Report

ON

SUBMITTED BY

RAJAT GARG

AT

JSOFT SOLUTION Ltd. VIJAYANAGAR WORKS, TORANAGALLU

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INDEX

1. Acknowledgement

2. Introduction

i. About Jsoft Solution ii. About JSW ltd.

iii. Plants& Process Involved In Conversion Of Raw Matrials Into Finished Goods

3. IT In Manufacturing Industry

i. Networking ii. ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)

iii. System administrator iv. Oracle v. RAC (Real Application Cluster)

vi. DBA (Database Administrator)

4. DBA Support

i. Oracle Architectural Components ii. Managing an Oracle Instance

iii. Data Dictionary Contents and Usage iv. Maintaining the Control File v. Maintaining Redo Log Files

vi. Managing Tablespaces and Data files vii. Storage Structure and Relationships

viii. Managing Undo Data ix. Managing Tables x. Managing Users

xi. Managing Privileges xii. Managing Roles

xiii. RMAN(Recovery Manager)



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Summer training as a part of third year curriculum for computer science &

engineering of Dehradun Institute of Technology was undergone at JSOFT

SOLUTION part of JSW Group from 10th June to 23rd July (6 weeks).

I convey my deep indebtedness respect to Mr. Achuta Raghava sir

(H.R. Manager) for giving us permission to undergo an summer training at your

esteemed company.

In the course of my training at Jsoft Solution (Vidyanagar) , I have learned

a lot about this vast organization and its activities . I express my sincere thanks

to all the member of this organization for their corporation , with their help I

was able to complete my training successfully.

I also thank Mr. V.Ragunath Rayalu(D.G.M Jsoft solution)for

considering my case favorably for the training program.

I express my great thanks to Mr. Rahul Chhabra(Sr consultant) for his

guidance and continuous technical support during execution of the program.

Rajat Garg

DIT Dehradun(U.K)



Introduction

JSOFT SOLUTION:-

JSoft is an IT & ITES arm of US $3.7 billion JSW Group. It's core competency is to act as an enabler for enterprises, to gain a competitive edge through effective use of information & communication solutions. Headquartered in Bangalore, JSoft Solutions would operate from major metros and provide IT solutions to group companies and companies in various domains.

Jsoft provide the service to whole JSWgroup.

JSW Group

JSW Group is one of the fastest growing business conglomerates with a strong presence in the core economic sector. This Sajjan Jindal led enterprise has grown from a steel rolling mill in 1982 to a multi business conglomerate worth US $ 3.7 billion within a short span of time. As part of the US $ 8 billion O. P. Jindal Group, JSW Group has diversified interests in Steel, Energy, Minerals and Mining, Aluminum, Infrastructure and Logistic, Cement and Information Technology. On its road to growth and expansion, the Group is also conscious about its responsibility towards environment and social development. Eco-efficiency is a matter of principle. Preventive measures for damage to the environment are taken into account at the planning stage of production and growth.

JSW Foundation, an integral part of the Group, is the CSR wing, with a vision to create socio economic difference in the fields of Education, Health and Sports, Community Relationship/Propagation as well as Art, Culture and Heritage.



JSW Steel Ltd

Forging ahead, JSW Steel Ltd. is one among the largest Indian Steel Companies in India today with capacity of 7.8MT.

India’s second largest steelmaker, JSW Steel Ltd. consists of the most modern, eco-friendly steel plants with the latest technologies for both upstream & downstream processes. JSW Steel Ltd. has received all the three certificates:

ISO:9001 for Quality Management System

ISO:14001 for Environment Management System

OHSAS:18001 for Occupational Health & Safety Management System

Vijayanagar Works Vijaynagar works was the first Greenfield project in world to use Corex technology to produce steel. On February 18,2009 India largest Blast Furnace of 2.8MT capacity was commissioned here. With this commissioning, JSW Steel become the largest private sector steel producer in India with 7.8MT capacity. It is also in the advance stage of setting up of 5MTPA state of the act Hot Strip Mill which will be commissioned in the second half of fiscal 2009-10. The next phase of expansion taking the total production to 10mtpa plant at Vijayanagar Works is also under implementation. It will be commissioned in fiscal 2010-11. This makes it among the fastest growing steel plant in the world.

It's eco-friendly approach has also led to the development of Vijayanagar into a modern township. Enveloped by acres of greenery and maintained by JSW, Vijayanagar is prospering by leaps and bounds. Be it education, career opportunity or women empowerment, the Company's initiative has gone a long way in making Vijayanagar the success that it is today.



Vision &values

“It is said that in the journey of life, more important than where you are, is where you are heading to..” - Sajjan Jindal, Vice Chairman & MD, JSW Steel Ltd., OUR VISION

· Preparation and grooming of the next generation of young thinkers.

· Continuous improvement of cost stewardship in the value chain.

· Ability to nurture lasting customer relationships, by anticipating needs and delivering beyond expectations.

· Catalyst for growth amongst the nation’s steel industries.

· Marketing of value added branded products for both domestic and global markets.

OUR VALUES

· Our Corporate values are dear to us and they guide our approach to work and environment, transforming the way we deliver our products and services. And our corporate values encourage young thinking because.....



JSOFT SOLUTION:-

JSoft is an IT & ITES arm of US $3.7 billion JSW Group. It's core competency is to act as an enabler for enterprises, to gain a competitive edge through effective use of information & communication solutions. Headquartered in Bangalore, JSoft Solutions would operate from major metros and provide IT solutions to group companies and companies in various domains. JSoft operates across a broad spectrum of IT& ITES services, which include:

· Infrastructure Management · Business Unit description: · IT Infrastructure Management, a division of JSoft solutions offers an

entire range of IT services from Solutions architecting, Consultancy, Facilities Management, Data Center management, Training etc. from the design to its implementation and management. Our services encompass the full spectrum of infrastructure management services that monitor, manage and enhance the performance of business critical operations

· Presently the services are offered to all plants and offices of JSW group companies in the field of Steel, Aluminum, Energy, Cement, Ports & Mining etc. Also the services are extended to IT management of BPO, township, Schools and Hospital.

Services offered:

· Data center Management · On-site and/or Remote infrastructure management · Desktop Management · Facility Management support · Business continuity & DR Solutions · Security Services for Protecting Infrastructures · VoIP Solutions · Video conferencing solutions · OCS Maintenance and Mailing solutions · Common Desktop Enviorment

Benefits:

· Reduce the total cost of IT operations with assured quality of services · Proactive monitoring to Improve uptime and systems availability · Optimize IT asset utilization



· Business Applications · Business Unit description: · Business Applications is responsible for conceiving, developing and

providing Solutions for the different business processes of the company – Finance, Manufacturing, Supply Chain Management, Customer Relations, HR etc. Our expertise lie in providing solution with Oracle e-business suite for all verticals

Services offered:

· End-to-End Implementation of different Modules of Oracle Applications for key business functions

· Review and audit of key implemented modules of Oracle Applications · Support of existing Oracle Applications – including Change Requests/

Enhancements · Upgrades to existing Oracle Applications · Implementation of Business Intelligence systems to fulfill the Corporate

Performance Measurement framework.

Benefits:

· Helping in resource planning to have a cut edge in the competitive market by reducing the cost and lead time

· Provide the latest and best Technology solutions to meet fast-changing business requirements – such as BI Tools

· Enabling Business to adapt to fast-paced changes in the environment by providing suitable IT Systems based on cutting-edge technologies

· Ensuring Data Integrity by providing single source of truth for all transactions across business functions. One view of business to Management – thereby enabling accurate decision-making in real-time.

· ERP solutions enables the vertical to gain advantage as it adds to 7S framework.

· It also helps in integrating all the business processes end to end.

· Software Development · Business Unit description: · The Software Division of JSoft Solutions, caters to customised

application development using latest Open source technologies under the Java/ J2EE platform viz., JSF, Spring, Hibernate, Ajax etc., and using Oracle RDBMS as the backend database. Usage of high end architectural



framework like SOA (Services Oriented Architecture) and Oracle's BPEL Process Manager from the Oracle's stable is another plus point, highlighting the utilisation of latest technologies for software development.

· Currently the primary focus is for providing solutions to the requirements of all the group companies of JSW. This includes requirements from different manufacturing plants like Steel, Cement, Energy etc, townships, hospitals & schools managed by the company.

Services offered:

JSoft is capable of providing customised solutions based on the needs of the end-user irrespective of the domains. Manufacturing industry is one of the domains where JSoft has very good expertise, due to varied services offered to JSW group of companies.

· Customised Business Application Development – Web-based & Stand alone

· Static & Dynamic Website development & maintenance · Portal services using Portal Server

Benefits:

· Utilisation of latest technologies with skilled resources · Scalable applications designed & developed, on-time and within

committed budgets · Lower maintenance cost with assured quality of service

· Shop Floor Automation

This domain help in manufacturing domain by providing :

· Second Level Automation · Integrating with Third Level Automation · Latest technologies like VTS, biometrics

· Shared Services · Business Unit description:



· Jsoft BPO Solutions focuses on pioneering new service lines, geographies and business models in Business Process Outsourcing. The company provides a range of services offerings which are targeted towards global clients around the world

Services offered:

· Data Entry · Data Conversion · Large Volume Data processing · File Conversion · OCR Clean up

Benefits:

· Unique Co-sourcing Model JSoft BPO Solutions has designed a unique 'co-sourcing' model that addresses the concerns related to outsourcing Our model empowers the clients to run their operations at our centres and provides them with flexibility and high-quality experience .

· We provide dedicated work areas and people and use clients' applications to provide them with customized reporting The model enables strong cultural integration, high confidentiality and gain sharing JSoft BPO Solutions in turn becomes a seamless extension of the client's organization Dedicated Domain Units, the Unit Heads manage the functional areas in order to ensure that key operation metrics are delivered on a regular basis

Managed Services

Business Unit description:

Managed Services unit’s focus is to deliver world-class support and maintenance services across various service layers ranging from Custom built solutions to off the shelf solutions/Packages; Infrastructure Management to Hosting Services by leveraging set of best practices, ITIL Compliant delivery framework, Solution enablers/productivity drivers and innovative delivery models to optimize cost of operations and maximize quality of service delivery.



·

Transition and Operation Management

Benefits:

· Reducing total cost of ownership by optimizing cost of delivery through adaptation of best in class processes, tools and effective governance .

· Improving Service Level achievements there by driving more customer pleasure by effective root cause analysis

· Effective Customer and Vendor management through well defined service level agreement

Process Deployment

· Development and Institutionalizing process based on ITIL framework for Availability Management.

o Incident, Problem Management o Change, Release Management o Service Level Management o Capacity Planning, o Financial Management o Availability Management

Transition and Operation Management

o Ensure Stability in Software Release Builds by focus on adequate testing

o Define Service Level Agreements and manage change required as per business needs

o Manage Service Desk Analysts to ensure timely issue responses and resolutions

o Financial management: Institutionalize performance indicators for measuring and improving service delivery quality

o Leveraging Six Sigma, Lean principles and drive towards improving process and service delivery quality

o Driving effective Knowledge base building and improve first call resolution

o Developing and Deploying productivity tools



· Capabilities to provide ‘On Demand’, ‘On Need by’ services to customers by effective leveraging a shared delivery framework.

Supporting all these verticals is Managed Services, PMO (Project Management Office) & Quality units, whose focus is to deliver world-class support, mainatin high standards of Quality and maintenance services across various service layers. Along with extending our support to clients across the geographic spread of India, we also support our parent company’s IT operations in US & UK plants

PLANTS AND PROCESS INVOLVED IN CONVERSION OF RAW

MATERIALS INTO FINISHED GOODS:

1. RAW MATERIALS:

A. Pellet Plant:

· CAPACITY- 5mtpa · TECHNOLOGY- Kvaerner Metals, USA · DRY GRINDING SYSTEM · Straight grate for industrial process.

B. Sinter Plant:

· CAPACITY- 2.3mtpa · TECHNOLOGY- OTO Kumper, GERMANY · Suction under gate- 1400 mm of water column



2. COREX AND BLAST FURNACE: The above raw materials are further processed and converted

Into liquid hot metal in blast furnace and corex plant.

Corex plant

· CAPACITY- 2 units of 0.8mtpa · TECHNOLOGY- SIEMENSVAI,AUSTRIA · Alternative root for making hot metal. · Uses coal as primary fuel. · Model c 2000 · Commissioned in August 1999 and April 2001.

A. Blast furnace plant.

Blast furnace- I

· CAPACITY- 0.9mtpa · DESIGN- MECON, INDIA · Equipped with Paul worth · Top charging equipment · Use full volume- 1250m3 · Working volume-1050m3 · Commissioned in October 2004

Blast furnace-II

· CAPACITY- 1.5mtpa · DESIGN- DANIEL CORUS · Equipped with TOTEM · Russia top charging equipment · Useful volume- 1080m3 · Working volume-1462m3 · Commissioned in July 2006

Blast furnace-III



· CAPACITY – 2.8mtpa.

Total output of Hot metal from both Corex and blast Furnace is 6.8mtpa.

I.e., COREX – 0.8 * 2 = 1.6 mtpa

BLAST FURNACE I – 0.9 mtpa

BLAST FURNACE II – 1.5 mtpa

BLAST FURNACE III – 2.8 mtpa.

3. BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE (BOF):

· Three units each with a capacity of 130 metric tons. · TECHNOLOGY- SMS DEMAG · Combined blowing (with oxygen from the top and Ar from

bottom). · Continuous Iron-ore feeding system. · Specific volume of 119m3. · H / D Ratio ( 1: 0 ;1.60 ). · Top cone cooling.

4. CASTER :

Caster I and II:

CAPASITY- 1.2 MILLION TONS

· TECHNOLOGY- SMS DEMANG. · THICKNESS- 220 mm. · WIDTH- 800-1300mm · CASTING SPEED- 1.75 Mt / Min. · Curved moulds with Electromechanical oscillation. · Auto mould width change. · Sen. Change facility.

Caster III:



· CAPACITY- 1.5mtpa · TECHNOLOGY- VAI, UK. · THICKNESS- 220 / 260 mm. · WIDTH- 800 – 1600. · CASTING SPEED – 2.0mtrs/min · Vertical mould with hydraulic oscillator · Multipoint bending unbending · Dynamic spray cooling. · Auto mould with change

5. HOT STRIP MILL (HSM):

· CAPACITY- 2.7mtpa · TECHNOLOGY- DANIELI UNITED. · Modernization by siemens – VAI · 6 stand, 4Hi TANDEM MILL · THICKNESS- 1.6 – 12mm · WIDTH – 900 – 1300mm

6. COLD ROLLING MILL (CRM):

A) CONTINUOUS PICKLING LINE: CAPACITY- 1.1 mtpa

UNIQUE FEATURES:

· LASER WELDER FOR MAKING 62 T JUMBO COILS. · TENSION LEVELER CUM SCALE BREAKING FACILITY. · ONLINE TRIMMING FACILITY.



B) COLD COMPACT MILL:

UNIQUE FEATURES:

· AUTO SHAPE CONTROL USING SHAPE METER ROLLS ON BOTH SIDES.

· LASER VELOCITY METER FOR BETTER SPEED ACCURACY.

C) ELECTROLYTIC CLEANING LINE:

UNIQUE FEATURES:

· LEVEL 2 AUTOMATION. · IN LINE SKIN PASS MILL FOR ROUGHNESS TRANSFER.

D) BATCH ANNEALING FURNACE:

UNIQUE FEATURES:

· UNIFORM ANNEALING UNDER 100% HYDROGEN ATMOSPHERE.

· HYDROGEN PURITY 99.999%.

E) SKIN PASS MILL:

UNIQUE FEATURES:

· SHAPE METER AT EXIT SIDE. · USE OF TEMPER FLUID FOR BETTER CLEANLINESS.

F) RECOILING CUM INSPECTION LINE:

UNIQUE FEATURES:



· TENSION LEVELING MODE. · WASH AND BRUSH UNIT FOR SURFACE CLEANING.

G) AUTO PACKAGING LINE: LAST PROCESS AT CRM IS APL; FROM HERE THE

GOODS WILL BE DISPATCHED TO CUSTOMER.



These were the above steps of conversion of raw material into finished

material.

· Firstly the Raw Material is sent to Corex and Blast Furnace for conversion of those raw materials into hot liquid material.

· Secondly that Hot liquid metal is further sent to BOF, there the hot metal is blown by oxygen from the top and A from the bottom to remove the impurities from the hot metal.

· Then from BOF the hot metal is sent to CASTER plant where the hot metal is converted into SLAB.

· That SLAB is further sent to Hot Strip Mill and there the slab is converted into a coil

· Then that coil will be sent Cold Rolling Mill, where the coil will undergo the process of Pickling, annealing and Oiling. Here the packing of the coil takes place at APL and then finally the coil will be dispatched to the customer.



THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRODUCTS OF JSW;

· Pellets

· Slab

· Billet

· Hot Rolled pickled oiled Coil

· Hot Rolled skin passed Oiled coil

· Cold rolled Full Hard Coil

· Cold Rolled Closed Annealing Coil

· Hot Rolled Sheets and Plates

· Cold Rolled Sheets and Plates

· Hot Rolled Slit Coil

· Cold Rolled Slit Coil

· Wire Rod

· Bar Rod

· TMT Rod

· Rebar

· Cement



SOFTWARES THAT ARE USED AT JSW:

· WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM.

· M.S. OFFICE.

· ORACLE.

· APEX.

· STEEL PROCESSING TRACKING SYSTEM (SPTS)

· INTEGRATED STEEL PROCESSING TRACKING SYSTEM.

· MANUFACTURING EXECUTION SYSTEM.



Networking

In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or

more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are

built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Area Networks

Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.

LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN.

Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also


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tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

Network Design

Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.

Client-Server Applications

The client-server model distinguishes between applications as well as devices. Network clients make requests to a server by sending messages, and servers respond to their clients by acting on each request and returning results. One server generally supports numerous clients, and multiple servers can be networked together in a pool to handle the increased processing load as the number of clients grows.


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Peer to Peer and P2P Networks

Internet-based peer to peer networks emerged in the 1990s due to the development of P2P file sharing networks like Napster. Technically, many P2P networks (including the original Napster) are not pure peer networks but rather hybrid designs as they utilize central servers for some functions such as search.

Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers share equivalent responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer networking) differs from client-server networking, where certain devices have responsibility for providing or "serving" data and other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those servers.

WWW

The term WWW refers to the World Wide Web or simply the Web. The

World Wide Web consists of all the public Web sites connected to the Internet

worldwide, including the client devices (such as computers and cell phones) that

access Web content. The WWW is just one of many applications of the Internet

and computer networks.

The World Web is based on these technologies:

· HTML - Hypertext Markup Language · HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol · Web servers and Web browsers

Network Topology

A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.


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Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use

a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone

functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into

with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another

device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other

devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the

message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for

communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same

direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or

device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a

central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router.


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Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In

its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each

hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach

supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in

the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited

by the number of hub connection points) alone.

Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the

previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several

possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although

two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs,

most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

Network Protocols

In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to



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support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.

Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance network communication. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for specific purposes and environments.

Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the

most widely used network protocols. Besides Internet Protocol (IP) itself,

higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all integrate with IP to

provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols like

ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. These higher level protocols interact

more closely with applications like Web browsers while lower-level protocols

interact with network adapters and other computer hardware.

Types of Network Equipment

The building blocks of a home computer network include adapters, routers and/or access points. Wired (and hybrid wired/wireless) networking also involves cables of varying types. Finally, large-scale enterprise networks in particular often employ other advanced equipment for specialized communication purposes.

Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless

networks together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3

gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as

gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI

model.


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Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router, IP being the most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.

By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and receivers. Some routers allow the home networker to update the routing table from a Web browser interface. Broadband routers combine the functions of a router with those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit.

A network adapter allows a computing device to interface with a local

network. Adapters are a required component to include when building a

network.

Types of Network Adapters

A network adapter is typically a small unit of hardware. Several types of

hardware adapters exist:

· Traditional PCI adapters fit inside a desktop personal computer (often called a NIC).

· A newer type of PCI adapter, "PC Card" adapters (sometimes called PCMCIA cards) insert into the side of a notebook computer.

· A USB adapter plus into a standard USB port of any computer · A media adapter connects to the Ethernet port of an Xbox or

Playstation game console or other home entertainment product, providing a bridge to Wi-Fi wireless capability.

