REPORT BY SHUBHADIP BISWAS

8/7/2019 REPORT BY SHUBHADIP BISWAS

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REPORT ON USES OF DATA BASE INDIFFERENT SECTORS BY MANAGERS

SUBJECT- MANAGEMENT INFORMATIONSYSTEM

SUBMITTED TO: DR. RICHA MISRA

SUBMITTED BY:SHUBHADIP BISWAS

ROLL NO.-FT-10-948

SEC-A

GROUP-4PGDM 10-12IILM-GSM

DATE OF SUBMISSION- 19/01/11


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REPORT ON USES OF DATA BASE IN DIFFERENT SECTORSBY MANAGERS---DATABASE:A database is a collection of information organized to

provide efficient retrieval.

DBMS is a central system which provides a common interfacebetween the data and the various front-end programs in theapplication. It also provides a central location for the whole datain the application to reside.Due to its centralized nature, the database system can overcomethe disadvantages of the file-based system as discussed below.

Minimal Data Redundancy

Since the whole data resides in one central database, the variousprograms in the application can access data in different data files.Hence data present in one file need not be duplicated in another.This reduces data redundancy. However, this does not mean allredundancy can be eliminated. There could be business ortechnical reasons for having some amount of redundancy. Anysuch redundancy should be carefully controlled and the DBMSshould be aware of it.

Data Consistency

Reduced data redundancy leads to better data consistency.

Data IntegrationSince related data is stored in one single database, enforcing dataintegrity is much easier. Moreover, the functions in the DBMS canbe used to enforce the integrity rules with minimum programmingin the application programs.

Data SharingRelated data can be shared across programs since the data is

stored in a centralized manner. Even new applications can bedeveloped to operate against the same data.Enforcement of Standards

Enforcing standards in the organization and structure of data filesis required and also easy in a Database System, since it is onesingle set of programs which is always interacting with the datafiles.


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Application Development EaseThe application programmer need not build the functions forhandling issues like concurrent access, security, data integrity,etc. The programmer only needs to implement the application

business rules.This brings in application development ease. Adding additionalfunctional modules is also easier than in file-based systems.

Better ControlsBetter controls can be achieved due to the centralized nature ofthe system.

Data IndependenceThe architecture of the DBMS can be viewed as a 3-level systemcomprising the following:

The internal or the physical level where the data resides. The conceptual level which is the level of the DBMS functions The external level which is the level of the application programsor the end user.Data Independence is isolating an upper level from the changesin the organization or structure of a lower level. For example, ifchanges in the file organization of a data file do not demand forchanges in the functions in the DBMS or in the applicationprograms, data independence is achieved. Thus Data

Independence can be defined as immunity of applications tochange in physical representation and access technique. Theprovision of data independence is a major objective for databasesystems.

Reduced MaintenanceMaintenance is less and easy, again, due to the centralized natureof the System The following figure shows the process of databaseaccess in general. The DBMS views the database as a collection ofrecords. The File Manager of the underlying Operating System

views it as a set of pages and the Disk Manager views it as acollection of physical locations on the disk.


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When the DBMS makes a request for a specific record to the FileManager, the latter maps the record to a page containing it andrequests the Disk Manager for the specific page. The DiskManager determines the physical location on the disk andretrieves the required page.ClusteringIn this process if the page containing the requested record isalready in the memory, retrieval from the disk is not necessary.In such a situation, time taken for the whole operation will beless. Thus, if records which are frequently used together areplaced physically together, more records will be in the samepage. Hence the number of pages to be retrieved will be lessand this reduces the number of disk accesses which in turn gives

a better performance.This method of storing logically related records, physicallytogether is called clustering.If queries retrieving Customers with consecutive Cust_IDsfrequently occur in the application, clustering based on Cust_IDwill help improving the performance of these queries. This can beexplained as follows.


