REP092 Non timber forest products - SFM Tabalong (1), J Payn

SOUTH and CENTRAL KALIMANTAN PRODUCTION FOREST PROJECT Jalan A. Yani, No. 37 (km35), Banjarbaru 70711, Indonesia

Tel. (62) 0511 781 975 – 979, Fax: (62) 0511 781 613

EUROPEAN COMMISSION – INDONESIA FOREST PROGRAMME

Non timber forest products (NTFPs) and sustainable forest

management in upper Tabalong : (1) Descriptions

Report No. 92

December 2001

Non timber forest products (NTFPs) and sustainable forest management in upper Tabalong : (1) Descriptions - Report No. 92 - December 2001

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PREFACE The South and Central Kalimantan Production Forest Project (SCKPFP) is a technical co-operation project jointly funded, in terms of the financing memorandum ALA/95/18, by the European Commission and by the Government of the Republic of Indonesia through the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops (MoFEC).

This report has been completed in accordance with the project Phase I Overall Work Plan (OWP) and

in part fulfilment of Activities 2.1 “To increase household income in and around the forest pilot concession areas”, 4.2 “To analyse the potential for non-timber forest products (NTFP) utilisation”, 6.1 “To undertake environmental assessments” and 6.2 “To strengthen the capacity to implement and maintain environmental integrity in production forestry”

to achieve Result 2 “Livelihoods of local communities improved by assisting them to become more active participants in production forest management”, Result 4 “Strategy developed to balance sustainable supply and demand of raw material for the forest industry, incorporating opportunities to create added value from forest products processing” and Result 6 “The forest ecosystem and associated ecosystems within the project sites managed to maintain viability and diversity”,

to realise the three-year project Phase I purpose, which is “SFM model developed that incorpPorates the ITTO guidelines and principles developed and implemented in the forestry operation of Aya Yayang and a Central Kalimantan pilot concession.”

This report has been prepared with financial assistance from the Commission of the European Communities. The opinions, views and recommendations expressed are those of the author(s) and in no way reflect the official opinion of the Commission. The report has been prepared by:

• Dr. Junaidi Payne (SCKPFP Ecologist)

The report is acknowledged and approved for circulation by the Project Co-Directors when duly signed below.

Banjarbaru, December 2001


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this report were reviewed by the Forest Industry and Economics component and the Socio Agriculture component. However, the author is responsible for the contents of this final version, including opinions expressed under the Descriptions of the individual NTFPs.

Sections 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 were contributed by the SCKPFP Forest Economist.

Front cover : Base of meranti kuning tree in the PT. AYI Arboretum (probably Shorea mujongensis) showing chacateristic clear black damar. Insets : fruits of lahung (Durio dulcis) and maritam (Nephelium ramboutan-ake), and rattan bag.


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY GENERAL BACKGROUND

Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) were investigated in upper Tabalong area in the northern part of South Kalimantan. Most of the remaining forest in this area is dipterocarp forest on steep slopes, logged over the past 25 years, with some forest on limestone. The majority of the lowlands in this region have been converted to settlements, secondary growth, industrial tree plantation and untended rubber.

Original Dayak communities, who have traditionanlly harvested NTFPs for their own use and for trading, remain in the area. They are now outnumbered by permanent and temporary migrants, predominantly Banjar, Javanese, Dayak Manyan, and transmigrants from Nusa Tenggara.

The NTFP resource base in northern Kalimantan Selatan exists in an approximately 137,000 ha block of natural forest, with 85,000 ha of that area managed under the HPH forest concession system by PT. Aya Yayang Indonesia. This forest block includes the upper Tabalong river drainage, plus parts of rivers that drain into Central and East Kalimantan, and extends to the borders with Kalimantan Timur and Kalimantan Tengah. Located south and adjacent, but outside the block of the natural forest area, are three HTI concessions with a total area of 31,000 ha.

WHAT ARE THEY?

The main NTFPs of upper Tabalong are summarized in the Table (next page), following the order in which they are described in this report (G indicates NTFPs that require retention and management of good quality natural forests for long-term survival and production. D indicates NTFPs that can survive in degraded forests. © indicates NTFPs possibly suitable for cultivation outside natural forest habitat).