· Newer notebook computers contain integrated wireless adapter chips

Every common adapter supports either Wi-Fi (wireless) or Ethernet (wired) standards. Special-purpose adapters that support very specialized network protocols also exist, but these are not found in homes or most business networks.

A router is a more sophisticated network device than either a switch or a

hub. Like hubs and switches, network routers are typically small, box-like

pieces of equipment that multiple computers can connect to. Each features a


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number of "ports" the front or back that provide the connection points for these

computers, a connection for electric power, and a number of LED lights to

display device status. While routers, hubs and switches all share similiar

physical appearance, routers differ substantially in their inner workings.

Traditional routers are designed to join multiple area networks ( LANs and WANs). On the Internet or on a large corporate network, for example, routers serve as intermediate destinations for network traffic. These routers receive TCP/IP packets, look inside each packet to identify the source and target IP addresses, then forward these packets as needed to ensure the data reaches its final destination.

Routers for home networks (often called broadband routers) also can join multiple networks. These routers are designed specifically to join the home (LAN) to the Internet (WAN) for the purpose of Internet connection sharing. In contrast, neither hubs nor switches are capable of joining multiple networks or sharing an Internet connection. A home network with only hubs and switches must designate one computer as the gateway to the Internet, and that device must possess two network adapters for sharing, one for the home LAN and one for the Internet WAN. With a router, all home computers connect to the router equally, and it performs the equivalent gateway functions.

Additionally, broadband routers contain several features beyond those of traditional routers. Broadband routers provide DHCP server and proxy support, for example. Most of these routers also offer integrated firewalls. Finally, wired Ethernet broadband routers typically incorporate a built-in Ethernet switch. These routers allow several hubs or switches to be connected to them, as a means to expand the local network to accomodate more Ethernet devices.

In home networking, hubs and switches technically exist only for wired networks. Wi-Fi wireless routers incorporate a built-in access point that is roughly equivalent to a wired switch.

Modems are networking devices that convert analog and digital data for

computer-to-computer communication. Several kinds of modem devices exist

for dial-up, broadband and cellular networking.

Wired vs Wireless Networking

Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in





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businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.

Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area

networks. Homes, schools and offices around the world all commonly use

Ethernet standard cables and adapters to network personal computers.

A crossover cable directly connects two network devices of the same

type to each other over Ethernet. Ethernet crossover cables are commonly used

when temporarily networking two devices in situations where a network router,

switch or hub is not present.

Compared to standard Ethernet cables, the internal wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses the transmit and receive signals. The reversed color-coded wires can be seen through the RJ-45 connectors at each end of the cable:

· Standard cables have an idential sequence of colored wires on each end

· Crossover cables have the 1st and 3rd wires (counting from left to right) crossed, and the 2nd and 6th wires crossed

· A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass

fibers inside an insulated casing. These cables are designed for long

distance and very high bandwidth ( gigabit speed) network

communications.

· Fiber optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of light. While expensive, these cables are increasingly being used instead of traditional copper cables, because fiber offers more capacity and is less susceptible to electrical interference. So-called Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations are becoming more common as a way to bring ultra high speed Internet service (100 Mbps and higher) to residences.

Wireless Local Area Networks

Wi-Fi is the most popular wireless communication protocol for local area networks. Private home and business networks, and public hotspots, use Wi-Fi




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to networks computers and other wireless devices to each other and the Internet. Bluetooth is another wireless protocol commonly used in cellular phones and computer peripherals for short range network communication.

Bluetooth is a specification for the use of low-power radio

communications to wirelessly link phones, computers and other network

devices over short distances. The name Bluetooth is borrowed from Harald

Bluetooth, a king in Denmark more than 1,000 years ago.

Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support simple wireless networking of personal consumer devices and peripherals, including cell phones, PDAs, and wireless headsets. Wireless signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up to 30 feet (10 meters). Bluetooth devices generally communicate at less than 1 Mbps.

Internet Service

The technologies used to connect to the Internet are different than those used for connecting devices on local area network. DSL, cable modem and fiber provide fixed broadband Internet service, while WiMax and LTE additionally support mobile connectivity. In geographic areas where these high-speed options are unavailable, subscribers are forced to use older cellular services, satellite or even dial-up Internet instead.

TCP/IP and Other Internet Protocols

TCP/IP is the primary network protocol of the Internet. A related family of protocols built on top of TCP/IP allows Web browsers, email and many other applications to communicate across networks globally. Applications and computers using TCP/IP identify each other with assigned IP addresses.

Network Routing, Switching and Bridging

Most computer networks direct messages from source to destination devices using any of three techniques called routing, switching and bridging. Routers use certain network address information contained inside messages to


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send them ahead to their destination (sometimes indirectly via one or more additional routers). Switches use much of the same technology as routers but typically support local area networks only. Bridging allows messages to flow between two different types of physical networks.

JSW Networking Structure

• JSW have very big Network Structure. In JSW we use 10 to 15 servers, which are located in server room. In JSW every department is separated by a VLAN. There are 30 VLAN’s created. The creation of Guest VLAN is under Progress.

• VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) --- VLAN’s means segmentation of physical network at Layer 2. Here we darker the word Layer because all the communication happened in a Network because of the 7 layer, which called OSI model of Layers.

JSW Network Diagram



JSW Bharthi MPLS SETUP



Bharti MPLS Cloud

Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

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Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP Bharti MPLS

PoP

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Bharti MPLS PoP

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Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

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Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

Bharti MPLS PoP

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Bellary

Pedder Rd

Lower Parel

Bangalore

Hyderabad

Faridabad

Jaipur

Indore

Ludhiana

Chennai

Ahmedabad

Vasind

Tarapore

Delhi

Ghaziabad

Coimbatore

Calcutta

Patna

Guwahati

Salem

Prabhadevi

RF

LL

Internet cloud



LAN DETAILS

• In JSW we are using Cisco series switch, Foundry switch, 3com switch

and D Link switch. We have approx 1500 nodes of LAN. We are using

Star Topology in LAN network.

Star Topology – A Star topology is one in which a central unit provides a link to

through which a group of smaller computers and devices are connected. The

central computer is usually called a host computer. A host computer is usually a

large computer such as a mini computer or a mainframe. A file server is a large

storage device that provides volumes of data and programs to the other units in

the network.



Enterprise Resource Planning Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is an industry term for the broad

set of activities that helps a business manage the important parts of its business. The information made available through an ERP system provides visibility for key performance indicators (KPIs) required for meeting corporate objectives. ERP software applications can be used to manage product planning, parts purchasing, inventories, interacting with suppliers, providing customer service, and tracking orders. ERP can also include application modules for the finance and human resources aspects of a business. Typically, an ERP system uses or is integrated with a relational database system.

The deployment of an ERP system can involve considerable business process analysis, employee retraining, and new work procedures.

key elements of ERP The following key elements of ERP and their associated tools are directly

linked. • Multi-media compliance assistance by regulatory agencies through compliance assistance workshops and plain language workbooks and checklists • Self-certification of compliance by businesses • Statistically-based environmental performance measurement through baseline inspections and post-certification inspections at randomly selected facilities, as well as through targeted inspections and



evaluation of sector-specific indicators to track performance and compliance. Compliance assurance and enforcement is an integral part of ERP that underlies all three of these key elements. Sectors in which ERP being applied • Autobody/Repair • Auto salvage yards • Dental facilities/Mercury • Dry cleaning • Oil/Gas Extraction Wells • Photoprocessing • Printing • Underground storage tanks/ Retail gasoline sales

Overview of ERP Solutions

Some organizations — typically those with sufficient in-house IT skills to integrate multiple software products — choose to implement only portions of an ERP system and develop an external interface to other ERP or stand-alone systems for their other application needs. For example, one may choose to use human resource management system from one vendor, and perform the integration between the systems themselves.

This is common to retailers where even a mid-sized retailer will have a discrete Point-of-Sale (POS) product and financials application, then a series of specialized applications to handle business requirements such as warehouse management, staff rostering, merchandising and logistics.

Ideally, ERP delivers a single database that contains all data for the software modules, which would include:


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_management_systems


Manufacturing

Engineering, bills of material, scheduling, capacity, workflow

management, quality control, cost management, manufacturing process,

manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow.

Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to make things for

use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to

high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which

raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such

finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products,

such as household appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in

turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users - the " consumers".

Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems. In a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more frequently directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In free market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation.

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead.

The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailer

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_%28business%29

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design


Supply chain management

Order to cash, inventory, order entry, purchasing, product configurator,

supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, inspection of goods, claim

processing, commission calculation

supply chain management (SCM) is the management of a network of

interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and

service packages required by end customers . Supply Chain Management spans

all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and

finished goods from point of origin to point of consumption ( supply chain).

Supply Chain Management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing, procurement, conversion, and logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third-party service providers, and customers. In essence, Supply Chain Management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies. More recently, the loosely coupled, self-organizing network of businesses that cooperates to provide product and service offerings has been called the Extended Enterprise.

Supply Chain Management can also refer to Supply chain management software which are tools or modules used in executing supply chain transactions, managing supplier relationships and controlling associated business processes.

Activities/functions

Supply chain management is a cross-function approach to manage the movement of raw materials into an organization, certain aspects of the internal processing of materials into finished goods, and then the movement of finished goods out of the organization toward the end-consumer. As organizations strive to focus on core competencies and becoming more flexible, they have reduced their ownership of raw materials sources and distribution channels. These functions are increasingly being outsourced to other entities that can perform the activities better or more cost effectively. The effect is to increase the number of organizations involved in satisfying customer demand, while reducing management control of daily logistics operations. Less control and more supply chain partners led to the creation of supply chain management concepts. The purpose of supply chain management is to improve trust and collaboration


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among supply chain partners, thus improving inventory visibility and improving inventory velocity.

Financials

General ledger, cash management, accounts payable, accounts receivable,

fixed assets.

Finance is the science of funds management. The general areas of

finance are business finance, personal finance, and public finance. Finance

includes saving money and often includes lending money. The field of finance

deals with the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated.

It also deals with how money is spent and budgeted.

Finance works most basically through individuals and business organizations depositing money in a bank. The bank then lends the money out to other individuals or corporations for consumption or investment, and charges interest on the loans.

Loans have become increasingly packaged for resale, meaning that an investor buys the loan (debt) from a bank or directly from a corporation. Bonds are debt sold directly to investors from corporations, while That investor can then hold the debt and collect the interest or sell the debt on a secondary market. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of credit, although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other organizations have become important as they invest in various forms of debt. Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial instruments allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities exchanges such as stock exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as equity in publicly-traded corporations.

Central banks act as lenders of last resort and control the money supply, which affects the interest rates charged. As money supply increases, interest rates decrease.

The main techniques and sectors of the financial industry

Financial services

An entity whose income exceeds their expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its


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expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.

A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space.

Finance is used by individuals ( personal finance), by governments ( public finance), by businesses ( corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments and methodologies, with consideration to their institutional setting.

Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management. Without proper financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful. Managing money (a liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an organization.

Project management

Costing, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity

management

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. It is often closely related to and sometimes conflated with Program management.

A project is a finite endeavor--having specific start and completion dates--undertaken to meet particular goals and objectives, usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in contrast to processes, or operations--which is repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management.


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The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time and budget. The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives.

A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", we can distinguish 5 components of a project (4 stages plus control) in the development of a project:

Typical development phases of a project

· Project planning or design stage; · Project execution or production stage; · Project monitoring and controlling systems; · Project completion stage.

Human resources

Human resources, payroll, training, time and attendance, rostering,

benefits

Human resources is an increasingly broadening term with which an

organization, or other human system describes the combination of traditionally

administrative personnel functions with acquisition and application of skills,

knowledge and experience, employee relations and resource planning at various

levels. The field draws upon concepts developed in Industrial/Organizational

Psychology and System Theory. Human resources has at least two related

interpretations depending on context. The original usage derives from political

economy and economics, where it was traditionally called labor, one of four

factors of production although this perspective is changing as a function of new

and ongoing research into more strategic approaches at national levels. This first

usage is used more in terms of 'human resources development', and can go


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beyond just organizations to the level of nations. The more traditional usage

within corporations and businesses refers to the individuals within a firm or

agency, and to the portion of the organization that deals with hiring, firing,

training, and other personnel issues, typically referred to as `human resources

management'. This article addresses both definitions.

Key functions

Human resource management serves these key functions:

1. Recruitment & Selection 2. Training and Development (People or Organization) 3. Performance Evaluation and Management 4. Promotions/Transfer 5. Redundancy 6. Industrial and Employee Relations 7. Record keeping of all personal data. 8. Compensation, pensions, bonuses etc in liaison with Payroll 9. Confidential advice to internal 'customers' in relation to problems

at work 10. Career development 11. Compentency Mapping

Customer relationship management

Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact and call

center support

Customer relationship management (CRM) consists of the processes a company uses to track and organize its contacts with its current and prospective customers. CRM software is used to support these processes; information about customers and customer interactions can be entered, stored and accessed by employees in different company departments. Typical CRM goals are to improve services provided to customers, and to use customer contact information for targeted marketing.

While the term CRM generally refers to a software-based approach to handling customer relationships, most CRM software vendors stress that a successful CRM effort requires a holistic approach. CRM initiatives often fail because implementation was limited to software installation, without providing the context, support and understanding for employees to learn, and take full


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advantage of the information systems. CRM can be implemented without major investments in software, but software is often necessary to explore the full benefits of a CRM strategy.

CRM includes many aspects which relate directly to one another:

· Front office operations — Direct interaction with customers, e.g. face to face meetings, phone calls, e-mail, online services etc.

· Back office operations — Operations that ultimately affect the activities of the front office (e.g., billing, maintenance, planning, marketing, advertising, finance, manufacturing, etc.)

· Business relationships — Interaction with other companies and partners, such as suppliers/vendors and retail outlets/distributors, industry networks (lobbying groups, trade associations). This external network supports front and back office activities.

· Analysis — Key CRM data can be analyzed in order to plan target-marketing campaigns, conceive business strategies, and judge the success of CRM activities (e.g., market share, number and types of customers, revenue, profitability).


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Data warehouse

Data warehouse and various self-service interfaces for customers, suppliers, and employees

Data warehouse is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are designed to facilitate reporting and analysis.

This definition of the data warehouse focuses on data storage. However, the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform and load data, and to manage the data dictionary are also considered essential components of a data warehousing system. Many references to data warehousing use this broader context. Thus, an expanded definition for data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository, and tools to manage and retrieve metadata.

In contrast to data warehouses are operational databases that support day-to-day transaction processing.

Data warehouse architecture

Architecture, in the context of an organization's data warehousing efforts, is a conceptualization of how the data warehouse is built. There is no right or wrong architecture, rather multiple architectures exist to support various environments and situations. The worthiness of the architecture can be judged in how the conceptualization aids in the building, maintenance, and usage of the data warehouse.

One possible simple conceptualization of a data warehouse architecture consists of the following interconnected layers:

Operational database layer

The source data for the data warehouse - An organization's Enterprise

Resource Planning systems fall into this layer.

Data access layer

The interface between the operational and informational access layer -

Tools to extract, transform, load data into the warehouse fall into this layer.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dictionary

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extract,_transform,_load

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_processing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Resource_Planning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Resource_Planning

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Metadata layer

The data directory - This is usually more detailed than an operational

system data directory. There are dictionaries for the entire warehouse and

sometimes dictionaries for the data that can be accessed by a particular

reporting and analysis tool.

Informational access layer

The data accessed for reporting and analyzing and the tools for reporting

and analyzing data - Business intelligence tools fall into this layer. And the

Inmon-Kimball differences about design methodology, discussed later in this

article, have to do with this layer.

Access control

Access control - user privilege as per authority levels for process

execution

Access control is the ability to permit or deny the use of a particular resource by a particular entity. Access control mechanisms can be used in managing physical resources (such as a movie theater, to which only ticketholders should be admitted), logical resources (a bank account, with a limited number of people authorized to make a withdrawal), or digital resources (for example, a private text document on a computer, which only certain users should be able to read).

Item control or electronic key management is an area within (and possibly integrated with) an access control system which concerns the managing of possession and location of small assets or physical (mechanical) keys.

Physical access by a person may be allowed depending on payment, authorization, etc. Also there may be one-way traffic of people. These can be enforced by personnel such as a border guard, a doorman, a ticket checker, etc., or with a device such as a turnstile. There may be fences to avoid circumventing this access control. An alternative of access control in the strict sense (physically controlling access itself) is a system of checking authorized presence.

In physical security, the term access control refers to the practice of restricting entrance to a property, a building, or a room to authorized persons. Physical access control can be achieved by a human (a guard, bouncer, or


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-way_traffic



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_guard

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doorman

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticket_%28admission%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstile

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_security

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorized


receptionist), through mechanical means such as locks and keys, or through technological means such as access control systems like the Access control vestibule. Within these environments, physical key management may also be employed as a means of further managing and monitoring access to mechanically keyed areas or access to certain small assets.

Electronic access control uses computers to solve the limitations of mechanical locks and keys. A wide range of credentials can be used to replace mechanical keys. The electronic access control system grants access based on the credential presented. When access is granted, the door is unlocked for a predetermined time and the transaction is recorded. When access is refused, the door remains locked and the attempted access is recorded. The system will also monitor the door and alarm if the door is forced open or held open too long after being unlocked.

Customization

Customization - to meet the extension, addition, change in process flow

Personalization involves using technology to accommodate the differences between individuals. Once confined mainly to the Web, it is increasingly becoming a factor in education, healthcare (i.e. personalized medicine), and both "business to business" and "business to consumer" settings.

Personalization implies that the changes are based on implicit data, such as items purchased or pages viewed. The term customization is used instead when the site only uses explicit data such as ratings or preferences.

On an intranet or B2E Enterprise Web portals, personalization is often based on user attributes such as department, functional area, or role. The term customization in this context refers to the ability of users to modify the page layout or specify what content should be displayed.

There are three categories of personalizations:

1. Profile / Group based 2. Behaviour based 3. Collaboration based

Web personalization models include rules-based filtering, based on "if this, then that" rules processing, and collaborative filtering, which serves relevant material to customers by combining their own personal preferences


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control_vestibule



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credentials

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intranet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B2E

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_portal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_portal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_programming



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_filtering


with the preferences of like-minded others. Collaborative filtering works well for books, music, video, etc. However, it does not work well for a number of categories such as apparel, jewelry, cosmetics, etc. Recently, another method, Prediction Based on Benefit is proposed for products with complex attributes such as apparel.

There are three broad methods of personalizations:

1. Implicit 2. Explicit 3. Hybrid

With implicit personalization the personalization is performed by the web page (or information system) based on the different categories mentioned above. With explicit personalization, the web page (or information system) is changed by the user using the features provided by the system. Hybrid personalization combines the above two approaches for leverage best of both worlds.

Many companies offer services for web recommendation and email recommendation that are based on personalization or anonymously collected user behaviours.

Web personalization is closely linked to the notion of Adaptive hypermedia (AH). The main difference is that the former would usually work on what is considered an Open Corpus Hypermedia, whilst the latter would traditionally work on Closed Corpus Hypermedia. However, recent research directions in the AH domain take both closed and open corpus into account. Thus, the two fields are closely inter-related.

Personalisation is also being considered for use in less overtly commercial applications to improve the user experience online.

Advantages

In the absence of an ERP system, a large manufacturer may find itself with many software applications that cannot communicate or interface effectively with one another. Tasks that need to interface with one another may involve:

· Integration among different functional areas to ensure proper communication, productivity and efficiency

· Design engineering (how to best make the product) · Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfilment


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_hypermedia

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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Closed_Corpus_Hypermedia&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering


· The revenue cycle, from invoice through cash receipt · Managing inter-dependencies of complex processes bill of materials · Tracking the three-way match between purchase orders (what was

ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced)

· The accounting for all of these tasks: tracking the revenue, cost and profit at a granular level.

· ERP Systems centralize the data in one place. This eliminates the problem of synchronizing changes and can reduce the risk of loss of sensitive data by consolidating multiple permissions and security models into a single structure.

Some security features are included within an ERP system to protect against both outsider crime, such as industrial espionage, and insider crime, such as embezzlement. A data-tampering scenario, for example, might involve a disgruntled employee intentionally modifying prices to below-the-breakeven point in order to attempt to interfere with the company's profit or other sabotage. ERP systems typically provide functionality for implementing internal controls to prevent actions of this kind. ERP vendors are also moving toward better integration with other kinds of information security tools.