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Assume that the Customer record size is 128 bytes and thetypical size of a page retrieved by the File Manager is 1 Kb (1024bytes).If there is no clustering, it can be assumed that the Customer

records are stored at random physical locations. In the worst-case scenario, each record may be placed in a different page.Hence a query to retrieve 100 records with consecutive Cust_Ids(say, 10001 to 10100), will require 100 pages to be accessedwhich in turn translates to 100 disk accesses.But, if the records are clustered, a page can contain 8 records.Hence the number of pages to be accessed for retrieving the 100consecutive records will be ceil(100/8) = 13. i.e., only 13 diskaccesses will be required to obtain the query results. Thus, in the

given example, clustering improves the speed by a factor of 7.7IndexingIndexing is another common method for making retrievals faster.Consider the example of CUSTOMER table used above. Thefollowing query is based on Customer's city.Retrieve the records of all customers who reside in DelhiHere a sequential search on the CUSTOMER table has to becarried out and all records with the value 'Delhi' in the Cust_Cityfield have to be retrieved. The time taken for this operation

depends on the number of pages to be accessed. If the recordsare randomly stored, the page accesses depends on the volumeof data. If the records are stored physically together, the numberof pages depends on the size of each record also.a sequential search on the CUSTOMER table has to be carried outand all records with the value 'Delhi' in the Cust_City field have tobe retrieved. The time taken for this operation depends on thenumber of pages to be accessed. If the records are randomlystored, the page accesses depends on the volume of data. If the

records are stored physically together, the number of pagesdepends on the size of each record also.If such queries based on Cust_City field are very frequent in theapplication, steps can be taken to improve the performance ofthese queries. Creating an Index on Cust_City is one suchmethod. This results in the scenario as shown below.


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A new index file is created. The number of records in the index

file is same as that of the data file. The index file has two fields ineach record. One field contains the value of the Cust_City fieldand the second contains a pointer to the actual data record in theCUSTOMER table. Whenever a query based on Cust_City fieldoccurs, a search is carried out on the Index file. Here, it is to benoted that this search will be much faster than a sequentialsearch in the CUSTOMER table, if the records are storedphysically together. This is because of the much smaller size ofthe index record due to which each page will be able to contain

more number of records.When the records with value 'Delhi' in the Cust_City field in theindex file are located, the pointer in the second field of therecords can be followed to directly retrieve the correspondingCUSTOMER records.

It is possible to create an index with multiple fields i.e.,index on field combinations. Multiple indexes can also becreated on the same table simultaneously though there maybe a limit on the maximum number of indexes that can becreated on a table.


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Relational database is usually used in various sector:


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Database architecture used by various sectors:One Tier ArchitecturesImagine a person on a desktop computer who uses MicrosoftAccess to load up a list of personal addresses and phone numbers

that he or she has saved in MS Windows' My Documents folder.This is an example of a onetier database architecture. Theprogram (Microsoft Access) runs on the user's local machine, andreferences a file that is stored on that machine's hard drive, thususing a single physical resource to access and processinformation.Another example of a one-tier architecture is a file serverarchitecture. In this scenario, a workgroup database is stored in ashared location on a single machine. Workgroup members use a

software package such as Microsoft Access to load the data andthen process it on their local machine. In this case, the data maybe shared among different users, but all of the processing occurson the local machine. Essentially, the file-server is just an extrahard drive from which to retrieve files.Yet another way one-tier architectures have appeared is in that ofmainframe computing. In this outdated system, large machinesprovide directly connected unintelligent terminals with the meansnecessary to access, view and manipulate data. Even though this

is considered a clientserver system, since all of the processingpower (for both data and applications) occurs on a singlemachine, we have a one-tier architecture.One-tier architectures can be beneficial when we are dealing withdata that is relevant to a single user (or small number of users)and we have a relatively small amount of data. They aresomewhat inexpensive to deploy and maintain.

