N( is the oet of wrote% so #e an<t ta)e $art of it and

!eave the rest ehind. 7he under!inin* shou!d he!$ you see that wrote that book is not aonstituent here:

&32' S

N( /(

/ N(

9im #rote that oo) #ith the !ue over



Chapter (

Ce!ationshi$s #ithin the !ause

7here are three main #ays in #hih a !an*ua*e may indiate the re!ationshi$ et#een ore N(s

and the vera! $rediate. 6irst% eah ore N( may have a fixed $osition in the !ause: suh asystem uses onstituent order to indiate the re!ationshi$ et#een N( and ver. In >n*!ish% oth

suets and oets have a fixed $osition% #hih is ho# #e determine #ho )i!!ed #ho in a $air

of sentenes !i)e he snake killed the bird and he bird killed the snake. -ut ore N(s don<t have

a fixed $osition in a!! !an*ua*es. ore N(s in 8atin an a$$ear 5uite easi!y in different $ositionsJ oth sentenes in &1' have the same meanin*% a!thou*h the order of the N(s is different in &1a'

and &1':

&1' a. (ueraVOum $ue!!a audiaVOt. &8atin' oyaVOa *ir!.nom hearaVO$res.3s*

;7he *ir! hears the oy.< . (ue!!a $ueraVOum audiaVOt.*ir!.nom oyaVOa hearaVO$res.3s*

;7he *ir! hears the oy.<

7his variation in onstituent order is $ossi!e eause in 8atin% the form of the N(s themse!ves

indiates #hat re!ationshi$ they have #ith the ver: this is ase mar)in*.7he nominative N( &*!ossed nom' si*nifies the suet and the ausative N( &*!ossed a'

si*nifies the oet of the ver. Nominative and ausative are *rammatia! terms for distint

ases. 8atin% then% uti!i"es the seond main #ay of distin*uishin* ore N(s: y asemar)in*.Suets in 8atin are not distin*uished from oets y their $osition% ut y ein* s$eifia!!y

mar)ed as suets or oets.



Chapter )

(roesses that han*e *rammatia! re!ations

7he $assive onstrution and transitive vers onsider the $airs of sentenes in &1' throu*h &3':

&1' a. 9im too) some *reat $hotos #ith that o!d amera. . Some *reat $hotos #ere ta)en &y 9im' #ith that o!d amera.

&2' a. We sto!e that Min* vase yesterday.

. 7hat Min* vase #as sto!en &y us' yesterday.

&3' a. 7hree u$s of tea have revived the nurse.

. 7he nurse has een revived &y three u$s of tea'.

In eah exam$!e% the &a' sentenes are said to e ative and the &' sentenes $assive.

7he $assive onstrution

$$!ies to a transitive !ause &the ative !ause' and forms an intransitive !ause.

Fet $romoted X suet.

6ormer suet demoted X o!i5ue ar*ument% or is de!etedJ removed from theore.

han*es our in the mor$ho!o*y of the ver to si*na! $assivi"ation

;/a!eny< refers to the numer of ore ar*uments that a ver has. We have seen in this ha$ter thatY!an*ua*es ty$ia!!y have one or more va!enyhan*in* o$eration. 7hese may inrease the

numer of ore ar*uments% as% for instane% #ith the a$$!iative and ausative onstrutions in

Setions Q.3 and Q.4. Fr a!ternative!y% va!enyhan*in* may invo!ve a derease in the numer of

ore ar*uments% forinstane in the $assive and anti$assive &Setions Q.1 and Q.2'. 7he $roesses#e<ve seen a!so invo!ve $romotion and demotion of ore ar*uments% fore*roundin* some N(s

and a)*roundin* others G removin* them from the ;ore< G for various $ra*mati $ur$oses. We

have a!so seen that these $roesses interat #ith one another% for instane y $roduin* a ne#ore ar*ument that an e further $romoted.



Chapter *

WHontrution : 5uestion = re!ative !ause

8an*ua*es #ith whmovement h-5uestions are so a!!ed eause% in >n*!ish% they e*in #ith a

wh#ord suh as what % who% where% which% when% why and a!so how. &1' and &2' i!!ustrate:

&1' a. 8ee sa# that *ir! #ith the !on* sarf at the usaVOsto$ yesterday.