Disadvantages

Problems with ERP systems are mainly due to inadequate investment in ongoing training for the involved IT personnel - including those implementing and testing changes - as well as a lack of corporate policy protecting the integrity of the data in the ERP systems and the ways in which it is used.

· Customization of the ERP software is limited. · Re-engineering of business processes to fit the "industry standard"

prescribed by the ERP system may lead to a loss of competitive advantage.

· ERP systems can be very expensive (This has led to a new category of "ERP light" solutions)

· ERPs are often seen as too rigid and too difficult to adapt to the specific workflow and business process of some companies—this is cited as one of the main causes of their failure.

· Many of the integrated links need high accuracy in other applications to work effectively. A company can achieve minimum standards, then over time "dirty data" will reduce the reliability of some applications.

· Once a system is established, switching costs are very high for any one of the partners (reducing flexibility and strategic control at the corporate level).


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invoice

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_materials

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchase_order

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_%28accounting%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_espionage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_control

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workflow


· The blurring of company boundaries can cause problems in accountability, lines of responsibility, and employee morale.

· Resistance in sharing sensitive internal information between departments can reduce the effectiveness of the software.

· Some large organizations may have multiple departments with separate, independent resources, missions, chains-of-command, etc, and consolidation into a single enterprise may yield limited benefits.

· The system may be too complex measured against the actual needs of the customers.

· ERP Systems centralize the data in one place. This can increase the risk of loss of sensitive information in the event of a security breach.



System Administrator

A system administrator, systems administrator, or sysadmin, is a person employed to maintain and operate a computer system and/or network. System administrators may be members of an information technology department.

The duties of a system administrator are wide-ranging, and vary widely from one organization to another. Sysadmins are usually charged with installing, supporting, and maintaining servers or other computer systems, and planning for and responding to service outages and other problems. Other duties may include scripting or light programming, project management for systems-related projects, supervising or training computer operators, and being the consultant for computer problems beyond the knowledge of technical support staff. A System Administrator must demonstrate a blend of technical skills and responsibility.

Skills

The subject matter of systems administration includes computer systems and the ways people use them in an organization. This entails a knowledge of operating systems and applications, as well as hardware and software troubleshooting, but also knowledge of the purposes for which people in the organization use the computers.

However, perhaps the most important skill to a system administrator is problem solving -- frequently under various sorts of constraints and stress. The sysadmin is on call when a computer system goes down or malfunctions, and must be able to quickly and correctly diagnose what is wrong and how best to fix it.

System administrators are not software engineers or developers. It is not usually within their duties to design or write new applications software. However, sysadmins must understand the behavior of software in order to deploy it and to troubleshoot problems, and generally know several programming languages used for scripting or automation of routine tasks.

Particularly when dealing with Internet-facing or business-critical systems, a sysadmin must have a strong grasp of computer security. This includes not merely deploying software patches, but also preventing break-ins and other security problems with preventive measures. In some organizations, computer security administration is a separate role responsible for overall security and the upkeep of firewalls and intrusion detection systems, but all sysadmins are generally responsible for the security of the systems in their keep.


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_support

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_application

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshooting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system


Related fields

Many organizations staff other jobs related to systems administration. In a larger company, these may all be separate positions within a computer support or Information Services (IS) department. In a smaller group they may be shared by a few sysadmins, or even a single person.

· A database administrator (DBA) maintains a database system, and is responsible for the integrity of the data and the efficiency and performance of the system.

· A network administrator maintains network infrastructure such as switches and routers, and diagnoses problems with these or with the behavior of network-attached computers.

· A security administrator is a specialist in computer and network security, including the administration of security devices such as firewalls, as well as consulting on general security measures.

· A web administrator maintains web server services (such as Apache or IIS) that allow for internal or external access to web sites. Tasks include managing multiple sites, administering security, and configuring necessary components and software. Responsibilities may also include software change management.

· Technical support staff respond to individual users' difficulties with computer systems, provide instructions and sometimes training, and diagnose and solve common problems.

· A computer operator performs routine maintenance and upkeep, such as changing backup tapes or replacing failed drives in a RAID. Such tasks usually require physical presence in the room with the computer; and while less skilled than sysadmin tasks require a similar level of trust, since the operator has access to possibly sensitive data.

In some organizations, a person may begin as a member of technical support staff or a computer operator, then gain experience on the job to be promoted to a sysadmin position.

Training

Unlike many other professions, there is no single path to becoming a system administrator. Many system administrators have a degree in a related field: computer science, information technology, computer engineering, information system management, or even a trade school program. Other schools have offshoots of their Computer Science program specifically for systems administration.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_administrator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_router

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_administrator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_management


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_operator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAID

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering


One of the primary difficulties with teaching system administration as a formal university discipline, is that the industry and technology changes much faster than the typical textbook and coursework certification process. By the time a new textbook has spent years working through approvals and committees, the specific technology for which it is written may have changed significantly or is now obsolete.

In addition, because of the practical nature of systems administration and the easy availability of open-source server software, many systems administrators enter the field self-taught.

Generally, a prospective administrator will be required to have some experience with the computer system he or she is expected to manage. In some cases, candidates are expected to possess industry certifications such as the Microsoft MCSA, MCSE, Red Hat RHCE, Novell CNA, CNE, Cisco CCNA or CompTIA's A+ or Network+, Sun Certified SCNA, Linux Professional Institute among others.

Sometimes, almost exclusively in smaller sites, the role of system administrator may be given to a skilled user in addition to or in replacement of his or her duties. For instance, it is not unusual for a mathematics or computing teacher to serve as the system administrator of a secondary school.

System Administration includes the following services:-

· Installing softwares Installation and configuration of software’s on the request of client.

· Upgrading software and applying patches. Up gradation of existing software’s on clients request and application of latest patches on Different running services on the server.

· Configuration changes for different services running on the server. Configuration of services according to client’s requirement.

· Log files Maintenance of log files for different services running on a server like Web Server, Email Server, FTP Server, SSH Server, DNS Server etc

· Installing/Maintaining firewalls. Installation of firewall and maintaining it according to client’s requirement and on demand.

· Installation of SSL (secure) certificate Installation of SSL certificate for secure data transaction from the client’s website (on request)


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCSA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCSE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RHCE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Novell_Administrator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Novell_Engineer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCNA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompTIA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%2B_certification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%2B

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Certified

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCNA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Professional_Institute

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Professional_Institute


· Weekly Server Reports. Generation of weekly reports for different services running on server according to the log files. These reports include the server health, disk quota, status of running services and the details of any outage of running services

· DNS troubleshooting. Trouble shooting of the problems related to name resolutions.

· Data Backup of server. It includes daily backups of server data and monthly cleanup of old backups.

· Kernel Installation/Upgradation. Installation of new kernel on the server or on client machines. Up gradation of existing kernel and inclusion of modules according to clients requirements.

· APACHE/PHP/MYSQL configuration. Configuration of apache/php/mysql on the server or client machines.

· Installation of other services on client request. Installation and configuration of new services on clients request.

· Security for server. Configuration of the server to make it secure, this includes patching of different services running on the server, instillation of IDS (Intrusion Detection System), File Integrity Checker.

· Hardening the security of server by installing hardening scripts and packages. Installation of hardening scripts on the server to make it more secure.

· Database Management. Account creation/Deletion in database

· Management of Server remotely. Management of server remotely through SSH/VPN for quick assistance in any outage.

In larger organizations, some tasks listed above may be divided among different system administrators or members of different organizational groups. For example, a dedicated individual(s) may apply all system upgrades, a Quality Assurance (QA) team may perform testing and validation, and one or more technical writers may be responsible for all technical documentation written for a company.

In smaller organizations, the system administrator can also perform any number of duties elsewhere associated with other fields:


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_control




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_writer


· Technical support · Database administrator (DBA) · Network administrator/analyst/specialist · Application analyst · Security administrator · Programmer

System administrators, in larger organizations, tend not to be system architects, system engineers, or system designers. However, like many roles in this field, demarcations between systems administration and other technical roles often are not well defined in smaller organizations. Even in larger organizations, senior systems administrators often have skills in these other areas as a result of their working experience.

In smaller organizations, IT/computing specialties are less often discerned in detail, and the term system administrator is used in a rather generic way — they are the people who know how the computer systems work and can respond when something fails.

System administration

· Operating system and Internet server software upgrades · Operating system performance tuning · Mail Server (adding/deleting users, mail forwards, auto-responders) · POP and SMTP mail server configuration · Web Server and FTP Server management (access control, adding

domains, basic password security, server module support) · Domain Name Service (DNS) administration · Back-up Plan & implementation · File & Directory services, NFS, etc · Software installations and configuration · Remote Server Monitoring

Server Management

Server management includes following services on server:-

· Email Server

· DNS Server

· FTP Server

· Firewall




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_administrator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_analyst

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Security

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_architect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_engineer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_engineer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_designer

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/demarcation


· Proxy server

· Web Server

· File Sharing

· CVS

· SSH Server

· VPN

Security

· Installation of current recommended and security patches · Installation and management of Anti-virus software · Complete firewall systems to port filtering, we provide a number of more

advanced security solutions to protect sensitive data and run mission-critical applications

· SSH/OpenSSH/OpenSSL · Security Auditing & Updating

Traffic Analysis

· Web log analysis usage reports · Round-trip Web Performance Reporting · Custom-specified traffic analysis

Data Backup and Storage

· Backing-up important files and database information protects companies and their customers in the unlikely event that data is lost or destroyed

· File system back-up



Oracle

The Oracle Database (commonly referred to as Oracle RDBMS or simply

Oracle) consists of a relational database management system (RDBMS)

produced and marketed by Oracle Corporation. As of 2009, Oracle remains a

major presence in database computing.

Physical and logical structuring in Oracle

An Oracle database system — identified by an alphanumeric system identifier or SID— comprises at least one instance of the application, along with data storage. An instance — identified persistently by an instantiation number (or activation id: SYS.V_$DATABASE. ACTIVATION#) — comprises a set of operating-system processes and memory-structures that interact with the storage. Typical processes include PMON (the process monitor) and SMON (the system monitor).

Users of Oracle databases refer to the server-side memory-structure as the SGA (System Global Area). The SGA typically holds cache information such as data-buffers, SQL commands, and user information. In addition to storage, the database consists of online redo logs (or logs), which hold transactional history. Processes can in turn archive the online redo logs into archive logs (offline redo logs), which provide the basis (if necessary) for data recovery and for some forms of data replication.

The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and physically in the form of data files. Tablespaces can contain various types of memory segments, such as Data Segments, Index Segments, etc. Segments in turn comprise one or more extents. Extents comprise groups of contiguous data blocks. Data blocks form the basic units of data storage. At the physical level, datafiles comprise one or more data blocks, where the block size can vary between data-files.

Oracle database management tracks its computer data storage with the help of information stored in the SYSTEM tablespace. The SYSTEM tablespace contains the data dictionary — and often (by default) indexes and clusters. A data dictionary consists of a special collection of tables that contains information about all user- objects in the database. Since version 8i, the Oracle RDBMS also supports "locally managed" tablespaces which can store space management information in bitmaps in their own headers rather than in the


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_recovery

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_replication

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_and_logical_storage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablespace

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_segment

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_%28database%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_%28computer_science%29

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SYSTEM tablespace (as happens with the default "dictionary-managed" tablespaces).

If the Oracle database administrator has implemented Oracle RAC , then multiple instances, usually on different servers, attach to a central storage array. This scenario offers advantages such as better performance, scalability and redundancy. However, support becomes more complex, and many sites do not use RAC. In version 10g, grid computing introduced shared resources where an instance can use CPU resources from another node (computer) in the grid.

The Oracle DBMS can store and execute stored procedures and functions within itself. PL/SQL (Oracle Corporation's proprietary procedural extension to SQL), or the object-oriented language Java can invoke such code objects and/or provide the programming structures for writing them.

Database schema

Oracle database conventions refer to defined groups of ownership (generally associated with a "username") as schemas.

Most Oracle database installations traditionally came with a default schema called SCOTT. After the installation process has set up the sample tables, the user can log into the database with the username scott and the password tiger. The name of the SCOTT schema originated with Bruce Scott, one of the first employees at Oracle (then Software Development Laboratories), who had a cat named Tiger.

The SCOTT schema has seen less use as it uses few of the features of the more recent releases of Oracle. Most recent examples supplied by Oracle Corporation reference the default HR or OE schemas.

Other default schemas include:

· SYS (essential core database structures and utilities) · SYSTEM (additional core database structures and utilities, and privileged

account) · OUTLN (utilized to store metadata for stored outlines for stable query-

optimizer execution plans. · BI, IX, HR, OE, PM, and SH (expanded sample schemas containing more

data and structures than the older SCOTT schema).

Memory architecture



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_RAC

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stored_procedure

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/SQL


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_schema


System Global Area

Each Oracle instance uses a System Global Area or SGA — a shared-memory area — to store its data and control-information.

Each Oracle instance allocates itself an SGA when it starts and de-allocates it at shut-down time. The information in the SGA consists of the following elements, each of which has a fixed size, established at instance startup:

· the database buffer cache: this stores the most recently-used data blocks. These blocks can contain modified data not yet written to disk (sometimes known as "dirty blocks"), unmodified blocks, or blocks written to disk since modification (sometimes known as clean blocks). Because the buffer cache keeps blocks based on a most-recently-used algorithm, the most active buffers stay in memory to reduce I/O and to improve performance.

· the redo log buffer: this stores redo entries — a log of changes made to the database. The instance writes redo log buffers to the redo log as quickly and efficiently as possible. The redo log aids in instance recovery in the event of a system failure.

· the shared pool: this area of the SGA stores shared-memory structures such as shared SQL areas in the library cache and internal information in the data dictionary. An insufficient amount of memory allocated to the shared pool can cause performance degradation.

Library cache

The library cache stores shared SQL, caching the parse tree and the execution plan for every unique SQL statement.

If multiple applications issue the same SQL statement, each application can access the shared SQL area. This reduces the amount of memory needed and reduces the processing-time used for parsing and execution planning.

Data dictionary cache

The data dictionary comprises a set of tables and views that map the structure of the database.

Oracle databases store information here about the logical and physical structure of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as:

· user information, such as user privileges · integrity constraints defined for tables in the database


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Global_Area

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_memory





· names and datatypes of all columns in database tables · information on space allocated and used for schema objects

The Oracle instance frequently accesses the data dictionary in order to parse SQL statements. The operation of Oracle depends on ready access to the data dictionary: performance bottlenecks in the data dictionary affect all Oracle users. Because of this, database administrators should make sure that the data dictionary cache has sufficient capacity to cache this data. Without enough memory for the data-dictionary cache, users see a severe performance degradation. Allocating sufficient memory to the shared pool where the data dictionary cache resides precludes these particular performance problems.

Program Global Area

The Program Global Area or PGA memory-area of an Oracle instance contains data and control-information for Oracle's server-processes.

The size and content of the PGA depends on the Oracle-server options installed. This area consists of the following components:

· stack-space: the memory that holds the session's variables, arrays, and so on.

· session-information: unless using the multithreaded server, the instance stores its session-information in the PGA. (In a multithreaded server, the session-information goes in the SGA.)

· private SQL-area: an area in the PGA which holds information such as bind-variables and runtime-buffers.

· sorting area: an area in the PGA which holds information on sorts, hash-joins, etc.

Process architectures

Oracle processes

The Oracle RDBMS typically relies on a group of processes running simultaneously in the background and interacting to monitor and expedite database operations. Typical operating groups might include some of the following individual processes — (shown along with their abbreviated nomenclature):

· archiver processes (ARCn) · checkpoint process (CKPT) *REQUIRED* · coordinator-of-job-queues process (CJQn): dynamically spawns slave

processes for job-queues


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_%28computer_software%29


· database writer processes (DBWn) *REQUIRED* · dispatcher processes (Dnnn): multiplex server-processes on behalf of

users · memory-manager process (MMAN): used for internal database tasks such

as Automatic Shared Memory Management · log-writer process (LGWR) *REQUIRED* · log-write network-server (LNSn): transmits redo logs in Data Guard

environments · logical standby coordinator process (LSP0): controls Data Guard log-

application · media-recovery process (MRP): detached recovery-server process · memory-monitor process (MMON) · memory-monitor light process (MMNL): gathers and stores Automatic

Workload Repository (AWR) data · process-monitor process (PMON) *REQUIRED* · process-spawner (PSP0): spawns Oracle processes · queue-monitor processes (QMNn) · recoverer process (RECO) · remote file-server process (RFS) · shared server processes (Snnn): serve client-requests · system monitor process (SMON) *REQUIRED*

User processes, connections and sessions

Oracle Database terminology distinguishes different computer-science terms in describing how end-users interact with the database:

· user processes involve the invocation of application software · a connection refers to the pathway linking a user process to an Oracle

instance · sessions consist of specific connections to an Oracle instance. Each

session within an instance has a session identifier or "SID" (distinct from the system-identifier SID).

Concurrency and locking

Oracle databases control simultaneous access to data resources with locks (alternatively documented as "enqueues" ). The databases also utilize "latches" -- low-level serialization mechanisms to protect shared data structures in the System Global Area.

Internationalization


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Data_Guard

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_%28computing%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_%28computer_science%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_%28computer_science%29


Oracle Database software comes in 63 language-versions (including regional variations such as American English and British English). Variations between versions cover the names of days and months, abbreviations, time-symbols such as A.M. and A.D., and sorting.

Oracle Corporation has translated Oracle Database error-messages into Arabic, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.

Oracle Corporation provides database developers with tools and mechanisms for producing internationalized database applications: referred to internally as "Globalization".

Version numbering

Oracle products have historically followed their own release-numbering and naming conventions. With the Oracle RDBMS 10g release, Oracle Corporation started standardizing all current versions of its major products using the "10g" label, although some sources continued to refer to Oracle Applications Release 11i as Oracle 11i. Major database-related products and some of their versions include:

· Oracle Application Server 10g (also known as "Oracle AS 10g"): a middleware product;

· Oracle Applications Release 11i (aka Oracle e-Business Suite, Oracle Financials or Oracle 11i): a suite of business applications;

· Oracle Developer Suite 10g (9.0.4); · Oracle JDeveloper 10g: a Java integrated development environment;

Since version 7, Oracle's RDBMS release numbering has used the following codes:

· Oracle7: 7.0.16 — 7.3.4 · Oracle8 Database: 8.0.3 — 8.0.6 · Oracle8i Database Release 1: 8.1.5.0 — 8.1.5.1 · Oracle8i Database Release 2: 8.1.6.0 — 8.1.6.3 · Oracle8i Database Release 3: 8.1.7.0 — 8.1.7.4 · Oracle9i Database Release 1: 9.0.1.0 — 9.0.1.5 ( patchset as of December

2003) · Oracle9i Database Release 2: 9.2.0.1 — 9.2.0.8 (patchset as of April

2007) · Oracle Database 10g Release 1: 10.1.0.2 — 10.1.0.5 (patchset as of

February 2006)


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Application_Server

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middleware

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Applications

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_suite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Developer_Suite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_JDeveloper


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_%28computing%29


· Oracle Database 10g Release 2: 10.2.0.1 — 10.2.0.4 (patchset as of April 2008)

· Oracle Database 11g Release 1: 11.1.0.6 — 11.1.0.7 (patchset as of September 2008)

The version-numbering syntax within each release follows the pattern: major.maintenance.application-server.component-specific.platform-specific.

For example, "10.2.0.1 for 64-bit Solaris" means: 10th major version of Oracle, maintenance level 2, Oracle Application Server (OracleAS) 0, level 1 for Solaris 64-bit.

The Oracle Administrator's Guide offers further information on Oracle release numbers. Oracle Corporation provides a table showing the latest patch-set releases by major release, operating-system, and hardware-architecture.