Two Tier Client/Server Architectures

A two-tier architecture is one that is familiar to many of today'scomputer users. A common implementation of this type of systemis that of a Microsoft Windows based client program that accessesa server database such as Oracle or SQL Server. Users interactthrough a GUI (Graphical User Interface) to communicate withthe database server across a network via SQL (Structured QueryLanguage).


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N-Tier Client/Server ArchitecturesMost n-tier database architectures exist in a three-tierconfiguration. In this architecture the client/server modelexpands to include a middle tier (business tier), which is an

application server that houses the business logic. This middle tierrelieves the client application(s) and database server of some oftheir processing duties by translating client calls into databasequeries and translating data from the database into client data inreturn.


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COMPONENT MODEL OF DATABASE AND THEIRINTERACTIONS:

Tools, Application Environments, and CommunicationsFacilitiesMany tools are often available to database designers, users, andDBAs. CASE tools" are used in the design phase of database

systems. Another tool that can be quite useful in largeorganizations is an expanded datadictionary (or datarepository) system. In addition to storing cataloginformation about schemas and constraints, the data dictionarystores other information, such as design decisions, usagestandards, application program descriptions, and user


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information. Such a system is also called an informationrepository. This information can he accessed directlyby usersor the DBA when needed. A data dictionary utility is similar to theDBMS catalog, but it includes a wider variety of information and is

accessed mainly by users rather than by the DBMS software.Application development environments, such as thePowerBuilder (Sybase) or JBuilder (Borland) system, arebecoming quite popular. These systems provide an environmentfor developing database applications and include facilities thathelp in many facets of database systems, including databasedesign, GUI development, querying and updating, and applicationprogram development.The DBMS also needs to interface with communications

software, whose function is to allow users at locations remotefrom the database system site to access the database throughcomputer terminals, workstations, or their local personalcomputers. These are connected to the database site throughdata communications hardware such as phone lines, long-haulnetworks, local area networks, or satellite communicationdevices. Many commercial database systems have communicationpackages that work with the DBMS.The integrated DBMS and data communications system is called a

DB/DC system. In addition, some distributed DBMSs arephysically distributed over multiple machines. In this case,communications networks are needed to connect the machines.These are often local area networks (LANs), butthey can also be other types of networks.

Advantages of Database Processing

Economy of Scale

Since several users are sharing the database, any improvementin the database will benefit several users, The term economy ofscale refers to the fact that the collective cost of severalcombined operations may be less than the sum of the cost ofindividual operations. This type of combination is possible usingdatabase processing.


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Efficient extraction of relevant InformationThe primary goal of a computer system is to tune data (recordedfacts) into information (knowledge gained by processing thesefacts). This is possible using database.

Sharing of DataAuthorized users can share the data. Several users can haveaccess to the same piece of data ( for example, faculty membersaddress) and use it for several purposes, when a faculty membersaddress is changed. The change is available to all users.Balancing Conflicting RequirementsFor the database approach to function properly there must be aperson or group in change of the database. This group is calleddatabase Administration (DBA). By keeping the overall

requirements of the organization in mind, DBA can structure thedatabase to the benefit of the entire organization. Thus theoverall organization will benefit.Environment of StandardsWith the centralized control, DBA can ensure those standards fordata names etc. is followed uniformly throughout theorganization.Controlled RedundancySince data, which was kept in several files, is now integrated into

a single database, we no longer have multiple copies of the samedata. There may be occasions when duplication of data will benecessary. DBMS helps us to control redundancy rather thaneliminate it.ConsistencyConsistency follows from the control or elimination ofredundancy. If the address of a faculty appears only in one place,it is not possible for a faculty to have one address in one placeand another address in another place.

IntegrityAn Integrity constraint is a rule which data in the database shouldfollow. One integrity constraint may be that the departmentnumber for a faculty must be that of a department which actuallyexists. A database has integrity if data in the database satisfiesall integrity constraints, which have been established.Security


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Security is the prevention of access to the database byunauthorized users. Since DBA has complete control over data itcan define authorization procedures to ensure that only legitimateusers can have access to the data.