. Who did 8ee see at the usaVOsto$ yesterday?

&2' a. 8ee sa# that *ir! #ith the !on* sarf at the usaVOsto$ yesterday.

. Where did 8ee see that *ir! #ith the !on* sarf yesterday?

Ce!ative !auses in > n*!ish

7he next maor whonstrution is the re!ative !ause. 7his onstrution $roa!y ours in a!!!an*ua*es in one form or another. Some ty$ia! exam$!es from >n*!ish are *iven in &2R'% #here

the re!ative !auses are in ra)ets:

&2R' a. She snar!ed at the students #ho hadn<t read the oo).

. 7he $a$er &#hih' #e disuss next #ee) !oo)s rea!!y interestin*.

. I ex$et the fi!m &that' #e<re *oin* to toni*ht #i!! e fantasti.d. 7hey #rote a revie# of that onert they heard in Ne#ast!e.



ha$ter !s+ing ,uestions about orphosyntax

13 5uestions to e *enerated :

1. Fn ha$ter 1 and ha$ter E% #hat is the neutra!% or unmar)ed #ord order in the !ause% if

there is one?. If there is no neutra! onstituent order% ho# aout main $rini$!es of

!ineari"ation. re a transitive !ause #ith t#o fu!! N( ar*uments and an intransitive

!ause the same?

2. What a!ternative neutra! #ord orders are $ossi!e% if any? Ho# mar)ed are these?

3. Fn ha$ter 2 and ha$ter 4% #hat are the main #ord !asses &or syntati ate*ories' in

your !an*ua*e #ith fousin* on the !exia! !asses N% / and ?

4. Fn ha$ter 4% is your !an*ua*e $redominant!y headinitia! or $redominant!y headfina!?

re there any diffiu!ties in esta!ishin* a $redominant !ineari"ation?

. Fn ha$ter 3% ho# does your !an*ua*e ex$ress !ausa! ne*ation?.

E. Fn ha$ter 3% for oinin* !auses to*ether that are found in your !an*ua*e% #hat )inds of

om$!ementation our? 6or instane% does the !an*ua*e have oth finite and nonfinite

om$!ement !auses? @oes it have !ausa! suets? If so% an they e oth finite and non

finite? @oes your !an*ua*e re!y !ar*e!y on suordination% as is the ase for ty$ia!

>uro$ean !an*ua*es? @oes it have nomina!i"ed emeddin*s? Fr does it% for instane% use

oordination or ver seria!i"ation?

Q. Fn ha$ter 3% are the onstituent orders ourrin* in suordinate !auses the same as

those in root !auses% or different? re there any &other' note#orthy differenes et#een

root and emedded !auses?

Why is it so hard for adu!ts to !earn a ne# !an*ua*e?

a!! !an*ua*es e5ua!!y om$!ex? nd are some !an*ua*es harder to !earn than others?

@o a!! !an*ua*es manifest road!y the same syntati $ro$erties?

Syntax o$erates in the natura! !an*ua*es of the #or!d #ith )ind of om$!exities on eah

!an*ua*e.

7he syntax $art of the *rammar of a !an*ua*e doesn<t exist in iso!ation. It interats oth

#ith form &mor$ho!o*y' and meanin* &semantis'.



Not a!! !an*ua*es have muh syntax.

Many !an*ua*es use mor$ho!o*y to si*na! the )inds of syntati $roesses suh as the

formation of $assives or of ausatives.

Many !an*ua*es use mor$ho!o*y G asemar)in*% vera! a*reement% or oth G todistin*uish et#een the ore $artii$ants in a !ause% a!thou*h some !an*ua*es re!y

a!most entire!y on #ord order to do this.

ha$ter 1 u$ to ha$ter R are ritia!!y interat #ith syntax in a!! !an*ua*es. 6or instane%

there are im$ortant disourse fators invo!ved in the se!etion of syntati onstrutionsJ

as an exam$!e% #e sa# in ha$ter Q ho# the need to a!!o# noun $hrases to e o

referentia! #ith $revious noun $hrases #ithin the sentene an *ive rise to onstrutions

suh as the $assive and the anti $assive.

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