List of claimed firsts

Oracle Corporation claims to have provided:

· the first commercially-available SQL-based database (1979) · the first database to support symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) (1983) · the first distributed database (1986) · the first database product tested to comply with the ANSI SQL standard

(1993) · the first 64-bit database (1995) · the first database to incorporate a native JRE (1998) · the first proprietary RDBMS to become available on Linux (1998) · the first database to support XML (1999)

Editions

Over and above the different versions of the Oracle database management software, Oracle Corporation subdivides its product into varying "editions" - apparently for marketing and license-tracking reasons. In approximate order of decreasing scale, we find:

· Enterprise Edition(EE) includes more features than the 'Standard Edition', especially in the areas of performance and security. Oracle Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for servers running 4 or more CPUs. EE has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering using Oracle RAC software.

· Standard Edition (SE) contains base database functionality. Oracle Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors,



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_database

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_database


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Runtime_Environment


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML


typically for servers running from one to four CPUs. If the number of CPUs exceeds 4 CPUs, the user must convert to an Enterprise license. SE has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering with Oracle RAC at no additional charge.

· Standard Edition One, introduced with Oracle 10g, has some additional feature-restrictions. Oracle Corporation markets it for use on systems with one or two CPUs. It has no memory limitations.

· Express Edition ('Oracle Database XE'), introduced in 2005, offers Oracle 10g free to distribute on Windows and Linux platforms. It has a footprint of only 150 MB and is restricted to the use of a single CPU, a maximum of 4 GB of user data. Although it can be installed on a server with any amount of memory, it is limited to using 1 GB at most. Support for this version comes exclusively through on-line forums and not through Oracle support.

· Oracle Database Lite, intended for running on mobile devices. The database located on the mobile device can synchronize with a server-based installation.

Host platforms

Prior to releasing Oracle9i in 2001, Oracle Corporation ported its database engine to a wide variety of platforms. More recently Oracle Corporation has consolidated on a smaller range of operating-system platforms.

As of October 2006, Oracle Corporation supported the following operating systems and hardware platforms for Oracle Database 10g:

· Apple Mac OS X Server: PowerPC · HP HP-UX: PA-RISC, Itanium · HP Tru64 UNIX: Alpha · HP OpenVMS: Alpha, Itanium · IBM AIX5L: IBM POWER · IBM z/OS: zSeries · Linux: x86, x86-64, PowerPC, zSeries, Itanium · Microsoft Windows: x86, x86-64, Itanium · Sun Solaris: SPARC, x86, x86-6

Database options

Oracle Corporation refers to some extensions to the core functionality of the Oracle database as "database options". As of 2008 such options include:

· Active Data Guard (extends Oracle Data Guard physical standby functionality in 11g)



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVMS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AIX_%28operating_system%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_POWER

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/OS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZSeries

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_%28operating_system%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARC

http://www.oracle.com/database/active-data-guard.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Data_Guard


· Advanced Security (adds data encryption methods) · Content database (provides a centralized repository for unstructured

information) · Database Vault (enforces extra security on data access) · Data Mining (ODM) (mines for patterns in existing data) · In-Memory Database Cache (utilizes TimesTen technology) · Label Security (enforces row-level security) · Management Packs (various) · Oracle Answers (for ad-hoc analysis and reporting) · Oracle OLAP (adds analytical processing) · Oracle Programmer (provides programmatic access to Oracle databases

via precompilers, interfaces and bindings) · Partitioning (granularizes tables and indexes for efficiency) · Real Application Clusters (RAC) (coordinates multiple processors) · Oracle Real Application Testing (new at version 11g) — including

Database Replay (for testing workloads) and SQL Performance Analyzer (SPA) (for preserving SQL efficiency in changing environments)

· Records database (a records management application) · Oracle Spatial (integrates relational data with geographic information

systems (GIS)) · Transparent Gateway for connecting to non-Oracle systems. Offers

optimized solution, with more functionality and better performance than Oracle Generic Connectivity.

· Total Recall (optimizes long-term storage of historical data) · Oracle Warehouse Builder (in various forms and sub-options)

Suites

In addition to its RDBMS, Oracle Corporation has released several related suites of tools and applications relating to implementations of Oracle databases. For example:

· Oracle Application Server, a J2EE-based application server, aids in developing and deploying applications which utilise Internet technologies and a browser.

· In computing, the Oracle Application Server 10g (the "g" stands for grid), consists of an integrated, standards-based software platform. It forms part of Oracle Corporation's Fusion Middleware technology stack. The heart of Oracle Application Server consists of Oracle HTTP Server (based on Apache HTTP Server) and OC4J (OracleAS Containers for J2EE) which deploys J2EE-based applications. The latest version of OC4J offers full compatibility with the J2EE 1.4 specifications.


http://www.oracle.com/database/advanced-security.html

http://www.oracle.com/database/contentdb.html

http://www.oracle.com/database/database-vault.html

http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/bi/odm/index.html

http://www.oracle.com/database/in-memory-database-cache.html



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TimesTen

http://www.oracle.com/database/label-security.html

http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/oem/extensions/index.html

http://www.oracle.com/appserver/business-intelligence/standard-edition-one.html

http://www.oracle.com/solutions/business_intelligence/olap.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_analytical_processing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precompiler

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_%28computer_science%29

http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/oracle9i/datasheets/partitioning.html


http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Real_Application_Testing&action=edit&redlink=1

http://www.oracle.com/database/recordsdb.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Spatial

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_systems

http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/oracle9i/datasheets/gateways/gateway_rel2_ds.html

http://www.oracle.com/database/total-recall.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Warehouse_Builder



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Fusion_Middleware

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_stack

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OC4J

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J2EE


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· Oracle Application Server became the first platform designed for grid computing as well as with full life-cycle support for service-oriented architecture (SOA).

· The current release of Oracle Application Server, 10g R3, does not feature a metadata repository tier, relying instead on metadata repositories provided in previous releases.

· Following Oracle's acquisition of BEA Systems, their stated aim is that “key features [will be] integrated with WebLogic Server with seamless migration”. The first stage of integration is expected in October, 2008 with a more complete release in May, 2009.

Components

· Oracle Portal · Oracle Identity Management · Oracle Integration · Oracle Business Rules · Oracle BPEL Process Manager (option) · Oracle Business Activity Monitoring (option) · Oracle Business Intelligence · Oracle Forms · Oracle Reports · Oracle TopLink · Oracle JDeveloper · Oracle Application Server Containers for J2EE (OC4J) · Oracle Enterprise Manager · Oracle Application Server Web Cache · Oracle Application Server Wireless

· Oracle Collaboration Suite contains messaging, groupware and collaboration applications.

Launched in 2000, the Oracle Collaboration Suite represented the first attempt[ citation needed] by Oracle Corporation to enter the Enterprise messaging system market. Initially marketed as a Unified Messaging system, it has grown as a product to incorporate many of the features one would expect in an Enterprise level collaborative tool, as well as features more normally associated with standalone Content management systems. These features include:

· Real Time Collaboration o Instant Messaging o Web Conferencing




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitier_architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BEA_Systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebLogic

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Portal&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Identity_Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Identity_Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Integration&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Business_Rules&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_BPEL_Process_Manager

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Business_Activity_Monitoring&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Business_Intelligence&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Forms

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Reports

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TopLink

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_JDeveloper


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Enterprise_Manager

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Application_Server_Web_Cache&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Application_Server_Wireless&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Collaboration_Suite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_messaging_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_messaging_system

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Messaging

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_Messaging

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Conferencing


o Desktop sharing · Unified Messaging

o eMail o Voice Mail o Fax o Telephony o Wireless and Voice Access o Outlook integration

· Calendaring · Content Management

o Files · Records Management

· Oracle Developer Suite contains software development tools, including JDeveloper.

Components

The name of the suite has been renamed a few times. The software components that included in the suite has also changed over ti

Suite Name

Components

Oracle IDE Forms, Reports, Book, Graphics

Oracle Developer

Forms, Reports, Book, Graphics

Oracle Developer/2000

Forms, Reports, Book, Graphics

Oracle Developer Suite

Forms, Reports, Designer, JDeveloper

Current Status

Oracle Developer Suite 11g is Java based development tools for oracle Oracle Developer Suite 11g consists of the following components:

· Oracle JDeveloper · Oracle Forms · Oracle Designer · Oracle Software Configuration Manager · Oracle Reports · Oracle Discoverer · Oracle Business Intelligence Beans


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_sharing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMail

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_Mail

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlook

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calendaring&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Developer_Suite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JDeveloper

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JDeveloper


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Designer

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Software_Configuration_Manager&action=edit&redlink=1


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Discoverer

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_Business_Intelligence_Beans&action=edit&redlink=1


· Oracle E-Business Suite collects together applications for enterprise resource planning (including Oracle Financials), customer relationship management and human resources management ( Oracle HR).

Within the overall rubric of Oracle Applications, [1] Oracle Corporation's E-Business Suite ("EB-Suite" or "EBS") consists of a collection of enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), and supply-chain management (SCM) computer applications either developed by or acquired by Oracle. The software utilizes Oracle's core Oracle relational database management system technology. The E-Business Suite (current version: 12, released January 31, 2007), contains several product lines, including:

· Oracle CRM · Oracle Financials · Oracle HRMS · Oracle Logistics · Oracle Mobile Supply chain Applications · Oracle Order Management · Oracle Project Portfolio Management · Oracle Quotes · Oracle Transportation Management · Oracle Warehouse Management Systems

Significant technologies incorporated into the applications include the Oracle database technologies, (engines for RDBMS, PL/SQL, Java, HTML and XML), the "technology stack" ( Oracle Forms Server, Oracle Reports Server, Apache Web Server, Oracle Discoverer, Jinitiator and Sun's Java).

· Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) used by database administrators (DBAs) to manage the DBMS, and recently in version 10g, a web-based rewrite of OEM called "Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Control". Oracle Corporation has dubbed the super-Enterprise-Manager used to manage a grid of multiple DBMS and Application Servers "Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control".

For managing lots of databases and application servers (according to Oracle Corporation, preferably in a grid solution) one could use the Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control. It can manage multiple instances of Oracle deployment platforms; the most recent edition also allows for management and monitoring of other platforms such as Microsoft .NET, Microsoft SQL Server, NetApp Filers, BEA weblogic and others. Partners and IT organizations can build


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_E-Business_Suite



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_resource_planning


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Financials



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resources

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oracle_HR&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Applications









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_RDBMS




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_line

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_database





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Web_Server

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Web_Server

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Discoverer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinitiator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Enterprise_Manager




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_%28computing%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_%28computing%29


extensions to Oracle Enterprise Manager, and make them available to other Enterprise Manager users via Oracle Enterprise Manager 10g Grid Control Extensions Exchange.

The architecture of the OEM for Grid Control has three distinct components:

1. the collection agent (Oracle Management Agent or OMA) 2. the aggregation agent ( Oracle Management Server or OMS) 3. the repository agent (Oracle Management Repository or OMR)

The OMA runs on the target host and collects information on the hardware, operating system, and applications that run on the target. The OMS runs on one or two servers and collects the data generated by the OMAs. The OMS pulls the information from the OMAs and aggregates the collections into the repository. The OMS also acts as the user-interface — by generating web-pages for database administrators to view the status of systems and services. The OMR comprises an instance of the Oracle database that stores the data collected by the OMS. Installers can make the OMR highly available or fault-tolerant by running it on an Oracle RAC instance across multiple nodes.

Database "features"

Apart from the clearly-defined database options, Oracle databases may include many semi-autonomous software sub-systems, which Oracle Corporation sometimes refers to as "features" in a sense subtly different from the normal usage of the word. Such "features" may include (for example):

· Active Session History (ASH), the collection of data for immediate monitoring of very recent database activity.

· Automatic Workload Repository (AWR), providing monitoring services to Oracle database installations from Oracle version 10. Prior to the release of Oracle version 10, the Statspack facility provided similar functionality.

· Clusterware · Data Aggregation and Consolidation · Data Guard for high availability · Generic Connectivity for connecting to non-Oracle systems. · Data Pump utilities, which aid in importing and exporting data and

metadata between databases · Database Resource Manager (DRM), which controls the use of

computing resources.




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Management_Server



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault-tolerance





http://www.oracle.com/technology/pub/articles/10gdba/week6_10gdba.html

http://www.oracle.com/solutions/business_intelligence/warehouse-builder.html

http://www.oracle.com/technology/deploy/availability/htdocs/DataGuardOverview.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_availability

http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/oracle9i/datasheets/gateways/gateway_rel2_ds.html


· Fine-grained auditing (FGA) (in Oracle Enterprise Edition) supplements standard security-auditing features

· Flashback for selective data recovery and reconstruction · iSQL*Plus, a web-browser-based graphical user interface (GUI) for

Oracle database data-manipulation (compare SQL*Plus) · Oracle Data Access Components (ODAC), tools which consist of:

o Oracle Data Provider for .NET (ODP.NET) o Oracle Developer Tools (ODT) for Visual Studio o Oracle Providers for ASP.NET o Oracle Database Extensions for .NET o Oracle Provider for OLE DB o Oracle Objects for OLE o Oracle Services for Microsoft Transaction Server

· Oracle-managed files (OMF) -- a feature allowing automated naming, creation and deletion of datafiles at the operating-system level.

· Recovery Manager (rman) for database backup, restoration and recovery

· SQL*Plus, a program that allows users to interact with Oracle database(s) via SQL and PL/SQL commands on a command-line. Compare iSQL*Plus.

Standalone tools

Various tools address specific environments or specific market requirements.

Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle Reports). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward 'wizard'-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.

Oracle SQL Developer, a free graphical tool for database development, allows developers to browse database objects, run SQL statements and SQL scripts, and edit and debug PL/SQL statements. It incorporates standard and customized reporting.

Oracle Certification Program

The Oracle Certification Program, a professional certification program, includes the administration of Oracle Databases as one of its main certification paths. It contains three levels:

1. Oracle Certified Associate (OCA) 2. Oracle Certified Professional (OCP)


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Flashback

http://www.oracle.com/technology/tech/sql_plus/index.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Manipulation_Language



http://download.oracle.com/docs/cd/B28359_01/server.111/b28310/omf.htm



http://web.archive.org/web/20051208092120/http:/www.oracle.com/technology/deploy/availability/htdocs/rman_overview.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_dump

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_restoration&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_recovery

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL*Plus



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line_interface






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_SQL_Developer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Certification_Program

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_certification


3. Oracle Certified Master (OCM)

Oracle RAC

Real Application Cluster (RAC) is a component of the Oracle 9i database

product that allows a database to be installed across multiple servers.

According to Oracle, RAC's shared disk method of clustering databases:

increases scalability because servers can easily be added or subtracted to meet

current needs, lowers costs because companies don't have to buy high-end

servers, and improves availability because if one server fails, another can

assume its workload.

RAC's shared disk architecture is an unusual approach to database clustering.

Most competing database products use the alternative, which is known as

"shared nothing" architecture. Shared nothing architecture partitions data and

only gives each server access to its own disk subsystem, while shared disk

architecture gives all servers access to the entire database. This adds failover

capacity to the database, because all servers have access to the whole database.

Proponents claim that thiReal Application Cluster (RAC) is a component of the

Oracle 9i database product that allows a database to be installed across multiple

servers. According to Oracle, RAC's shared disk method of clustering

databases: increases scalability because servers can easily be added or

subtracted to meet current needs, lowers costs because companies don't have to

buy high-end servers, and improves availability because if one server fails,

another can assume its workload.


http://searchoracle.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid41_gci214534,00.html

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In database computing, Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC) — an option for the Oracle Database software produced by Oracle Corporation and introduced in 2001 with Oracle9i — provides software for clustering and high availability in Oracle database environments. RAC is included with the Standard Edition of Oracle Database, but it is an extra-charge option for the Enterprise Edition.

Functionality

Oracle RAC allows multiple computers to run Oracle RDBMS software simultaneously while accessing a single database, thus providing a clustered database.

In a non-RAC Oracle database, a single instance accesses a single database. Where the "database" consists of a collection of data files, control files, and redo logs located on disk; the "instance" comprises the collection of Oracle-related memory and operating system processes that run on a computer system.

In an Oracle RAC environment, two or more computers (each with an instance) concurrently access a single database. This allows an application or user to connect to either computer and have access to a single coordinated set of data.

Connecting to an Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC) System Connecting to an Oracle RAC system is similar to connecting to a single instance of an Oracle database. When connecting to a single Oracle database instance, you specify either the SID or ServiceName of the instance




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Database


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle9i

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_cluster

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_file

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redo_log

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage



to which you want to connect in the connection string. For example, the following connection string establishes a connection to the database instance Accting1: "Host=server1;Port=1521;ServiceName=Accting1" In a RAC environment, multiple Oracle instances share the same physical data. In addition to the SID or ServiceName for each Oracle instance in the Oracle RAC system, a ServiceName exists for the entire Oracle RAC system. When an application uses the Oracle RAC system's ServiceName, the Oracle RAC system appears to be a single Oracle instance to the application. For example, the following connection string establishes a connection to an Oracle instance in the Oracle RAC system named Accounting: "Host=server1;Port=1521;ServiceName=Accounting" The specific instance that is connected to is determined by a number of factors, including which instances are available and the load on those instances. Typically, the application does not need to know which instance to which it is connected. Failover Oracle RAC systems provide two methods of failover to provide reliableaccess to data: Connection Failover Enabling connection failover allows a driver to connect to another node if a connection attempt on one node fails. When an application requests a connection to an Oracle database server through the driver, the driver does not connect to the database server directly. Instead, the driver sends a connection request to a listener process, which forwards the request to the appropriate Oracle database instance. In an Oracle RAC system, each active Oracle database instance in the RAC system registers with each listener configured for the Oracle RAC. For example, if we look at the Oracle RAC Nodes A, B, and C in Figure 2, Instances A, B, and C are registered with Listeners A, B, and C. If the service name in the connection request specifies the RAC system database name, the requested listener selects one of the registered instances to forward the connection request to, based on the load each of the instances is experiencing. For example, if Instances A and B are operating under a heavy load, a connection request to Listener A results in the connection being forwarded to Instance C



Because the requested listener selects from a set of active instances in the RAC system to forward connection requests to, it should not route the connection request to an instance that is not running. You may think that connection failover is not needed in an Oracle RAC system; however, if the requested listener is down or the timing of an instance going down is such that the requested listener is not yet aware that an instance is down, the connection request can fail. The connection failover feature provided by the DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle drivers handles the case where the requested listener or the server selected by the listener is down by allowing you to specify multiple listeners to which to connect. For example, as shown in Figure 3, if Listener A is down, the DataDirect Connect for ODBC drivers can be configured to try Listener B,and then Listener C.



Connection failover provides protection for new connections only and does not preserve states for transactions or queries, so your application needs to provide failure recovery for transactions and queries. The following example shows a connection string that enables connection failover with two alternate servers for the DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle Wire Protocol driver: "DSN=AcctOracleServer; AlternateServers=(HostName=AccountOracleServer:PortNumber=1521: SID=Accounting, HostName=255.201.11.24:PortNumber=1522:ServiceName=ABackup.NA.MyCompany)"

Transparent Application Failover (TAF) With TAF, if a communication link failure occurs after a connection is established, the connection is moved to another active Oracle RAC node in the cluster without the application having to re-establish the connection. For example, suppose you have the Oracle RAC environment shown in Figure 3 with multiple connections to Oracle RAC nodes: A, B, and C. As shown in the



first case, connections are distributed among the nodes in an Oracle RAC system.

When a communication link failure occurs between an Oracle node and the application as shown in the second case, the driver automatically switches the connection to another available node. When a user session fails over to an alternate RAC node, the following items are not persisted to the failover node and must be reinitialized by the application: In-use stored procedures Application changes to session state In-flight "write" transactions (local transactions doing database updates) Global transactions Although Oracle documentation refers to this functionality as transparent, the preceding list shows that it is not completely transparent to an application. The application programmer must include code to handle the necessary “clean-up” caused by rolled back transactions or lost session states. Because of these restrictions, the situations where application failover is beneficial when implemented by the driver are limited. Applications can perform a failover using the DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle drivers by performing the following steps: 1. Catch the communication error exception generated by the driver. 2. Take the necessary steps to deal with current transactions that were



rolled back. 3. Re-establish the connection to the server. 4. Re-initialize the session state. 5. Re-run any transaction that was rolled back. To make it easy for applications to detect when the connection with the server is lost, all communication error exceptions thrown by the DataDirect Connect for ODBC drivers have a SQL state that begins with 08. Oracle’s TAF implementation in their OCI ODBC driver performs Step 3 in the preceding list for the application and may perform Step 5 for the application if the only operation in the transaction is a Select statement. DataDirect is currently evaluating ways to enhance the failover functionality in the DataDirect Connect for ODBC drivers for a future release.