DBA can also allow different users to have different types ofaccess to the same data . the payroll department shouldbe able to view and change the salary of a faculty and theInsurance department should be able to view the salary of afaculty but not change it whereas the person in charge ofhandling academic activities of faculty may not be even able tosee the salary. One method by which DBA achieves this securityis through user views. If a data item is not included in the userview for a use, then that user will not be able to have access to

that data.Flexibility and ResponsivenessSince the data, which was previously kept in several files, is nowin the same database, responding to requests from differentareas is possible in a much easier and more flexible manner.Suppose we want to find all faculty members who are indepartment2, who are covered by insurance plan3 and who havea salary below RM35000, we can writeSELECT facultyumber, Name

FROM FACULTY WHERE DeptNo = 2AND PlanNo = 3 AND SALARY < 35000

Data IndependenceData independence occurs when the structure of the databasecan change without requiring programs that access the databaseto change. Data independence is achieved through the use ofexternal views. Each program accesses data through an external

view. The underlying structure of the database can changewithout requiring a change in the external view. Of course, thechange to the database structure should be such that a requiredfield should not be removed from the database structure.

Database Services


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Following are services which should be provided by any full scaleDBMS.1. Data Storage, Retrieval and UpdateA DBMS must furnish users with the ability to store, retrieve and

update data in the database.2. A User Accessible Catalog.A DBMS must furnish a catalog in which descriptions of dataitems are stored which is accessible to users.3. Transaction supportA DBMS must furnish a mechanism, which will ensure that eitherall the updates corresponding to a given transaction are made, orthat none of them is made.4. concurrency control services

A DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that the database isupdated correctly when multiple users are updating the databaseat the same time.5. Recovery ServicesA DBMS must furnish a mechanism for recovering the database ifthe database is damaged in any way.6. Authorization ServicesA DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that only authorizedusers can have access to the database.

7. Support for data CommunicationA DBMS must be able to integrate with communication software.8. Integrity ServicesA DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that both the datain the database and changes to the data follow certain rules.9. Services to Promote Data Independence.A DBMS must include facilities to support the independence ofprograms from the actual structure of the database.10. Utility Services

A DBMS should provide a set of utility services.

EXAMPLE:

Give the computer ID and manufacturer name of all computers,which either have a 386SX processor or have been assigned, forthe use or both.SELECT COMPUTER WHERE ProcType = 386SX GIVING TEMP1


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PROJECT TEMP1 OVER Compid, Mfgname GIVING TEMP2JOIN COMPUTER, PC WHERE COMPUTER.Compid = PC.compidGIVING TEMP3SELECT TEMP3 WHERE LOCATION = Home GIVING TEMP4

PROJECT TEMP4 OVER Compid.MfgName GIVING TEMP5UNION TEMP2 WITH TEMP5 GIVING ANSWERGive the computer ID and the name of the manufacturer of allcomputers which have 386SX processor and which have beenassigned for home use.Change the last line toINSERT TEMP2 WITH TEMP5 GIVING ANSWERGive the computer id and manufacturer name of all computers,which have a 386SX processor but have not been assigned for

home use.Change the last line toSUBTRACT TEMP5 FROM TEMP2 GIVING ANSWERProduct of two relations is the relation obtained by concatenatingevery row of the first relation with every row of second relation.