Benefits

Since Oracle RAC allows multiple computers (instances) to access a single database simultaneously, it addresses several areas of database management. These areas include:

· fault tolerance · load balancing

Load Balancing Oracle RAC systems provide two types of load balancing for automatic workload management:

· Server load balancing distributes processing workload among Oracle RAC nodes.

· Client load balancing distributes new connections among Oracle RAC nodes so that no one server is overwhelmed with connection requests. For example, when a connection fails over to another node because of hardware failure, client load balancing ensures that the redirected connection requests are distributed among the other nodes in the RAC. The primary difference between these two methods is that the former method distributes processing and the latter method distributes connection attempts.

Server Load Balancing With Oracle9i RAC systems, a listener service provides automatic load balancing across nodes. The query optimizer determines the optimal distribution of workload across the nodes in the RAC based on the number of processors and current load. Oracle 10g also provides load-balancing options that allow the database


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administrator to configure rules for load balancing based on application requirements and Service Level Agreements (SLAs). For example, rules can be defined so that when Oracle 10g instances running critical services fail, the workload is automatically shifted to instances running less critical workloads. Or, rules can be defined so that Accounts Receivable services are given priority over Order Entry services. The DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle drivers can transparently take advantage of server load balancing provided by an Oracle RAC without any changes to the application. If you do not want to use server load balancing, you can bypass it by connecting to the service name that identifies a particular RAC node.

Client Load Balancing Client load balancing helps distribute new connections in your environment so that no one server is overwhelmed with connection requests. When client load balancing is enabled, connection attempts are made randomly among RAC nodes. You can enable connection failover for DataDirect Connect for ODBC drivers through a driver connection string using the Load Balancing connection string attribute. Suppose you have the Oracle RAC environment shown in Figure 4 with multiple Oracle RAC nodes, A, B, C, and D. Without client load balancing enabled, connection attempts may be front-loaded, meaning that most connection attempts would try Node A first, then Node B, and so on until a connection attempt is successful. This creates a situation where Node A and

· Node B can become overloaded with connection requests.

With client load balancing enabled, the driver randomly selects the order of the connection attempts to nodes throughout the Oracle RAC system. For example, Node B may be tried first, followed by Nodes D, C, and A. Subsequent connection retry attempts will continue to use this order. Using a randomly determined order makes it less likely that any one node in the Oracle RAC system will be so overwhelmed with connection requests that it may start refusing connections.



For example, the following connection string enables client load balancing for the DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle Wire Protocol driver: "DSN=AcctOracleServer; AlternateServers=(HostName=AccountOracleServer:PortNumber=1521: SID=Accounting, HostName=255.201.11.24:PortNumber=1522:

ServiceName=ABackup.NA.MyCompany);LoadBalancing=1"

· scalability

Implementation

Oracle RAC depends on the infrastructure component Oracle Clusterware to coordinate multiple servers and their sharing of data storage.

Cache Fusion

Prior to Oracle 9, network-clustered Oracle databases used a storage device as the data-transfer medium, which had the inherent disadvantage of lackluster performance. Oracle 9i addressed this issue, and RAC uses a dedicated network-connection for communications internal to the cluster.

Since all computers/instances in an RAC access the same database, the overall system must guarantee the coordination of data changes on different computers such that whenever a computer queries data it receives the current version —


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even if another computer recently modified that data. Oracle RAC refers to this functionality as Cache Fusion. Cache Fusion involves the ability of Oracle RAC to "fuse" the in-memory data cached physically separately on each computer into a single, global cache.

Evaluation

Relative to the single-instance Oracle database, Oracle RAC adds additional complexity that can become overwhelming without investment in appropriate training and management tools. While database automation makes sense for single-instance databases, it becomes even more necessary for clustered databases because of their increased complexity.

Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC), introduced with Oracle9i, is the successor to Oracle Parallel Server. However it required an external clusterware for most of the Unix flavors (except for Linux and Windows where oracle provided free clusterware called Cluster Ready Services or CRS). By Oracle 10g, Oracle's clusterware product was available for all operating systems. With the release of Oracle Database 10g Release 2 (10.2), Cluster Ready Services was renamed to Oracle Clusterware. When using Oracle 10g or higher, Oracle Clusterware is the only clusterware that you need for most platforms on which Oracle RAC operates (except for Tru cluster, in which case you need vendor clusterware). You can still use clusterware from other vendors if the clusterware is certified for Oracle RAC.

In RAC the node performing the write-transaction must take ownership of the relevant area of the database: typically this involves a request across the cluster interconnection (local IP network) to transfer the data-block ownership from another node to the one wishing to do the write. This takes a relatively long time (from few milliseconds to tens of milliseconds) compared to single database-node using in-memory operations. For many types of applications, the time spent coordinating block access across systems is low relative to the many operations on the system, and RAC will scale comparably to a single system. Also, high read-transactional databases work very well under RAC, as no need for ownership-transfer exists.

The overhead on the resource mastering (or ownership-transfer) is very minimal when you have more than three nodes, as the request for any resource in the cluster can be obtained in a maximum of three hops (owner-master-requestor). This makes Oracle RAC horizontally scalable with many nodes. Application vendors (such as SAP) use Oracle RAC to demonstrate the scalability of their application. Most of the biggest OLTP benchmarks are on Oracle RAC. Oracle RAC 11g supports up to 100 nodes. Although this is the concept, in many real implementations, RAC shows negative scalability. This is


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because all the nodes need to co-ordinate each other to get a resource like locks and all the nodes are supposed to update same control file, in addition to that above mentioned inter-node block transfer also creates a big bottleneck in the performance. So usage of RAC for OLTP systems and its scalability is still a debatable point.

For some applications, RAC may require careful application-partitioning to enhance performance. An application which scales linearly on an SMP machine may scale linearly under RAC. However, if the application cannot scale linearly on SMP, it will not scale when ported to RAC. In short the application scalability is based on how well the application scales in a single instance.

Competition

Shared Everything

Apart from Oracle RAC, other commercially-available databases offer a "shared-everything" architecture. IBM DB2 for z/OS (the IBM mainframe operating-system) has provided a high-performance data-sharing option since the mid 1990s when IBM released its mainframe hardware and software-clustering infrastructure.

In February 2008, Sybase released its Adaptive Server Enterprise, Cluster Edition. It is similar to Oracle RAC in its shared everything design. See Sybase ASE Cluster Edition's data sheet here for details.

Although technically not shared everything, Sybase also provides a column-based relational database focused on analytic and datawarehouse applications called Sybase IQ which can be configured to run in a shared disk mode.

Shared Nothing

Competitive products offering shared-nothing architectures include:

· MySQL Cluster (Ownership will transfer to Oracle if their acquisition of Sun Microsystems goes through)

· IBM Balanced Configuration Unit · Greenplum · Netezza Performance Server · Teradata · Lexst Database Cluster


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Database administrator

A database administrator (DBA) is a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database. The role of a database administrator has changed according to the technology of database management systems (DBMSs) as well as the needs of the owners of the databases. For example, although logical and physical database design are traditionally the duties of a database analyst or database designer, a DBA may be tasked to perform those duties.

o Data modeling, database optimization, understanding and implementation of schemas, and the ability to interpret and write complex Structured Query Language (SQL) queries

o Proactively monitor systems for optimum performance and capacity constraints

o Establish standards and best practices for SQL o Interact with and coach developers in SQL scripting

Responsibilities of a Database Administrator:- One of my colleagues likes to comment that users of the databases for which he is responsible think they control the databases. The reality, as he quite correctly puts it (if in a control-freakish sort of way), is quite different. As a DBA, he can do whatever he wants in any database he is responsible for, so he’s the one with control. Database administrators do have a great deal of power, but it is important to remember that with great power also comes great responsibility. Ultimately, the success and failure of a database to respond to user requirements and satisfy corporate objectives rests with the DBA. The DBA must take the blame and the praise for good or bad database management. The kinds of tasks DBAs in the Oracle world are responsible for include the following: • Sizing and evaluating server hardware As the individual responsible for the smooth operation of databases in your organization, you will be called upon to suggest the configuration of the server that will be used to run Oracle. Your experience will play a key role here in determining the amount of memory, hard disk, CPU, and other resources required to support the target database’s operations. Understanding the architecture of Oracle and the data needs of the business and the application will help you perform this task.



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• Installing Oracle software and updates After you buy the software, the first thing you need to do is bring it up. Installation of the Oracle software on the target platform is the job of the DBA. It usually involves more than putting in the CD and answering the prompts of the setup program because Oracle is a very powerful system comprising a complex piece of software that has many hooks and interactions with the operation system. Ensuring that the software is installed and working properly is a key to being a successful DBA. PART I • Planning and designing the database structure Once the software is installed, you need to make sure that the layout of the physical data structures and logical elements of Oracle is done in an optimal way. If this is not the case, performance will suffer and users will make their displeasure known. If you have properly sized the hardware, this should be an easy task, since you should have taken the database size and structure into account; if you inherited the environment, you may need to use your expertise to determine the optimal configuration. • Creating databases As you will see in Chapter 3, this is a somewhat anticlimactic task. Creation of the database is the first step to administering it. Although relatively straightforward, the process can run into problems; with experience, however, you should grow well equipped to fix these problems. • Backing up databases and implementing other ways to safeguard the data Once a database is in production and users are connecting to it, they may not take it well if the database becomes unavailable. Even worse, if data is lost it could mean lost productivity, sales, and customers. Ensuring that a database is always available to users, that data loss is minimized, and that recovery is quick and complete is perhaps one of the most important responsibilities of the DBA. • Creating and maintaining database users Once a new user needs to gain access to the database or when the requirements and permissions of another user change, the DBA must be able to make the necessary security modifications to ensure appropriate access. In some cases, application developers may not make use of Oracle’s built-in security fully, so being able to recognize these situations and take appropriate action is also necessary. • Implementing application and database designs Organizations may purchase third-party software applications or hire database architects to design a database to suit a specific database requirement when in-house expertise is lacking. However, the actual implementation of these designs



will be undertaken by the DBA, since the DBA will be responsible for ensuring that the database continues to work properly after the software vendor or database architect leaves. • Restoring and recovering databases Sometimes things go wrong. Hardware fails, users improperly modify or delete data, or a natural disaster or some other calamity befalls the data center. Being able to recover from a variety of scenarios is critical. This is when the fault tolerance disaster recovery strategy is tested for real—but it should also be tested in mock scenarios to ensure it works. The DBA is the one that is answerable for their success or failure. • Monitoring and tuning database performance In Star Trek: The Next Generation there is an episode where the Enterprise assists a stranded vessel. The vessel’s occupants are somewhat lacking in both engineering and communication skills, but they do ask Captain Picard and Giordi to make us go fast. Your users will frequently comment that the database is not fast enough. Keeping those comments to a minimum and solving performance problems when (or before) they occur will reduce your stress level and increase job satisfaction. As you can tell, the duties of a DBA are wide and varied. It is an exciting position whose goal can sometimes be summed up in one phrase: reduce the number of times the phone rings in a day. If you get a lot of phone calls from users or management, this is probably not a good sign and can make your day an unhappy one. Well-tuned databases on appropriate hardware with good disaster recovery and backup strategies will reduce your phone calls, make happy users, and increase your job satisfaction.

The Database Administrator Users Extra privileges are necessary to execute administrative duties on the Oracle server, such as creating users. Two database user accounts, SYS and SYSTEM, are created automatically with the database and granted the DBA role. That is, a predefined role that is created automatically with every database. The DBA role has all database system privileges. SYS When a database is created, the user SYS, identified initially by the password change_on_install, is created. SYS owns the vitally important data dictionary. SYSTEM When a database is created, the user SYSTEM, identified initially by the password manager, is also created automatically. Additional tables and views



owned by the user SYSTEM are created. They contain administrative information used by Oracle tools. Additional users may be created depending on the mode of database creation i.e., manually, or using Database Creation Assistant. You will want to create at least one additional administrator username to use when performing daily administrative tasks. For security reasons, the default passwords of SYS and SYSTEM should be changed immediately after database creation.

The DBA Tools The standard applications that are supplied with Oracle Enterprise Manager include the following: • Instance Manager: Performs startup, shutdown and monitor databases • Security Manager: Used to manage users and privileges • Storage Manager: Maintains tablespaces, data files, rollback segments and log groups • Schema Manager: Used to create and maintain objects such as tables, indexes, and views • SQL*Plus Worksheet: Provides the capability to issue SQL statements against any database



How to Launch DBA Tools • Launch the Console in standalone mode • Expand the databases folder and expand the relevant database • Select tools such as Instance Manager, Schema Manager

Remote Database Administration

in remote database administration (RDBA), a client computer is monitored and professionally managed from a remote location, usually by a third-party company, to ensure that the database and computer system that is being monitored continues to run properly and efficiently over time.

In many cases, the third-party company also supplies some form of additional services such as availability monitoring software, access to a best practices and resolution knowledge base, monthly reports for the "client", service calls or telephone calls with the client. There are various forms and variations on each of the above items, each providing different levels of quality and service.

Some remote database administration companies have one or a few global offices, and all DBAs work out of these offices, whereas others are "virtual companies" with subcontractor DBAs working out of their homes.


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DBA SUPPORT



Oracle Architectural Components

Overview of Primary Components The Oracle architecture includes a number of primary components, which are discussed further in this lesson. • Oracle server: There are several files, processes, and memory structures in an Oracle server; however, not all of them are used when processing a SQL statement. Some are used to improve the performance of the database, ensure that the database can be recovered in the event of a software or hardware error, or perform other tasks necessary to maintain the database. The Oracle server consists of an Oracle instance and an Oracle atabase. • Oracle instance: An Oracle instance is the combination of the background processes and memory structures. The instance must be started to access the data in the database. Every time an instance is started, a System Global Area (SGA) is allocated and Oracle background processes are started. Background processes perform functions on behalf of the invoking process. They consolidate functions that would otherwise be handled by multiple Oracle programs running for each user. The background processes perform



input/output (I/O) and monitor other Oracle processes to provide increased parallelism for better performance and reliability. • Oracle database: An Oracle database consists of operating system files, also known as database files, that provide the actual physical storage for database information. The database files are used to ensure that the data is kept consistent and can be recovered in the event of a failure of the instance. • Other key files: Nondatabase files are used to configure the instance, authenticate privileged users, and recover the database in the event of a disk failure. • User and server processes: The user and server processes are the primary processes involved when a SQL statement is executed; however, other processes may help the erver complete the processing of the SQL statement. • Other processes: Many other processes exist that are used by other options within Oracle, such as Advanced Queuing, Real Application Clusters, Shared Server, Advanced Replication, and so on. These processes are discussed within their respectivecourses.

Connecting to an Oracle Instance Before users can submit SQL statements to an Oracle database, they must connect to an instance. • The user starts a tool such as SQL*Plus or runs an application developed using a tool such as Oracle Forms. This application or tool is executed as a user process. • In the most basic configuration, when a user logs on to the Oracle server, a process is created on the computer running the Oracle server. This process is called a server process. The server process communicates with the Oracle instance on behalf of the user process that runs on the client. The server process executes SQL statements on behalf of the user. Connection A connection is a communication pathway between a user process and an Oracle server. A database user can connect to an Oracle server in one of three ways: • The user logs on to the operating system running the Oracle instance and starts an application or tool that accesses the database on that system. The communication pathway is established using the interprocess communication mechanisms available on the host operating system.



• The user starts the application or tool on a local computer and connects over a network to the computer running the Oracle instance. In this configuration, called client-server, network software is used to communicate between the user and the Oracle server. • In a three-tiered connection, the user’s computer communicates over the network to an application or a network server, which is connected through a network to the machine running the Oracle instance. For example, the user runs a browser on a computer on a network to use an application residing on an NT server that retrieves data from an Oracle database running on a UNIX host.

Physical Structure The physical structure of an Oracle database is determined by the operating system files that provide the actual physical storage for database information. • Control files Control files containing information necessary to maintain and verify database integrity • Data files Data files containing the actual data in the database • Redo log files

Redo logs containing a record of changes made to the database to enable

recovery of The data in case of failures

Memory Structure Oracle’s memory structure consists of two memory areas known as: • System Global Area (SGA): Allocated at instance startup, and is a fundamental component of an Oracle Instance The SGA consists of several memory structures: – Shared pool The shared pool is used to store the most recently executed SQL statements and the most recently used data definitions. • It consists of two key performance-related memory structures: – Library cache The library cache stores information about the most recently used SQL and PL/SQL statements. The library cache: • Enables the sharing of commonly used statements • Is managed by a least recently used (LRU) algorithm • Consists of two structures: – Shared SQL area – Shared PL/SQL area



• Has its size determined by the shared pool sizing – Data dictionary cache The data dictionary cache is a collection of the most recently used definitions in the database. • It includes information about database files, tables, indexes, columns, users, privileges, and other database objects. • During the parse phase, the server process looks at the data dictionary for information to resolve object names and validate access. • Caching the data dictionary information into memory improves response time on queries. • Size is determined by the shared pool sizing. – Database buffer cache The database buffer cache stores copies of data blocks that have been retrieved from the data files. • It enables great performance gains when you obtain and update data. • It is managed through a least recently used (LRU) algorithm. • DB_BLOCK_SIZE determines the primary block size. – Redo log buffer The redo log buffer cache records all changes made to the database data blocks. • Its primary purpose is recovery. • Changes recorded within are called redo entries. • Redo entries contain information to reconstruct or redo changes. • Size is defined by LOG_BUFFER. – Other structures (e.g. lock and latch management, statistical data) • There are two optional memory structures that can be configured within the SGA: – Large pool The large pool is an optional area of memory in the SGA configured only in a shared server environment. • It relieves the burden placed on the shared pool. • This configured memory area is used for session memory (UGA), I/O slaves, and backup and restore operations. • Unlike the shared pool, the large pool does not use an LRU list. • Sized by LARGE_POOL_SIZE. ALTER SYSTEM SET LARGE_POOL_SIZE = 64M;



– Java pool The Java pool services the parsing requirements for Java commands. • Required if installing and using Java. • It is stored much the same way as PL/SQL in database tables. • It is sized by the JAVA_POOL_SIZE parameter. • Program Global Area (PGA): Allocated when the server process is started. The Program Global Area or Process Global Area (PGA) is a memory region that contains data and control information for a single server process or a single background process. The PGA is allocated when a process is created and deallocated when the process is terminated. In contrast to the SGA, which is shared by several processes, the PGA is an area that is used by only one process. In a dedicated server configuration, the PGA includes these components: • Sort area: Used for any sorts that may be required to process the SQL tatement • Session information: Includes user privileges and performance statistics for the session • Cursor state: Indicates the stage in the processing of the SQL statements that are currently used by the session • Stack space: Contains other session variables

Process Structure An Oracle process is a program that depending on its type can request information, execute a series of steps, or perform a specific task. Oracle takes advantage of various types of processes: • User process: Started at the time a database user requests connection to the Oracle server. A user process is a program that requests interaction with the Oracle server. • It must first establish a connection. • It does not interact directly with the Oracle server. • Server process: Connects to the Oracle Instance and is started when a user establishes a session. A server process is a program that directly interacts with the Oracle server. • It fulfills calls generated and returns results. • Can be dedicated or shared server. • Background process: Available when an Oracle instance is started.



The relationship between the physical and memory structures is maintained and enforced by Oracle’s background processes.

• Mandatory background processes DBWn PMON CKPT LGWR SMON RECO

• Optional background processes ARCn LMON Snnn QMNn LMDn CJQ0 Pnnn LCKn Dnnn

Database Writer(DBWn) The server process records changes to rollback and data blocks in the buffer cache. Database Writer (DBWn) writes the dirty buffers from the database buffer cache to the data files. It ensures that a sufficient number of free buffers—buffers that can be overwritten when server processes need to read in blocks from the data files—are available in the database buffer cache. Database performance is improved because server processes make changes only in the buffer cache.

LOG Writer(LGWR) LGWR performs sequential writes from the redo log buffer cache to the redo log file under the following situations: • When a transaction commits • When the redo log buffer cache is one-third full • When there is more than a megabyte of changes records in the redo log buffer cache • Before DBWn writes modified blocks in the database buffer cache to the data files • Every 3 seconds.