E-R Modeling


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Entity Relationship Modeling (ER modeling) is by far the mostcommon way to express the analytical result of an early stage inthe construction of a new database. E-R Diagrams are the way toachieve this.Entity relationship diagrams are a way to represent the structureand layout of a database. It is used frequently to describe thedatabase schema. ER diagrams are very useful as they provide agood conceptual view of any database, regardless of the

underlying hardware and software. An ERD is a model thatidentifies the concepts or entities that exist in a system and therelationships between those entities. An ERD is often used as away to visualize a relational database: each entity represents adatabase table, and the relationship lines represent the keys inone table that point to specific records in related tables. ERDs


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Special Entity TypesAssociative entities (also known as intersection entities) areentities used to associate two or more entities in order toreconcile a many-to-many relationship.Subtypes entities are used in generalization hierarchies torepresent a subset of instances of their parent entity, called thesupertype, but which have attributes or relationships that applyonly to the subset.Associative entities and generalization hierarchies are discussed

in more detail below.RelationshipsA Relationship represents an association between two or moreentities. An example of a relationship would be:employees are assigned to projectsprojects have subtasks departments manage one or moreprojects Relationships are classified in terms of degree,connectivity, cardinality, and existence


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Some relationship instances in the SUPPLY ternary relationship set

Schema diagram for the COMPANY relational database schema


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One possible database state for the COMPANY relational database schema


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AttributesAttributes describe the entity of which they are associated. Aparticular instance of an attribute is a value. For example, "JaneR. Hathaway" is one value of the attribute Name. The domain of

an attribute is the collection of all possible values an attribute canhave. The domain of Name is a character string.Attributes can be classified as identifiers or descriptors.Identifiers, more commonly called keys, uniquely identify aninstance of an entity. A descriptor describes a non-uniquecharacteristic of an entity instance.Classifying RelationshipsRelationships are classified by their degree, connectivity,cardinality, direction, type, and existence. Not all modeling

methodologies use all these classifications.Degree of a RelationshipThe degree of a relationship is the number of entities associatedwith the relationship. The n-ary relationship is the general formfor degree n. Special cases are the binary, and ternary ,where thedegree is 2, and 3, respectively. Binary relationships, theassociation between two entities are the most common type inthe real world. A recursive binary relationship occurs whenan entity is related to itself. An example might be "some

employees are married to other employees".A ternary relationship involves three entities and is used when abinary relationship is inadequate. Many modeling approachesrecognize only binary relationships. Ternary or n-ary relationshipsare decomposed into two or more binary relationships.Connectivity and CardinalityThe connectivity of a relationship describes the mapping ofassociated entity instances in the relationship. The values ofconnectivity are "one" or "many".

The cardinality of a relationship is the actual number of relatedoccurrences for each of the two entities. The basic types ofconnectivity for relations are:one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.A one-to-one (1:1) relationship is when at most one instance of aentity A is associated with one instance of entity B. For example,"employees in the company are each assigned their own office.


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For each employee there exists a unique office and for each officethere exists a unique employee.A one-to-many (1:N) relationships is when for one instance ofentity A, there are zero, one, or many instances of entity B, but

for one instance of entity B, there is only one instance of entity A.An example of a 1:N relationships is a department has manyemployees each employee is assigned to one department.A many-to-many (M:N) relationship, sometimes called non-specific, is when for one instance of entity A, there are zero, one,or many instances of entity B and for one instance of entity Bthere are zero, one, or many instances of entity A. An exampleis:employees can be assigned to no more than two projects at the

same time; projects must have assigned at least three employeesA single employee can be assigned to many projects; conversely,a single project can have assigned to it many employee. Here thecardinality for the relationship between employees and projects istwo and the cardinality between project and employee is three.Many-to-many relationships cannot be directly translated torelational tables but instead must be transformed into two ormore one-to-many relationships using associative entities.Direction

The direction of a relationship indicates the originating entity of abinary relationship. The entity from which a relationshiporiginates is the parententity; the entity where the relationshipterminates is the child entity. The direction of a relationship isdetermined by its connectivity. In a one-to-one relationship thedirection is from the independent entity to a dependent entity. Ifboth entities are independent, the direction is arbitrary. With one-to many relationships, the entity occurring once is the parent.The direction of many-to-many relationships is arbitrary.