System Monitor(SMON) If the Oracle instance fails, any information in the SGA that has not been written to disk is lost. For example, the failure of the operating system causes an instance failure. After the loss of the instance, the background process SMON automatically performs instance recovery when the database is reopened.

Process Monitor(PMON) The background process PMON cleans up after failed processes by: • Rolling back the user’s current transaction • Releasing all currently held table or row locks



• Freeing other resources currently reserved by the user • Restarts dead dispatchers

Checkpoint(CKPT) An event called a checkpoint occurs when the Oracle background process DBWn writes all the modified database buffers in the SGA, including both committed and uncommitted data, to the data files. Archiver (ARCn) • Optional background process • Automatically archives online redo logs when ARCHIVELOG mode is set • Preserves the record of all changes made to the Database. Logical Structure The logical structure of the Oracle architecture dictates how the physical space of a database is to be used. A hierarchy exists in this structure that consists of tablespaces, segments, extents, and blocks.



Managing an Oracle Instance First connect sa a sysdba(super user) SQL> CONNECT / AS SYSDBA SQL> STARTUP

Initialization Parameter Files • Entries are specific to the instance being accessed • There are two kinds of parameters: – Explicit: Having an entry in the file – Implicit: No entry within the file, but assuming the Oracle default values • Multiple files can be used for a single database to optimize performance in different situations. • Changes to entries in the file take effect based on the type of initialization parameter file used; – Static parameter file, PFILE – Persistent parameter file, SPFILE PFILE initSID.ora • The PFILE is a text file that can be modified with an operating system editor. • Modifications to the file are made manually. • Changes to the file take effect on the next startup. • Its default location is $ORACLE_HOME/dbs. SPFILE spfileSID.ora • Binary file with the ability to make changes persistent across shutdown and startup • Maintained by the Oracle server • Records parameter value changes made with the ALTER SYSTEM command • Can specify whether the change being made is temporary or persistent • Values can be deleted or reset to allow an instance to revert to the default value SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET undo_tablespace = 'UNDO2'; Creating an SPFILE SPFILE can be created from an initSID.ora file using the CREATE SPFILE command, which can be executed before or after instance startup: CREATE SPFILE FROM PFILE; Oracle Managed Files



Oracle Managed Files (OMF) simplify file administration • OMF are created and deleted by the Oracle server as directed by SQL commands • OMF are established by setting two parameters: – DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST: Set to give the default location for data files – DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_N: Set to give the default locations for online redo logs and control iles, up to a maximum of 5 locations Oracle Managed File Example To create a database where data files, control files, and online redo log files are created in separate directories: • Set the initialization parameters: DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST = ’/u01/oradata/’ DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_1 = ’/u02/oradata/’ DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_2 = ’/u03/oradata/’ • Issue the CREATE DATABASE SQL statement Starting Up a Database When starting the database, you select the state in which it starts. The following scenarios describe different stages of starting up an instance. Starting the Instance (NOMOUNT) Usually you would start an instance without mounting a database only during database creation or the re-creation of control files. Starting an instance includes the following tasks: • Reading the initialization file from $ORACLE_HOME/dbs in the following order: – First spfileSID.ora. If not found then – spfile.ora – initSID.ora • Specifying the PFILE parameter with STARTUP overrides the default behavior • Allocating the SGA • Starting the background processes • Opening the alertSID.log file and the trace files The database must be named with the DB_NAME parameter either in the initialization file or in the STARTUP command. Mounting the Database To perform specific maintenance operations, you start an instance and mount a database but do not open the database.



For example, the database must be mounted but not open during the following tasks: • Renaming data files • Enabling and disabling redo log archiving options • Performing full database recovery Mounting a database includes the following tasks: • Associating a database with a previously started instance • Locating and opening the control files specified in the parameter file • Reading the control files to obtain the names and status of the datafiles and redo log files. Opening the Database Normal database operation means that an instance is started and thedatabase is mounted and open; with normal database operation, any valid user can connect to the database and perform typical data access operations. Opening the database includes the following tasks: • Opening the online data files • Opening the online redo log files If any of the data files or online redo log files are not present when you attempt to open the database, the Oracle server returns an error. During this final stage, the Oracle server verifies that all the data files and online redo log files can be opened and checks the consistency of the database. If necessary, the System Monitor background process (SMON) initiates instance recovery. STARTUP Command SQL>STARTUP Start up the instance and open the database: SQL>STARTUP PFILE=$ORACLE_HOME/dbs/initdb01.ora Starting Up To start up an instance, use the following command: STARTUP [FORCE] [RESTRICT] [PFILE=filename] [OPEN [RECOVER][database] |MOUNT |NOMOUNT] The ALTER DATABASE Command • Change the state of the database from NOMOUNT to MOUNT: SQL>ALTER DATABASE db01 MOUNT; • Open the database as a read-only database: SQL>ALTER DATABASE db01 OPEN READ ONLY; where: READ WRITE opens the database in read-write mode, so that users can generate redo logs



READ ONLY restricts users to read-only transactions, preventing them from generating redo log information Opening a Database in Restricted Mode • Use the STARTUP command to restrict access to a database: SQL>STARTUP RESTRICT • Use the ALTER SYSTEM command to place an instance in restricted mode: SQL>ALTER SYSTEM ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION; where: ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION: enables future logins only for users who have the RESTRICTED SESSION privilege DISABLE RESTRICTED SESSION: disables RESTRICTED SESSION so that users who do not have the privilege can log on Shutting Down the Database Shut down the database to make operating system offline backups of all physical structures and to have modified static initialization parameters take effect. To shut down an instance you must connect as SYSOPER or SYSDBA and use the following command: SHUTDOWN [NORMAL | TRANSACTIONAL | IMMEDIATE | ABORT ] Shutdown Options Shutdown Normal Normal is the default shutdown mode. Normal database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions: • No new connections can be made. • The Oracle server waits for all users to disconnect before completing the shutdown. • Database and redo buffers are written to disk. • Background processes are terminated, and the SGA is removed from memory. • Oracle closes and dismounts the database before shutting down the instance. • The next startup does not require an instance recovery. Shutdown Transactional A transactional shutdown prevents clients from losing work. A transactional database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions: • No client can start a new transaction on this particular instance. • A client is disconnected when the client ends the transaction that is in progress. • When all transactions have finished, a shutdown immediately occurs. • The next startup does not require an instance recovery.



Shutdown Immediate Immediate database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions: • Current SQL statements being processed by Oracle are not completed. • The Oracle server does not wait for users currently connected to the database to disconnect. • Oracle rolls back active transactions and disconnects all connected users. • Oracle closes and dismounts the database before shutting down the instance. • The next startup does not require an instance recovery. Shutdown Abort If the normal and immediate shutdown options do not work, you can abort the current database instance. Aborting an instance proceeds with the following conditions: • Current SQL statements being processed by the Oracle server are immediately terminated. • Oracle does not wait for users currently connected to the database to disconnect. • Database and redo buffers are not written to disk. • Uncommitted transactions are not rolled back. • The instance is terminated without closing the files. • The database is not closed or dismounted. • The next startup requires instance recovery, which occurs automatically. Alert Log File Each Oracle instance has an alert log file. If not already created, Oracle creates one during instance startup. The alert log file is managed by you, as it continues to grow while the database continues to work. The alert log file should be the first place you look when diagnosing day-to-day operations or errors. The alert log file also contains pointers to trace files for more detailed information. The alertSID.log file records the commands and Results of major events while the database is operational. • It is used for day-to-day operational information or diagnosing database errors. • Each entry has a time stamp associated with it. • The DBA manages the alertSID.log file. • Its location is defined by BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST. Creating a Database Managing and Organizing a Database • Creating a database is the first step in managing a database system • A database may have been created automatically as part of Oracle9i Server installation, or you can create a new one later



• Oracle Data Migration Assistant is used to migratefrom an earlier version of the database Creation Prerequisites To create a new database, you must have thefollowing: • A privileged account authenticated in one of the following ways: – By the operating system – Using a password file • Sufficient memory to start the instance • Sufficient disk space for the planned database Planning Database File Locations • Keep at least two active copies of a database control file on at least two different devices. • Multiplex the redo log files and put group members on different disks. • Separate data files whose data: – Will participate in disk resource contention across different physical disk resources – Have different life spans – Have different administrative characteristics Creating a Database An Oracle database can be created using: • Oracle Database Configuration Assistant • The CREATE DATABASE command Operating System Environment On Unix, set the following environment variables: • ORACLE_BASE • ORACLE_HOME • ORACLE_SID • ORA_NLS33 • PATH • LD_LIBRARY_PATH Using the Oracle Database Configuration Assistant Launching the Oracle Database Configuration Assistant Unix: • Enterdbca from the command prompt Options available in Oracle Database Configuration Assistant The Oracle Database Configuration Assistant allows you to do the following:



• Create a database: This option allows you to create a new database or template. The template allows you to choose, either, with datafiles or without datafiles. • Configure database options: This option allows you to add database options that have not been previously configured, such as the following (if available): JVM, interMedia,Visual Information Retrieval, Spatial, Oracle OLAP Services, Advanced Replication and SQL*Plus help Note: This option is not available with Oracle9i Real Application Clusters. • Delete a database: This option allows you to delete a database. • Manage templates: This option allows you to create a template through one of the following methods: – From pre-defined template settings: Create a new template from pre-defined template settings. You can add or change any template settings such as parameters, storage or use custom scripts – From an existing database (structure only): This template contains structural information similar to the existing database. This includes database options, tablespaces, datafiles and initialization parameters specified in the source database. User defined schemas and their data will not be part of the created template. – From an existing database (structure as well as data): This template will contain both the structure as well as the data of an existing database. Databases created using such a template will be identical to the source database. User defined schemas and their datawill be part of the template. This template does not allow you to add or remove datafiles, tablespaces, or rollback segments. Database Information Specify: • Global database name and SID • The features you want to use for your database, such as: – Oracle Spatial – Oracle OLAP Services – Example Schemas • Mode in which you want the database to operate – Dedicated server mode – Shared server mode Other Parameters • Archive Parameters – Use for database recovery – May also be used for a standby database • Data Block Sizing – Sets the default database block size – Helps to determine the SORT_AREA_SIZE • File Locations – Specify paths for trace files



– Specify paths for parameter files • Database storage – Specify storage parameters Complete Database Creation Complete database creation using the following options: • Create database • Save as a database template • Generate database creation scripts Creating a Database Manually • Decide on a unique instance and database name • Choose a database character set • Set the operating system variables • Edit / Create the initialization parameter file • Start the instance (nomount) • Execute the CREATE DATABASE command • Run scripts to generate the data dictionary and accomplish post creation steps Preparing the Parameter File • Create the new initSID.ora $ cp init.ora $ORACLE_HOME/dbs/initdb01.ora • Modify the initSID.ora by editing the Parameters Creating SPFILE Create the SPFILE from initSID.ora SQL>CREATE SPFILE FROM PFILE; Starting the Instance • Connect as SYSDBA • Start the instance in NOMOUNT stage SQL>STARTUP NOMOUNT Creating the Database SQL> create database db01 2 logfile 3 GROUP 1 ('/u01/oradata/db01/log_01_db01.rdo') SIZE 15M, 4 GROUP 2 ('/u01/oradata/db01/log_02_db01.rdo') SIZE 15M, 5 GROUP 3 ('/u01/oradata/db01/log_03_db01.rdo') SIZE 15M 6 datafile '/u01/oradata/db01/system_01_db01.dbf' SIZE 100M 7 undo tablespace UNDO 8 datafile '/u01/oradata/db01/undo_01_db01.dbf' SIZE 40M 9 default temporary tablespace TEMP 10 tempfile '/u01/oradata/db01/temp_01_db01.dbf' SIZE 20M 11 extent management local uniform size 128k



12 character set AL32UTF8 13 national character set AL16UTF16 14 set time_zone = 'America/New_York' 15 ; Creating a Database Using OMF • Define the OMF initialization parameters in the parameter file – DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST – DB_CREATE_ONLINE_DEST_n STARTUP NOMOUNT CREATE DATABASE DEFAULT TEMPORARY TABLESPACE TEMP; After Database Creation The database contains: • Datafiles, control files, and redo log files • User SYS with the password change_on_install • User SYSTEM with the password manager • Internal tables (but no data dictionary views)



Data Dictionary Contents and Usage Data Dictionary During database creation, the Oracle server creates additional object structures within the data files. • Data dictionary tables • Dynamic performance tables The data dictionary is a set of read-only tables and views that record, verify, and provide information about its associated database. • Describes the database and its objects • Includes two types of objects: – Base tables

– Store description of database – Created with CREATE DATABASE

– Data Dictionary views – Summarize base table information – Created using catalog.sql script

Data Dictionary Contents The data dictionary provides information about: • Logical and physical database structure • Definitions and space allocations of objects • Integrity constraints • Users • Roles • Privileges • Auditing How the Data Dictionary Is Used The data dictionary has three primary uses: • The Oracle server uses it to find information about: – Users – Schema objects – Storage structures • The Oracle server modifies it when a DDL statement is executed. • Users and DBAs can use it as a read-only



reference for information about the database. Data Dictionary View Categories The data dictionary consists of three main sets of static views distinguished from each other by their scope: • DBA: What is in all the schemas • ALL: What the user can access • USER: What is in the user's schema DBA_xxx All of the objects in the database SQL>SELECT owner, object_name, object_type FROM dba_objects; ALL_xxx Objects accessible by the current user SQL>SELECT owner, object_name, object_type FROM all_objects; USER_xxx Objects owned by the current user SQL>SELECT owner, object_name, object_type FROM users_objects; Querying the Data Dictionary To get an overview of the data dictionary and dynamic performance views, the DICTIONARY view or its synonym DICT can be queried. For example: SQL>SELECT * FROM dictionary; Include the where clause to narrow your responses: SQL>SELECT * FROM dictionary WHERE table_name like ‘sort%’ The V$FIXED_TABLE view can also be queried to get a listing of the views: SQL>SELECT * FROM V$FIXED_TABLE; To get a list of columns within a view, use the DESCRIBE keyword: SQL>DESCRIBE V$INSTANCE; To get an overview of the columns in the data dictionary and dynamic performance views,the DICT_COLUMNS view can be queried. To view the contents of the view use the SELECT command. SQL>SELECT * from V$INSTANCE; Data Dictionary Examples • General Overview – DICTIONARY, DICT_COLUMNS • Schema objects – DBA_TABLES, DBA_INDEXES, DBA_TAB_COLUMNS, DBA_CONSTRAINTS • Space allocation – DBA_SEGMENTS, DBA_EXTENTS



• Database structure – DBA_TABLESPACES, DBA_DATA_FILES

Maintaining the Control File Control File The control file is a small binary file necessary for the database to start and operate successfully. Each control file is associated with only one Oracle database. Before a database is opened, the control file is read to determine if the database is in a valid state to use. A control file is updated continuously by the Oracle server during database use, so it must beavailable for writing whenever the database is open. The information in the control file canbe modified only by the Oracle server; no database administrator or end user can edit the control file. If for some reason the control file is not accessible, the database does not nction properly. If all copies of a database’s control files are lost, the database must be recovered before it can be opened. At least one control file is required, but control files can be multiplexed up to eight times. Sizing the Control File Keywords specified during the creation of the database affect the size of the control file. This is particularly significant when the parameters have large values. The size of the control file is influenced by the following keywords in the CREATE DATABASE or CREATE CONTROLFILE commands: • MAXLOGFILES • MAXLOGMEMBERS • MAXLOGHISTORY • MAXDATAFILES • MAXINSTANCES Control File Contents The information in the control file includes: • Database name is taken from either the name specified by the initialization parameter DB_NAME or the name used in the CREATE DATABASE statement. • Database identifier is recorded when the database is created. • Time stamp of database creation is also recorded at database creation. • Names and locations of associated data files and online redo log files are updated when a data file or redo log is added to, renamed in, or dropped from the database. • Tablespace information is updated as tablespaces are added or dropped. • Redo log history is recorded during log switches.



• Location and status of archived logs are recorded when archiving occurs. • Location and status of backups are recorded by the Recovery Manager utility. • Current log sequence number is recorded when log switches occur. • Checkpoint information is recorded as checkpoints are made. Multiplexing the Control File Using SPFILE Alter the SPFILE SQL> ALTER SYSTEM SET control files = '$HOME/ORADATA/u01/ctrl01.ctl', '$HOME/ORADATA/u02/ctrl02.ctl' SCOPE=SPFILE; • Shutdown normal: SQL> shutdown • Create additional control files $ cp $HOME/ORADATA/u01/ctrl01.ctl $HOME/ORADATA/u02/ctrl02.ctl • Start the database: SQL> startup Multiplexing the Control File Using init.ora • Shut down the database in a normal state: SQL> shutdown normal • Copy the existing control file to a new name and location: $ cp control01.ctl .../DISK3/control02.ctl • Add the new control file name to init.ora: CONTROL_FILES = (/DISK1/control01.ctl, /DISK3/control02.ctl) • Start the database: SQL> startup Backup After Database Structure Changes You can create a backup of a control file, but you cannot bring a control file back from a backup without its appropriate data files. The control file is a living file that corresponds to current database status. ALTER DATABASE BACKUP CONTROLFILE TO 'FILENAME' You can also backup your control file to a trace file. This will create a file with the SQL statements required to recreate your control file. ALTER DATABASE BACKUP CONTROLFILE TO TRACE



Managing Control Files with OMF • Control files are OMF created if the CONTROL_FILES parameter is not specified. • OMF control files are located at DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_N. • Control file names are uniquely generated and displayed in the alertSID.log file when the files are created. Obtaining Control File Information Information about control file status and locations can be retrieved by querying the data dictionary. • V$CONTROLFILE: Lists the name and status of all control files associated with the instance. • V$PARAMETER: Lists status and location of all parameters. • V$CONTROLFILE_RECORD_SECTION: Provides information about the control file record sections. • SHOW PARAMETERS CONTROL_FILES: List the name, status, and location of the control files Information in several of the other dynamic performance views is obtained from the control file: • V$BACKUP • V$DATAFILE • V$TEMPFILE • V$TABLESPACE • V$ARCHIVE • V$LOG • V$LOGFILE • V$LOGHIST • V$ARCHIVED_LOG • V$DATEBASE



Maintaining Redo Log Files Redo Log Files Redo log files record all changes made to data and provide a recovery mechanism from a system or media failure. • Redo log files are organized into groups. • An Oracle database requires at least two groups. • Each redo log within a group is called a member. Purposes of the Redo Log Files Redo log files provide the means to redo transactions in the event of a database failure. Every transaction is written synchronously to the redo log files in order to provide a recovery mechanism in case of media failure. (With exceptions such as: direct loads and direct reads done with the NOLOGGING option.) This includes transactions that have not yet been committed, undo segment information, and schema and object management statements. Redo log files are used in a situation such as an instance failure to recover committed data that has not been written to the data files. The redo log files are used only for recovery. Log Switches LGWR writes to the online redo log files sequentially. When the current online redo log group is filled, LGWR begins writing to the next group. This is called a log switch. When the last available online redo log file is filled, LGWR returns to the first online redo log group and starts writing again. Forcing Log Switches and Checkpoints Log switches and checkpoints are automatically done at certain points in the operation of the database as identified previously, but a DBA can force a log switch or a checkpoint to occur. Forcing Log Switches A log switch can be forced using the following SQL command: SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SWITCH LOGFILE; Forcing Checkpoints A checkpoint can be forced using the following SQL command: SQL>ALTER SYSTEM CHECKPOINT;



A checkpoint can be forced using the FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET parameter. FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET is a shortcut to the deprecated parameters FAST_START_IO_TARGET and LOG_CHECKPOINT_TIMEOUT. FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET = 600 indicates that instance recovery should not take more than 600 seconds, and the database will adjust the other parameters to this goal. FAST_START_IO_TARGET and LOG_CHECKPOINT_TIMEOUT must not be used if FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET is used. Adding Redo Log Groups In some cases you might need to create additional log file groups. For example, adding groups can solve availability problems. To create a new group of online redo log files, use the following SQL command: ALTER DATABASE [database] ADD LOGFILE [GROUP integer] filespec [, [GROUP integer] filespec]...] You specify the name and location of the members with the file specification. The value of the GROUP parameter can be selected for each redo log file group. If you omit this parameter, the Oracle server generates its value automatically. SQL>ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE GROUP 3 ('$HOME/ORADATA/u01/log3a.rdo', '$HOME/ORADATA/u02/log3b.rdo') SIZE 1M; Adding Redo Log Members You can add new members to existing redo log file groups using the following ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE MEMBER command: ALTER DATABASE [database] ADD LOGFILE MEMBER [ 'filename' [REUSE] [, 'filename' [REUSE]]... TO {GROUP integer |('filename'[, 'filename']...) } ]... Use the fully specified name of the log file members; otherwise the files are created in a default directory of the database server. f the file already exists, it must have the same size, and you must specify the REUSE option. You can identify the target group either by specifying one or more members of the group or by specifying the group number.