TypeAn identifying relationship is one in which one of the child entitiesis also a dependent entity. A non-identifying relationship is one inwhich both entities are independent.ExistenceExistence denotes whether the existence of an entity instance isdependent upon the existence of another, related, entity


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instance. The existence of an entity in a relationship is defined aseither mandatory or optional. If an instance of an entity mustalways occur for an entity to be included in a relationship, then itis mandatory. An example of mandatory existence is the

statement "every project must be managed by a singledepartment". If the instance of the entity is not required, it isoptional. An example of optional existence is the statement,"employees may be assigned to work on projects".Generalization HierarchiesA generalization hierarchy is a form of abstraction that specifiesthat two or more entities that share common attributes can begeneralized into a higher level entity type called a supertype orgenericentity. The lower-level of entities become the subtype, or

categories, to the supertype. Subtypes are dependent entities.Generalization occurs when two or more entities representcategories of the same real-world object. For example,Wages_Employees and Classified_Employees represent categoriesof the same entity, Employees.In this example, Employees would be the supertype;Wages_Employees and Classified_Employees would be thesubtypes.ER Notation

There is no standard for representing data objects in ERdiagrams. Each modeling methodology uses its own notation. Theoriginal notation used by Chen is widely used in academics textsand journals but rarely seen in either CASE tools or publicationsby non-academics. Today, there are a number of notations used,among the more common are Bachman, crow's foot, and IDEFIX.


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Database Security and the DBAThe database administrator (DBA) is the central authority formanaging a database system. The DBA's responsibilities includegranting privileges to users who need to use the system andclassifying users and data in accordance with the policy of theorganization. The DBA has a DBA account in the DBMS,sometimes called a system or superuser account, whichprovides powerful capabilities that are not made available toregular database accounts and users. DBA-privileged commands

include commands for granting and revoking privileges toindividual accounts, users, or user groups and for performing thefollowing types of actions:1. Account creation: This action creates a new account andpassword for a user or a group of users to enable access to theDBMS.2. Privilege granting: This action permits the DBA to grant certainprivileges to certain accounts.3. Privilege revocation: This action permits the DBA to revoke

(cancel) certain privileges that were previously given to certainaccounts.4. Security level assignment: This action consists of assigninguser accounts to the appropriate security classification level.The DBA is responsible for the overall security of the databasesystem.


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Action 1 in the preceding list is used to control access to theDBMS as a whole, whereas actions 2 and 3 are used to controldiscretionary database authorization, and action 4 is used tocontrol mandatoryauthorization.

Access Control Policies for E-Commerce and the WebElectronic commerce (E-commerce) environments arecharacterized by any transactions that are done electronically.They require elaborate access control policies that go beyondtraditional DBMSs. In conventional database environments,access control is usually performed using a set of authorizationsstated by security officers or users according to some securitypolicies. Such a simple paradigm is not well suited for a dynamicenvironment like e-commerce. Furthermore, in an e-commerce

environment the resources to be protected are not onlytraditional data but also knowledge and experience. Suchpeculiarities call for more flexibility in specifying access controlpolicies. The access control mechanism must be flexible enoughto support a wide spectrum of heterogeneous protection objects.A second related requirement is the support for content-basedaccess control. Content-based access control allows one toexpress access control policies that take the protection objectcontent into account. In order to support content-based access

control, access control policies must allow inclusion of conditionsbased on the object content.A third requirement is related to the heterogeneity of subjects,which requires access control policies based on usercharacteristics and qualifications rather than on very specific andindividual characteristics (e.g., user IDs). A possible solution, tobetter take into account user profiles in the formulation of accesscontrol policies, is to support the notion of credentials.A credential is a set of properties concerning a user that are

relevant for security purposes (for example, age, position withinan organization). For instance, by using credentials, one cansimply formulate policies such as "Only permanent staff with 5 ormore years of service can access documents related to theinternals of the system."It is believed that the XML language can play a key role in accesscontrol for e-commerce applications.4 The reason is that XML is