SQL>ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE MEMBER '$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log1c.rdo' TO GROUP 1, '$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log2c.rdo' TO GROUP 2, '$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log3c.rdo' TO GROUP 3; Dropping a Redo Log Group To increase or decrease the size of online redo log groups, add new online redo log groups (with the new size) and then drop the old ones. An entire online redo log group can be dropped with the following ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE command: ALTER DATABASE [database] DROP LOGFILE {GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)} [,{GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)}]... SQL>ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE GROUP 3; Dropping a Redo Log Member You may want to drop an online redo log member because it is invalid. Use the following ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE MEMBER command if you want to drop one or more specific online redo log members: ALTER DATABASE [database] DROP LOGFILE MEMBER 'filename'[, 'filename']... SQL>ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE MEMBER '$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log3c.rdo'; Clearing Online Redo Log Files If a redo log file is corrupted in all members, the database administrator can solve this problem by reinitializing these log files using ALTER DATABASE CLEAR LOGFILE: ALTER DATABASE [database] CLEAR [UNARCHIVED] LOGFILE {GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)} [,{GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)}]... Using this command is equivalent to adding and dropping an online redo log file. But you can issue this command even if there are only two log groups with one file each and even if the cleared group is available but not archived. SQL>ALTER DATABASE CLEAR LOGFILE '$HOME/ORADATA/u01/log2a.rdo'; Restrictions



You can clear an online redo log file whether it is archived or not. However, when it is not archived, you must include the keyword UNARCHIVED. This makes backups unusable if the online redo log file is needed for recovery. Relocating and Renaming Redo Log Files The locations of the online redo log files can be changed by adding new log files and dropping the old log files. Another method ALTER DATABASE RENAME FILE is available, but this requires the database to be placed in MOUNT mode. Therefore, it is much easier to add new ones and drop old ones. Obtaining Group and Member Information Information about group and members can be obtained by querying the data dictionary. • V$LOG SQL> SELECT group#, sequence#, bytes, members, status 2 FROM v$log; • V$LOGFILE To obtain the names of all the members of a group, query the dynamic performance view V$LOGFILE. SQL> SELECT member FROM V$LOGFILE; Archived Redo Log Files Filled online redo log files can be archived. • Two advantages exist to archiving redo logs: – Recovery: A database backup, together with online and archived redo log files can guarantee recovery of all committed transactions. – Backup: Can be performed while the database is open. • By default a database is created in NOARCHIVELOG mode. • Archiving redo log files is accomplished by ARCn (Archiver) or manually through SQL statements. • An entry in the control file recording the archive log name, log sequence number, and high and low SCN number is made whenever a redo log is successfully archived. • A filled redo log file cannot be reused until a checkpoint has taken place and the redo log file has been backed up the ARCn process. • Archived redo log files can be multiplexed. • Archived redo log files must be maintained by the DBA. Archived Redo Log Files



Information about archived logs can be obtained from V$INSTANCE. SQL> SELECT archive FROM v$instance;

Managing Tablespaces and Data files Overview A small database might need only the SYSTEM tablespace; however, Oracle recommends that you create additional tablespaces to store user data, user indexes, undo segments, and temporary segments separate from data dictionary. This gives you more flexibility in various database administration operations and reduces contention among dictionary objects and chema objects for the same data files. The DBA can create new tablespaces, resize data files, add data files to tablespaces, set and alter default segment storage settings for segments created in a tablespace, make a tablespaceread-only or read-write, make a tablespace temporary or permanent, and drop tablespaces. Database Architecture The Oracle database architecture includes logical and physical structures that make up the atabase. • The physical structure includes the control files, online redo log files, and data files that make up the database. • The logical structure includes tablespaces, segments, extents, and data blocks. The Oracle server enables fine-grained control of disk space use through tablespace and logical storage structures, including segments, extents, and data blocks. Tablespaces The data in an Oracle database are stored in tablespaces. • An Oracle database can be logically grouped into smaller logical areas of space known as tablespaces. • A tablespace can belong to only one database at a time. • Each tablespace consists of one or more operating system files, which are called data files. • A tablespace may consist of zero or more segments. • Tablespaces can be brought online while the database is running. • Except for the SYSTEM tablespace or a tablespace with an active undo segment, tablespaces can be taken offline, leaving the database running. • Tablespaces can be switched between read-write and read-only status. Data Files • Each tablespace in an Oracle database consists of one or more files called data files. These are physical structures that conform with the operating system on which the Oracle server is running. • A data file can belong to only one tablespace.



• An Oracle server creates a data file for a tablespace by allocating the specified amount of disk space plus a small amount of overhead. • The database administrator can change the size of a data file after its creation or can specify that a data file should dynamically grow as objects in the tablespace grow. Segments • A segment is the space allocated for a specific logical storage structure within a tablespace. For example, all of the storage allocated to a table is a segment. • A tablespace may consist of one or more segments. • A segment cannot span tablespaces; however, a segment can span multiple data files that belong to the same tablespace. • Each segment is made up of one or more extents. Extents Space is allocated to a segment by extents. • One or more extents make up a segment. – When a segment is created, it consists of at least one extent. – As the segment grows, extents get added to the segment. – The DBA can manually add extents to a segment. • An extent is a set of contiguous Oracle blocks. • An extent cannot span a data file but must exist in one data file. Data Blocks The Oracle server manages the storage space in the data files in units called Oracle blocks or data blocks. • At the finest level of granularity, the data in an Oracle database is stored in data blocks. • Oracle data blocks are the smallest units of storage that the Oracle server can allocate, read, or write. • One data block corresponds to one or more operating system blocks allocated from an existing data file. • The standard data block size for an Oracle database is specified by the DB_BLOCK_SIZE initialization parameter when the database is created. • The data block size should be a multiple of the operating system block size to avoid unnecessary I/O. • The maximum data block size is dependent on the operating system. Types of Tablespaces The DBA creates tablespaces for increased control and ease of maintenance. The Oracle server perceives two types of tablespaces: SYSTEM and all others. SYSTEM Tablespace • Created with the database • Required in all databases



• Contains the data dictionary, including stored program units • Contains the SYSTEM undo segment • Should not contain user data, although it is allowed Non-SYSTEM Tablespaces • Enable more flexibility in database administration • Separate undo, temporary, application data, and application index segments • Separate data by backup requirements • Separate dynamic and static data • Control the amount of space allocated to user’s objects CREATE TABLESPACE Command You create a tablespace with the CREATE TABLESPACE command: CREATE TABLESPACE tablespace [DATAFILE clause] [MINIMUM EXTENT integer[K|M]] [BLOCKSIZE integer [K]] [LOGGING|NOLOGGING] [DEFAULT storage_clause ] [ONLINE|OFFLINE] [PERMANENT|TEMPORARY] SQL>CREATE TABLESPACE userdata DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf' SIZE 100M AUTOEXTEND ON NEXT 5M MAXSIZE 200M; Space Management in Tablespaces • Locally managed tablespaces: – Free extents recorded in bitmap – Each bit corresponds to a block or group of blocks – Bit value indicates free or used SQL>CREATE TABLESPACE userdata DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf' SIZE 500M EXTENT MANAGEMENT LOCAL UNIFORM SIZE 256K; • Dictionary-managed tablespaces: – Default method – Free extents recorded in data dictionary tables

SQL>CREATE TABLESPACE userdata DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf' SIZE 500M EXTENT MANAGEMENT DICTIONARY



DEFAULT STORAGE ( initial 1M NEXT 1M );

Changing the Storage Settings SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata MINIMUM EXTENT 2M; SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata DEFAULT STORAGE ( INITIAL 2M NEXT 2M MAXEXTENTS 999 ); Changing Default Storage Settings Use the ALTER TABLESPACE command to alter the default storage definition of a tablespace: ALTER TABLESPACE tablespace [MINIMUM EXTENT integer[K|M] |DEFAULT storage_clause ] The storage settings for locally managed tablespaces cannot be altered.

Undo Tablespace • Used to store undo segments • Cannot contain any other objects • Extents are locally managed • Can only use the DATAFILE and EXTENT MANAGEMENT clauses of the CREATE TABLESPACE command SQL>CREATE UNDO TABLESPACE undo1 DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/undo101.dbf' SIZE 40M;

Temporary Tablespace • Used for sort operations • Cannot contain any permanent objects • Locally managed extents recommended SQL>CREATE TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp TEMPFILE '/u01/oradata/temp01.dbf' SIZE 500M EXTENT MANAGEMENT LOCAL UNIFORM SIZE 10M;

Default Temporary Tablespace • Allows you to specify a databasewide default temporary tablespace • Eliminates the use of the SYSTEM tablespace for storing temporary data



• Can be created using the CREATE DATABASE or ALTER DATABASE command. • When created with the CREATE DATABASE command, the default temporary tablespace is locally managed

Restrictions on Default Temporary Tablespace • It cannot be dropped until after a new default is made available. • It cannot be taken offline. • You cannot alter the default temporary tablespace to a permanent tablespace.

Offline Status • Offline tablespace is not available for data access. • Some tablespaces must be online: – SYSTEM – Tablespaces with active undo segments – Default temporary • To take a tablespace offline: SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata OFFLINE; • To bring a tablespace online: SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata ONLINE;

Read-Only Tablespaces SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata READ ONLY; • Tablespace available only for read operations • Objects can be dropped from tablespace • To create a read-only tablespace on a removable media drive: – ALTER TABLESPACE…READ ONLY; – Move the data file to the WORM drive – ALTER TABLESPACE…RENAME DATAFILE…;

Dropping Tablespaces • Tablespace removed from data dictionary • Optionally, contents removed from data dictionary



• OS files can be deleted with the optional AND DATAFILES clause: SQL .DROP TABLESPACE userdata INCLUDING CONTENTS AND DATAFILES;

SQL>DROP TABLESPACE tablespace [INCLUDING CONTENTS [AND DATAFILES] [CASCADE CONSTRAINTS]] where: tablespace specifies the name of the tablespace to be dropped INCLUDING CONTENTS drops all the segments in the tablespace AND DATAFILES deletes the associated operating system files CASCADE CONSTRAINTS drops referential integrity constraints fromtables outside the tablespace that refer to primary and unique keys in the tables in the dropped tablespace Resizing a Tablespace • Add a data file • Change the size of a data file: – Automatically – Manually

Enabling Automatic Extension of Data Files SQL>ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata02.dbf' SIZE 200M AUTOEXTEND ON NEXT 10M MAXSIZE 500M;

Changing the Size of Data Files Manually Instead of adding space to the database by adding data files, the DBA can change the size of a data file. Use the ALTER DATABASE command to manually increase or decrease the size of a data file: ALTER DATABASE [database] DATAFILE ‘filename’[, ‘filename’]... RESIZE integer[K|M] where: integer is the absolute size, in bytes, of the resulting data file If there are database objects stored above the specified size, then the data file size isdecreased only to the last block of the last objects in the data file. SQL>ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE '/u03/oradata/userdata02.dbf' RESIZE 200M;



Adding Data Files to a Tablespace The ALTER TABLESPACE ADD DATAFILE Command You can add data files to a tablespace to increase the total amount of disk space allocated for the tablespace with the ALTER TABLESPACE ADD DATAFILE command: SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE tablespace ADD DATAFILE filespec [autoextend_clause] [, filespec [autoextend_clause]]... ALTER TABLESPACE app_data ADD DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata03.dbf' SIZE 200M;

Moving Data Files:ALTER TABLESPACE • The tablespace must be offline. • The target data files must exist. The following ALTER TABLESPACE command is applied only to data files in a non- SYSTEM tablespace that does not contain active undo or temporary segments: ALTER TABESPACE tablespace RENAME DATAFILE 'filename'[, 'filename']... TO 'filename'[, 'filename']... SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata RENAME DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf' TO '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf';

Moving Data Files:ALTER DATABASE • The database must be mounted. • The target data file must exist. The ALTER DATABASE command (see the lesson “Maintaining Redo Log Files”) can be used to move any type of data file: ALTER DATABASE [database] RENAME FILE 'filename'[, 'filename']... TO 'filename'[, 'filename']...



Because the SYSTEM tablespace cannot be taken offline, you must use this method to move data files in the SYSTEM tablespace SQL>ALTER DATABASE RENAME FILE '/u01/oradata/system01.dbf' TO '/u03/oradata/system01.dbf';

Configuring Oracle Managed Files for Tablespace Creation • Creating a tablespace with OMF requires the configuration of one initialization parameter. • DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST: Set to give the default ocation for data files. • The initialization parameter can be set in an initialization file or set dynamically with the ALTER SYSTEM command: SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET db_create_file_dest = '/u01/oradata/db01';

Obtaining Tablespace Information • Tablespace information: – DBA_TABLESPACES – V$TABLESPACE • Data file information: – DBA_DATA_FILES – V$DATAFILE • Temp file information: – DBA_TEMP_FILES – V$TEMPFILE



Storage Structure and Relationships

Database Architecture The previous lesson discussed the storage structure of a database, its tablespaces, and its data files. This lesson continues the discussion of database storage by examining segments, extents, and data blocks Types of Segments Segments are space-occupying objects in a database. They use space in the data files of a database. This section describes the different types of segments. Table A table is the most common means of storing data within a database. A table segment stores that data for a table that is neither clustered nor partitioned. Data within a table segment is stored in no particular order, and the database administrator has very little control over the location of rows within the blocks in a table. All the data in a table segment must be stored inone tablespace. Table Partition Scalability and availability are major concerns when there is a table in a database with high concurrent usage. In such cases, data within a table may be stored in several partitions, each of which resides in a different tablespace. The Oracle server currently supports partitioning by a range of key values or by a hashing algorithm. If a table is partitioned, each partition is a segment, and storage parameters can be specified to control them independently. Use of this type of segment requires the Partitioning option within the Oracle9i Enterprise Edition. Cluster A cluster, like a table, is a type of data segment. Rows in a cluster are stored based on key column values. A cluster may contain one or more tables. Tables in a cluster belong to the same segment and share the same storage characteristics. The rows in a clustered table can be accessed with an index or hashing algorithm. Index All the entries for a particular index are stored within one index segment. If a table has three indexes, three index segments are used. The purpose of this segment is to look up the location of rows in a table based on a specified key. Index-Organized Table



In an index-organized table, data is stored within the index based on the key value. An indexorganized table does not need a table lookup, because all the data can be retrieved directly from the index tree. Index Partition An index can be partitioned and spread across several tablespaces. In this case, each partition in the index corresponds to a segment and cannot span multiple tablespaces. The primary use of a partitioned index is to minimize contention by spreading index I/O. Use of this type of segment requires the Partitioning option within the Oracle8i Enterprise Edition. Undo Segment An undo segment is used by a transaction that is making changes to a database. Before changing the data or index blocks, the old value is stored in the undo segment. This allows a user to undo changes made. Temporary Segment When a user executes commands such as CREATE INDEX, SELECT DISTINCT, and SELECT GROUP BY, the Oracle server tries to perform sorts in memory. When a sort needs more space than the space available in memory, intermediate results are written to the disk. Temporary segments are used to store these intermediate results. LOB Segment One or more columns in a table can be used to store large objects (LOBs) such as text documents, images, or videos. If the column is large, the Oracle server stores these values in separate segments known as LOB segments. The table contains only a locator or a pointer tothe location of the corresponding LOB data. Nested Table A column in a table may be made up of a user-defined table as in the case of items within an order. In such cases, the inner table, which is known as a nested table, is stored as a separatesegment. Bootstrap Segment A bootstrap segment, also known as a cache segment, is created by the sql.bsq script when a database is created. This segment helps to initialize the data dictionary cache when the database is opened by an instance. The bootstrap segment cannot be queried or updated and does not require any maintenance by the database administrator. Extent Allocation and Deallocation • Allocated when the segment is: – Created – Extended – Altered • Deallocated when the segment is:



– Dropped – Altered – Truncated Data Block Management Two methods are available for managing data blocks: • Automatic Segment-Space Management • It is method of managing free space inside database segments • Tracking in-segment free and used space is done using bitmaps as opposed to free lists • This method provides: – Ease of management – Better space utilization – Better performance for concurrent INSERT operations • Restriction: Can not be used for tablespaces which will contain LOBs.Bitmap segments contain a bitmap that describes the status of each block in the segment with respect to its available space. • The map is contained in a separate set of blocks referred to as bitmapped blocks (BMBs). • When inserting a new row, the server searches the map for a block with sufficient space. • As the amount of space available in a block changes, its new state is reflected in the bitmap. • Automatic segment-space management can be enabled at the tablespace level only, for locally managed tablespaces. SQL>CREATE TABLESPACE data02 DATAFILE ‘/u01/oradata/data02.dbf’ SIZE 5M EXTENT MANAGEMENT LOCAL UNIFORM SIZE 64K SEGMENT SPACE MANAGEMENT AUTO; • After a tablespace is created, the specifications apply to all segments created in the tablespace. • Manual Configuration • Allows you to configure data blocks manually using parameters such as: – PCTFREE – PCTUSED – FREELIST • Only method available in previous Oracle versions Obtaining Storage Information



• Data Dictionary Views – DBA_TABLESPACES – DBA_DATA_FILES – DBA_SEGMENTS SQL> SELECT segment_name,tablespace_name,extents,blocks 2 FROM dba_segments WHERE owner = 'HR'; – DBA_EXTENTS SQL> SELECT extent_id,file_id,block_id,blocks 2 FROM dba_extents 3 WHERE owner='HR' AND segment_name='EMPLOYEES'; – DBA_FREE_SPACE SQLPLUS> SELECT tablespace_name, count(*), 2> max(blocks), sum(blocks) 3> FROM dba_free_space 4> GROUP BY tablespace_name;



Managing Undo Data Managing Undo Data Overview • Two methods for managing undo data exists – Automatic Undo Management – Manual Undo Management Undo Segment An undo segment is used to save the old value (undo data) when a process changes data in a database. It stores the location of the data and the data as it existed before being modified. The header of an undo segment contains a transaction table where information about the current transactions using the undo segment is stored. A serial transaction uses only one undo segment to store all of its undo data. Many concurrent transactions can write to one undo segment. Undo Segments: Purpose Transaction Rollback When a transaction modifies a row in a table, the old image of the modified columns (undo data) is saved in the undo segment. If the transaction is rolled back, the Oracle server restores the original values by writing the values in the undo segment back to the row. Transaction Recovery If the instance fails while transactions are in progress, the Oracle server needs to undo any uncommitted changes when the database is opened again. This rollback is part of transaction recovery. Recovery is possible only because changes made to the undo segment are also protected by the redo log files. Read Consistency While transactions are in progress, other users in the database should not see any uncommitted changes made by these transactions. In addition, a statement should not see any changes that were committed after the statement begins execution. The old values (undo data) in the undo segments are also used to provide the readers a consistent image for a given statement. Types of Undo Segments • SYSTEM: Used for objects in the SYSTEM tablespace



• Non-SYSTEM: Used for objects in other tablespaces: – Auto Mode: Requires an UNDO tablespace – Manual Mode: – Private: Acquired by a single instance – Public: Acquired by any instance • Deferred: Used when tablespaces are taken offline immediate, temporary, or for recovery Automatic Undo Management: Concepts • Undo data is managed using an UNDO tablespace • You allocate one UNDO tablespace per instance with enough space for the workload of the instance. • The Oracle server automatically maintains undo data within the UNDO tablespace Automatic Undo Management: Configuration • Configure two parameters in the initialization file: – UNDO_MANAGEMENT – UNDO_TABLESPACE • Create at least one UNDO tablespace. Automatic Undo Management: Initialization Parameters • UNDO_MANAGEMENT: Specifies whether the system should use AUTO or MANUAL mode. • UNDO_TABLESPACE: Specifies a particular UNDO tablespace to be used. UNDO_MANAGEMENT=AUTO UNDO_TABLESPACE=UNDOTBS UNDO Tablespace • You may create the UNDO tablespace with the database by adding a clause in the CREATE DATABASE command CREATE DATABASE db01 . . . UNDO TABLESPACE undo1 DATAFILE 'undo1db01.dbf' SIZE 20M AUTOEXTEND ON • Or create it later by using the CREATE UNDO TABLESPACE command CREATE UNDO TABLESPACE undo1 DATAFILE 'undo1db01.dbf' SIZE 20M;