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becoming the common representation language for documentinterchange over the Web, and is also becoming the language fore-commerce. Thus, on the one hand there is the need to makeXML representations secure, by providing access control

mechanisms specifically tailored to the protection of XMLdocuments.On the other hand, access control information (that is, accesscontrol policies and user credentials) can be expressed using XMLitself. The Directory Service Markup Language provides afoundation for this: a standard for communicating with thedirectory services that will be responsible for providing andauthenticating user credentials. The uniform presentation of bothprotection objects and access control policies can be applied to

policies and credentials themselves. For instance, some credentialproperties (such as the user name) may be accessible toeveryone, whereas other properties may be visible only to arestricted class of users. Additionally, the use of an XML-basedlanguage for specifying credentials and access control policiesfacilitates secure credential submission and export of accesscontrol policies.Statistical Database SecurityStatistical databases are used mainly to produce statistics on

various populations. The database may contain confidential dataon individuals, which should be protected from user access.However, users are permitted to retrieve statistical informationon the populations, such as averages, sums, counts, maximums,minimums, and standard deviations. The techniques that havebeen developed to protect the privacy of individual informationare outside the scope of this book.A population is a set of tuples of a relation (table) that satisfysome selection condition. Hence each selection condition on the

PERSON relation will specify a particular population of PERSONtuples. For example, the condition SEX = 'M' specifies the malepopulation; the condition ((SEX = 'M')AND (l_AST_DEGREE = 'M.S.' OR LAST_DEGREE = 'PH.D.'))specifies the female population that has an M.S. or PH.D. degreeas their highest degree; and the condition CITY = 'Hyderabad'specifies the population that lives in Hyderabad


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SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standardcomputer language for accessing and manipulating databasesystems. SQL statements are used to retrieve and update data ina database. SQL works with database programs like MS Access,

DB2, Informix, MS SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, etc.Unfortunately, there are many different versions of the SQLlanguage, but to be in compliance with the ANSI standard, theymust support the same major keywords in a similar manner (suchas SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE, and others).

Uses of DBMS in different sectors: Database is widely used allaround the world in different sectors:

1.Banking:

For customer information, accounts loans and banking transactions.

2.Airlines:

For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among thefirst to use database in a geographically disturbed manner-terminals

situated around the world accessed the central database systemthrough phone lines and other data networks.

3.Universities:

For student information, course registrations and grades.

4.Credit card transactions:For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly

statements.

5.Telecommunications:

For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills,maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards and storing

information about the communication networks.

6.Finance:

For storing information about holdings, sales and purchase offinancial instruments such as stocks and bonds.

7.Sales:For customer, product and purchase information.


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8.Manufacturing:

For management of supply chain and for tracking production ofitems in factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores and

orders for items.

9.Human Resources:For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and

benefits and for generation of paychecks.

10.Web based services:For taking web users feedback,responses,resource sharing etc.

DATABASE USED IN RETAIL SECTOR:

SPECIALLY FOR------- ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSE CUSTOMER SERVICES

ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSE::

EMPLOYEE(Emp_Id, Work_Location, Name, Address)STORE(Store_ID, Region, Manager_ID, Square_Feet)DEPARTMENT(Dep_ID, Manager_ID, Sales, Goal)SCHEDULE(Dep_ID, Emp_ID, Date)


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CUSTOMER SERVICES

Uses of DBMS in fmcg sectors: Database is widely used all around the world in fmcg sectors: Sales: For customer, product and purchase information. Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for tracking

production of items in factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores

and orders for items.

Attributes used are customer _id, customer_address, customer_sales record,

product_id, product_price, product_quantity,product_purchased, creditcard_id,

order_id ,employee_id,employee_address etc.

Example----


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How The ERconceptual schema diagram can be used for the COMPANY database in

fmcg sector for keeping track records of employees

DATABASE IS REQUIRED TO ACQUIRE INFORMATION,STORE

INFORMATION, RETRIEVING INFORMATION, COMMUNICATINGINFORMATION


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some commonly used DBMS are MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft

Access, SQL Server, FileMaker,Oracle,Sybase, dBASE, Clipper,FoxProetc. Almost every database software comes with an Open Database

Connectivity (ODBC) driver that allows the database to integratewith other databases.

Hospital industry:

Hospital-----Department wise database-employer like-Doctor, Nurse, Pathology, House Keeping, Medicine Store(if)

Patient- In and out timing, Advance amount, Doctor Allotted,Details etc.

Management Reporting SystemsManagement reporting systems (MRS) are the most elaborate of

the management-oriented MIS components. Indeed, some writers

call MRS management information systems, the name we reserve

for the entire area of informational support of operations and

management. The main objective of MRS is to provide lower and

middle management with printed reports and inquiry capabilities

to help maintain operational and management control of the

enterprise1) MRS are usually designed by MIS professionals, rather than

end users, over an extensive period time, with the use of life-

cycle oriented development methodologies (as opposed to first

building a simpler prototype system and then refining it in

response to user experience). Great care is exercised in

developing such systems because MRS is large and complex in

terms of the number of system interfaces with various users and

databases.2) MRS is built for situations in which information requirements

are reasonably well known and are expected to remain relatively

stable. Modification of such systems, like their development, is a

rather elaborate process. This limits the informational flexibility

of MRS but ensures a stable informational environment.


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3) MRS does not directlysupport the decision-making process as

a search for alternative solutions to problems. Naturally,

information gained through MRS is used in the manager's

decision-making process. Well- structured decision rules, such as

economic order quantities for ordering inventory or accountingformulas for computing various forms of return on equity, are

built into the MRS itself.4) MRS is oriented towards reporting on the past and the present,rather than projecting the future.

5) MRS generally has limited analytical capabilities-they are not

built around elaborate models, but rather rely on summarization

and extraction from the database according to given criteria.

Based on simple processing of the data summaries and extracts,

report information is obtained and printed (or, if of limited size,

displayed as a screen) in a pre specified format.

6) MRS generally report on internal company operations rather

than spanning the company's boundaries by reporting external

information.

Reporting by MRS

MRS may produce reports; either directly from the database

collected through transaction processing systems, or from

databases spun off for the purpose. Separate spin-off databases

may be created for several reasons, such as avoiding interference

and delays in transaction processing, maintaining the security of

central databases, or economizing by using local databases

accessible to local managers to counter the heavy

telecommunication costs of working with a central database.

MRS provides the following report forms:

1)Scheduled (Periodic) ReportsThese reports are furnished on a daily, weekly, biweekly, or other

basis depending on the decision making need. The sales manager

to assess the performances of sales districts or individual

salespeople may use a weekly sales analysis report. A brand

manager responsible for a particular product might obtain weekly


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sales report containing information useful in his or her decision

making-showing regional sales and sales to various market

segments.2)Exception Reports

Another means of preventing information overload is resorting toexception reports, produced only when preestablished "out-of-

bounds" conditions occur and containing solely the information

regarding these conditions. For example, purchasing managers

may need an exception report when suppliers are a week late in

deliveries. Such a report may be triggered automatically by the

delay of an individual supplier, or produced on a scheduled basis-

but only if there are late suppliers. The report might include a list

of late suppliers, the extent to which each is late, and thesupplies ordered from each. Exception reporting helps managers

avoid perusal of unneeded figures.3)Demand (Ad Hoc) Reports

The ability of a manager to request a report or screen output as

needed enhances the flexibility of MRS use and gives the end

user (the individual manager) the capability to request the

information and format that best suit his or her needs. Query

languages provided by DBMS make data accessible for demandreporting.

REPORT BY SHUBHADIP BISWAS

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