Automatic Undo Management: Altering an UNDO Tablespace • The ALTER TABLESPACE command can make changes to UNDO tablespaces. • The following example adds another data file to the UNDO tablespace: SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE undotbs ADD DATAFILE 'undotbs2.dbf' SIZE 30M AUTOEXTEND ON; Altering an UNDO Tablespace The server provides support for the following clauses when altering an UNDO tablespace. • ADD DATAFILE • RENAME • DATAFILE [ONLINE|OFFLINE] • BEGIN BACKUP • END BACKUP Automatic Undo Management: Switching UNDO Tablespaces • You may switch from using one UNDO tablespace to another • Only one UNDO tablespace can be in assigned to an instance at a time • More than one UNDO tablespace may exist within an instance, but only one can be active • Use the ALTER SYSTEM command for dynamic switching between UNDO tablespaces SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET UNDO_TABLESPACE=UNDOTBS2; Automatic Undo Management: Dropping an UNDO Tablespace • The DROP TABLESPACE command drops an UNDO tablespace. SQL>DROP TABLESPACE UNDOTBS2; • An UNDO tablespace can only be dropped if it is currently not in use by any instance. • To drop an active UNDO tablespace: – Switch to a new UNDO tablespace – Drop the tablespace after all current transactions re complete Automatic Undo Management:Other Parameters • UNDO_SUPPRESS_ERRORS Set to TRUE, this parameter suppresses errors while attempting to execute manual operations in AUTO mode. • UNDO_RETENTION Controls the amount of undo data to retain for consistent read



Undo Data Statistics SQL>SELECT end_time,begin_time,undoblks FROM v$undostat; Automatic Undo Management: Sizing an UNDO Tablespace Determining a size for the UNDO tablespace requires three pieces of information • (UR) UNDO_RETENTION in seconds • (UPS) Number of undo data blocks generated per second • (DBS) Overhead varies based on extent and file size (db_block_size) UndoSpace = [UR * (UPS * DBS)] + (DBS * 24) Automatic Undo Management Undo Quota • Long transactions and improperly written transactions can consume valuable resources • With undo quota users can be grouped and a maximum undo space limit can be assigned to the group • UNDO_POOL, a Resource Manager directive, defines the amount of space allowed for a resource group • When a group exceeds its limit no new transactions are possible, for the group, until undo space is freed by current transactions either completing or aborting Obtaining Undo Segments Information • Data Dictionary Views – DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS SQL> SELECT segment_name,owner,tablespace_name,status 2 FROM dba_rollback_segs; • Dynamic Performance Views – V$ROLLNAME – V$ROLLSTAT – V$UNDOSTAT – V$SESSION – V$TRANSACTION SQL> SELECT n.name, s.extents, s.rssize,s.hwmsize, 2 s.xacts, s.status 3 FROM v$rollname n, v$rollstat sWHERE n.usn = s.usn;



Managing Tables Using Different Methods for Storing User Data There are several methods for storing user data in an Oracle database: • Regular tables • Partitioned tables • Index-organized tables • Clustered tables Oracle Data Types Built-in Scalar CHAR(N), NCHAR(N) VARCHAR2(N), NVARCHAR2(N) NUMBER(P,S) DATE TIMESTAMP RAW(N) BLOB, CLOB, NCLOB, BFILE LONG, LONG RAW ROWID, UROWID Collection VARRAY TABLE Relationship REF User-defined Create Table The CREATE TABLE command is used to create relational tables or object tables. The example below creates a departments table as data dictionary managed. CREATE TABLE hr.departments(department_id NUMBER(4), department_name VARCHAR2(30),manager_id NUMBER(6) location_id NUMBER(4))



STORAGE(INITIAL 200K NEXT 200K PCTINCREASE 0 MINEXTENTS 1 MAXEXTENTS 5) TABLESPACE data; The above syntax is a subset of the CREATE TABLE clause. Creating Temporary Tables • Created using the GLOBAL TEMPORARY clause CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE hr.employees_temp AS SELECT * FROM hr.employees; • Tables retain data only for the duration of a transaction or session • DML locks are not acquired on the data • DMLs do not generate redo logs • Can create indexes, views, and triggers on temporary tables Changing Storage Parameters SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.department PCTFREE 30 PCTUSED 50 STORAGE(NEXT 500K MINEXTENTS 2 MAXEXTENTS 100); Manually Allocating Extents SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.department ALLOCATE EXTENT(SIZE 500K DATAFILE ‘/DISK3/DATA01.DBF’); Nonpartitioned Table Reorganization SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.department MOVE TABLESPACE data1; • Moves data into a new segment while preserving indexes, constraints, privileges, and so on the table • Is being used to move a table to a different tablespace or reorganize extents Truncating a Table SQL>TRUNCATE TABLE hr. department; • Truncating a table deletes all rows in a table and releases used space. • Corresponding indexes are truncated. Dropping a Table DROP TABLE hr.department CASCADE CONSTRAINTS; Dropping a Column Removing a column from a table: SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees DROP COLUMN comments CASCADE CONSTRAINTS CHECKPOINT 1000;



• Removes the column length and data from each row, freeing space in the data block • Dropping a column in a large table takes a considerable amount of time Using the UNUSED Option • Mark a column as unused SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees SET UNUSED COLUMN comments CASCADE CONSTRAINTS; • Drop unused columns SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees DROP UNUSED COLUMNS CHECKPOINT 1000; • Continue to drop column operation SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees DROP COLUMNS CONTINUE CHECKPOINT 1000; Obtaining Table Information Information about tables can be obtained by querying the data dictionary. • DBA_TABLES SQL>SELECT table_name FROM dba_tables WHERE owner = 'HR'; • DBA_OBJECTS SQL> select object_name, created from DBA_OBJECTS where object_name like 'EMPLOYEES' and owner = 'HR';



Managing Users Security Domain The database administrator defines the names of the users allowed to access a database. A security domain defines the settings that apply to the user. Authentication Mechanism A user who needs access to the database can be authenticated by one of the following: • Data Dictionary • Operating system • Network The means of authentication is specified at the time the user is defined in the database and can be altered later. This lesson covers authentication by database and by operating system only. Tablespace Quotas Tablespace quotas control the amount of physical storage space allocated to a user in the tablespaces in the database. Default Tablespace The default tablespace defines the location where segments created by a user are stored if theuser does not explicitly specify a tablespace at the time the segment is created. Temporary Tablespace Temporary tablespace defines where extents will be allocated by the Oracle server if the user performs an operation that requires writing sort data to the disk. Account Locking Accounts can be locked to prevent a user from logging on to the database. This can be set to occur automatically, or the database administrator can lock or unlock accounts manually. Resource Limits Limits can be placed on the use of resources such as CPU time, logical I/O, and the numberof sessions opened by a user. Direct Privileges Privileges are used to control the actions a user can perform in a database. Role Privileges A user can be granted privileges indirectly through the use of roles. Database Schema



• A schema is a named collection of objects • A user is created, and a corresponding schema is created • User can be associated only with one schema • Username and schema are often used interchangeably Schema Objects Tables Triggers Constraints Indexes Views Sequences Stored program units Synonyms User-defined data types Database links Creating a New User: Database Authentication SQL>CREATE USER aaron IDENTIFIED BY soccer DEFAULT TABLESPACE data TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp QUOTA 15m ON data PASSWORD EXPIRE; Creating a New User: Operating System Authentication • OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX initialization parameter specifies the format of the usernames • Defaults to OPS$ SQL>CREATE USER aaron IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY DEFAULT TABLESPACE USERS TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp QUOTA 15m ON data PASSWORD EXPIRE; Changing User Quota on Tablespace SQL>ALTER USER aaron QUOTA 0 ON USERS; Dropping a User SQL>DROP USER aaron; • Use the CASCADE clause to drop all objects in the schema if the schema contains objects. SQL>DROP USER aaron CASCADE; • Users currently connected to the Oracle server cannot be dropped Obtaining User Information Information about users can be obtained by querying the data dictionary. • DBA_USERS SQL>SELECT username, default_tablespace FROM dba_users; • DBA_TS_QUOTAS



Managing Privileges Privileges A privilege is a right to execute a particular type of SQL statement or to access another user’s object. These include the right to: • Connect to a database • Create a table • Select rows from another user’s table • Execute another user’s stored procedure Two types of Oracle user privileges: • System: Enables users to perform particular actions in the database • Object: Enables users to access and manipulate a specific object System Privileges The privileges can be classified as follows: • Privileges enabling system wide operations; for example, CREATE SESSION, CREATE TABLESPACE • Privileges enabling management of objects in a user’s own schema; for example, CREATE TABLE • Privileges enabling management of objects in any schema; for example, CREATE ANY TABLE System Privileges: Examples Category Examples INDEX CREATE ANY INDEX

ALTER ANY INDEX DROP ANY INDEX

TABLE CREATE TABLE CREATE ANY TABLE ALTER ANY TABLE DROP ANY TABLE SELECT ANY TABLE UPDATE ANY TABLE DELETE ANY TABLE

SESSION CREATE SESSION ALTER SESSION



RESTRICTED SESSION TABLESPACE CREATE TABLESPACE

ALTER TABLESPACE DROP TABLESPACE UNLIMITED TABLESPACE

Granting System Privileges SQL>GRANT CREATE SESSION TO emi; SQL>GRANT CREATE SESSION TO emi WITH ADMIN OPTION; SYSDBA and SYSOPER Privileges Category Examples SYSOPER STARTUP

ALTER DATABASE ARCHIVELOG RECOVER DATABASE ALTER DATABASE BACKUP CONTROLFILE TO ALTER DATABASE OPEN | MOUNT SHUTDOWN

SYSDBA ALTER DATABASE BEGIN/END BACKUP RESTRICTED SESSEION RECOVER DATABASE UNTIL CREATE DATABASE SYSOPER PRIVILEGES WITH ADMIN OPTION

System Privilege Restrictions O7_DICTIONARY_ACCESSIBILITY parameter • Controls restrictions on SYSTEM privileges • If set to TRUE, access to objects in SYS schema is allowed • Default is FALSE – Ensures that system privileges that allow access to any schema do not allow access to SYS schema Revoking System Privileges SQL>REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM emi; Granting Object Privileges SQL>GRANT EXECUTE ON dbms_output TO jeff; SQL>GRANT UPDATE ON emi.customers TO jeff WITH GRANT OPTION; Revoking Object Privileges



SQL>REVOKE SELECT ON emi.orders FROM jeff; Obtaining Privileges Information • Data Dictionary Views – DBA_SYS_PRIVS – SESSION_PRIVS – DBA_TAB_PRIVS – DBA_COL_PRIVS Auditing • Auditing is the monitoring of selected user database actions • Used to – Investigate suspicious database activity – Gather information about specific database activities Auditing Guidelines • Define what you want to audit – Audit users, statements, or objects – Statement executions – Successful statement executions, unsuccessful statement executions or both • Manage your audit trail – Monitor the growth of the audit trail – Protect the audit trail from unauthorized access Auditing Categories • Audited by default – Instance startup and Instance shutdown – Administrator privileges • Database auditing – Enabled by DBA – Cannot record column values • Value-based or application auditing – Implemented through code – Can record column values – Used to track changes to tables Auditing Options • Statement auditing SQL>AUDIT TABLE; • Privilege auditing



SQL>AUDIT create any trigger; • Schema object auditing SQL>AUDIT SELECT ON emi.orders; Auditing Options Fine-Grained Auditing • Provides the monitoring of data access based on content • Implemented using the DBMS_FGA package Viewing Auditing Options Data Dictionary Views • ALL_DEF_AUDIT_OPTS • DBA_STMT_AUDIT_OPTS • DBA_PRIV_AUDIT_OPTS • DBA_OBJ_AUDIT_OPTS Obtaining Audit Records • Data Dictionary Views – DBA_AUDIT_TRAIL – DBA_AUDIT_EXISTS – DBA_AUDIT_OBJECT – DBA_AUDIT_SESSION – DBA_AUDIT_STATEMENT



Managing Roles What is a Role? Oracle provides for easy and controlled privilege management through roles. Roles are named groups of related privileges that are granted to users or other roles. They are designed to ease the administration of privileges in the database. Benefits of Roles • Easier privilege management • Dynamic privilege management • Selective availability of privileges • Can be granted through the operating system • Improved performance Creating Roles SQL>CREATE ROLE oe_clerk; SQL>CREATE ROLE hr_clerk IDENTIFIED BY bonus; SQL>CREATE ROLE hr_manager IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY Predefined Roles Role Name Description CONNECT, These roles are provided RESOURCE,DBA for backward compatibility EXP_FULL_DATABASE Privileges to export the database IMP_FULL_DATABASE Privileges to import the database DELETE_CATALOG_ROLE DELETE DELETE privileges on

data dictionary tables EXECUTE_CATALOG_ROLE EXECUTE EXECUTE privilege on

data dictionary packages SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE SELECT SELECT privilege on data

dictionary tables Modifying Roles SQL>ALTER ROLE hr_clerk IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY; SQL>ALTER ROLE hr_manager NOT IDENTIFIED; SQL>ALTER ROLE oe_clerk IDENTIFIED BY order; Assigning Roles



SQL>GRANT hr_clerk TO hr_manager; SQL>GRANT oe_clerk TO scott; SQL>GRANT hr_manager TO scott WITH ADMIN OPTION; Establishing Default Roles SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE hr_clerk, oe_clerk; SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE ALL; SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE ALL EXCEPT hr_clerk; SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE NONE; Application Roles • Application roles can be enabled only by authorized PL/SQL packages • The USING package clause creates an Application Role SQL>CREATE ROLE admin_role IDENTIFIED USING hr.employee; Enabling and Disabling Roles • Disable a role to revoke the role from a user temporarily • Enable a role to grant it temporarily • The SET ROLE command enables and disables roles • Default roles are enabled for a user at login. • A password may be required to enable a role. Enabling and Disabling Roles SQL>SET ROLE hr_clerk; SQL>SET ROLE oe_clerk IDENTIFIED BY order; SQL>SET ROLE ALL EXCEPT oe_clerk; Removing Roles from Users SQL>REVOKE hr_manager FROM PUBLIC; SQL>REVOKE oe_clerk FROM scott; Removing Roles SQL>DROP ROLE hr_manager; Displaying Role Information Role View Description DBA_ROLES All roles that exist in the database DBA_ROLE_PRIVS Roles granted to users and roles ROLE_ROLE_PRIVS Roles that are granted to roles DBA_SYS_PRIVS System privileges granted to users and roles ROLE_SYS_PRIVS System privileges granted to roles ROLE_TAB_PRIVS Object privileges granted to roles SESSION_ROLES Roles that the user currently has enabled



SQL> SELECT role, password_required FROM dba_roles;

RMAN(Recovery Manager)

Recovery Manager (RMAN) is an Oracle provided utility for backing-up, restoring and recovering Oracle Databases. RMAN ships with the Oracle database and doesn't require a separate installation. The RMAN executable is located in your ORACLE_HOME/bin directory. In fact, RMAN, is just a Pro*C application that translates commands to a PL/SQL interface. The PL/SQL calls are statically linked into the Oracle kernel, and does not require the database to be opened.

Benefits of RMAN

· Backups are faster and uses less tapes (RMAN will skip empty blocks) · Less database archiving while database is being backed-up · RMAN checks the database for block corruptions · Automated restores from the catalog · Files are written out in parallel instead of sequential

Recovery Catalog

Recovery catalog holds RMAN repository data for one or more databases in a separate database schema, in addition to using the control files of the databases.

Start by creating a database schema (usually called rman). Assign an appropriate tablespace to it and grant it the recovery_catalog_owner role. Look at this example:

sqlplus sys/ as sysdba SQL> create user rman identified by rman; SQL> alter user rman default tablespace tools temporary tablespace temp; SQL> alter user rman quota unlimited on tools; SQL> grant connect, resource, recovery_catalog_owner to rman; SQL> exit;

Next, log in to rman and create the catalog schema. Prior to Oracle 8i this was done by running the catrman.sql script. > rman catalog rman/rman RMAN> create catalog tablespace tools; RMAN> exit;



You can now continue by registering your databases in the catalog. Look at this example:

rman catalog rman/rman target backdba/backdba RMAN> register database;

Offline backups with RMAN

RMAN can be used for offline backups regardless if the database is in ARCHIVELOG or NOARCHIVELOG mode. SQL> select LOG_MODE from v$database; LOG_MODE ------------ NOARCHIVELOG

Ensure the database is in MOUNT mode

Shutdown the database and start the instance in mount mode:

SQL> shutdown immediate; Database closed. Database dismounted. ORACLE instance shut down. SQL> startup mount; ORACLE instance started. Total System Global Area 209715200 bytes Fixed Size 1289748 bytes Variable Size 138412524 bytes Database Buffers 67108864 bytes Redo Buffers 2904064 bytes Database mounted. SQL> exit Disconnected from Oracle Database 10g Enterprise Edition Release 10.2.0.3.0 – Production With the Partitioning, Oracle Label Security, OLAP and Data Mining options

Use RMAN to backup



Now, let's use RMAN to backup the database:

$ rman target /

connected to target database: O10GR2 (DBID=1094333359, not open)

RMAN> backup database;

Starting backup at 30-MAY-07 using target database control file instead of recovery catalog allocated channel: ORA_DISK_1 channel ORA_DISK_1: sid=156 devtype=DISK channel ORA_DISK_1: starting full datafile backupset channel ORA_DISK_1: specifying datafile(s) in backupset input datafile fno=00001 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/system01.dbf input datafile fno=00003 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/sysaux01.dbf input datafile fno=00005 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/example01.dbf input datafile fno=00004 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/users01.dbf input datafile fno=00002 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/undotbs01.dbf channel ORA_DISK_1: starting piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: finished piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: backup set complete, elapsed time: 00:01:15 channel ORA_DISK_1: starting full datafile backupset channel ORA_DISK_1: specifying datafile(s) in backupset including current control file in backupset including current SPFILE in backupset channel ORA_DISK_1: starting piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: finished piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: backup set complete, elapsed time: 00:00:03 Finished backup at 30-MAY-07

Online backup with RMAN

RMAN can only take online backups if the database is in ARCHIVELOG mode. SQL> select LOG_MODE from v$database;



LOG_MODE ------------ ARCHIVELOG .

Ensure the database is running

Ensure your database is up and running before starting the on-line backup:

SQL> startup; ORACLE instance started. Total System Global Area 209715200 bytes Fixed Size 1289748 bytes Variable Size 138412524 bytes Database Buffers 67108864 bytes Redo Buffers 2904064 bytes Database mounted. Database opened. SQL> exit; Use RMAN to backup

Now, let's use RMAN to backup the database:

$ rman target /

connected to target database: O10GR2 (DBID=1094333359) RMAN> backup database; Starting backup at 30-MAY-07 using target database control file instead of recovery catalog allocated channel: ORA_DISK_1 channel ORA_DISK_1: sid=141 devtype=DISK channel ORA_DISK_1: starting full datafile backupset channel ORA_DISK_1: specifying datafile(s) in backupset input datafile fno=00001 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/system01.dbf input datafile fno=00003 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/sysaux01.dbf



input datafile fno=00005 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/example01.dbf input datafile fno=00004 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/users01.dbf input datafile fno=00002 name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/undotbs01.dbf channel ORA_DISK_1: starting piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: finished piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: backup set complete, elapsed time: 00:01:26 channel ORA_DISK_1: starting full datafile backupset channel ORA_DISK_1: specifying datafile(s) in backupset including current control file in backupset including current SPFILE in backupset channel ORA_DISK_1: starting piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: finished piece 1 at 30-MAY-07 channel ORA_DISK_1: backup set complete, elapsed time: 00:00:03 Finished backup at 30-MAY-07



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