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Name (English / Indonesian / scientific)

Brief description

Aloeswood / gaharu / Aquilaria species

Therapeutic incense produced by fungi infecting wood of rare, endangered rainforest trees. Exported. G ©

Edible birds’ nests / sarang walet / Collocalia fuciphaga & C. maxima

Cave-nesting swiflets make nests from their own saliva; nests cooked in soup as a traditional Chinese recipe to improve health. Exported. D ©

Rattan / rotan / Calamus, Korthalsia, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Retispatha, Daemonorops and Ceratolobus (family Palmae)

Spiny climbing palms, stems multi-purpose, local use & commercial manufacturing. G ©

Damar / damar Mainly Shorea species (family Dipterocarpaceae)

Resinous inflammable exudates obtained from major mature commercial trees. Used in varnish, paints, caulking boats and cremation. G

Wild honey / madu / Apis species (bees) nesting in Koompassia excelsa and other forest tree species

Harvested by local men who climb the massive bee-nest trees. Honey mostly sold and consumed locally. D, but nest trees have to be mature forest trees.©

Wild fruits / buah-buahan hutan / various

At least 53 species wild in forests of upper Tabalong, with about 17 favourites that are cultivated in rural gardens. G ©

Song birds / burung berkicau / various

At least 4 wild species caught in upper Tabalong are popular as cage birds in South and East Kalimantan. D

Pangolin / tenggiling / Manis javanica

Scales of this mammal used in Chinese medicines. D

(“Cardamom”) / kapulaga / Amomum compactum

A wild Kalimantan substitute for real cardamom, and used locally as a constituent of jamu tonic medicine. D ©

(none) / kedaung / Parkia timoriana Used locally as a constituent of jamu tonic medicine. D © Medicinal plants / tumbuhan obat / many

Complicated array of types and uses. Mostly D, some G ©

Fish / ikan / various About 50 edible species recorded in upper Tabalong rivers; for own consumption and sale. G

Wild meats / daging satwa / various Wild pig and deer most sought in upper Tabalong; for own consumption and sale. G

Keruing oil / minyak keruing / Dipterocarpus species

Used in specialist inks, varnish and waterproofing, also medicinal. Currently not harvested; proposed high-value NTFP for which successful management would support forest conservation. G

Illipe nuts / tengkawang / Some Shorea species, mainly S. pinanga

Constituent fats used in cosmetics and high-quality chocolates. Currently not harvested; proposed because successful management would support forest conservation. G

In addition, biodiversity prospecting (= Bioprospecting = identifying plants with medicinal or therapeutic properties, and isolating the chemicals responsible for those properties) and tourism have been proposed as non-timber economic opportunities for the forests of upper Tabalong.


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RINGKASAN (INDONESIAN SUMMARY)

LATAR BELAKANG

Penelitian Hasil Hutan Bukan Kayu (HHBK) telah dilakukan di Hulu Tabalong bagian utara Kalimantan Selatan. Sebagian besar hutan yang masih tersisa merupakan hutan dipterocarp dengan kelerengan yang curam, bekas tebangan 25 tahun yang lalu, serta beberapa kawasan hutan pada batuan kapur. Mayoritas kawasan dataran rendah di daerah ini telah dikonversi menjadi pemukiman, pertumbuhan sekunder, Hutan Tanaman Industri serta perkebunan karet.

Masyarakat Dayak setempat secara tradisional masih memanfaatkan HHBK baik untuk pemanfaatan rumah tangga maupun untuk diperdagangkan. Mereka saat ini terdesak oleh pendatang menetap maupun tidak menetap yang mayoritas merupakan masyarakat Banjar, Jawa, Dayak Manyan serta transmigran dari Nusa Tenggara.

Sumberdaya HHBK tersebar pada lebih kurang 137 ribu hektar hutan alam di bagian utara Kalimantan Selatan, dimana 85 ribu hektar di antaranya merupakan wilayah konsesi PT Aya Yayang Indonesia. Kawasan konsesi tersebut meliputi aliran sungai di Hulu Tabalong, sebagian sungai-sungai yang mengalir ke Propinsi Kaltim dan Kalteng, serta yang berbatasan langsung dengan wilayah Kaltim dan Kalteng. Juga terdapat 3 kawasan konsesi HTI dengan total luas 31 ribu hektar yang terletak di bagian selatan dan sekitarnya namun berada di luar kawasan hutan alam.

MELIPUTI JENIS APA SAJA?

Jenis utama HHBK di hulu Tabalong disarikan pada tabel , berikut keterangan-keterangan yang menyertainya (halaman selanjutnya: G menunjukkan HHBK yang membutuhkan pengelolaan yang baik untuk produksi dan kesinambungan kualitas hutan alam jangka panjang. D menunjukkan HHBK yang dapat bertahan pada hutan yang terganggu. © menunjukkan HHBK yang mungkin sesuai bagi daerah perladangan/ penanaman di luar habitat hutan alam).


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Nama (English / Indonesia /ilmiah)

Penjelasan singkat

Aloeswood / gaharu / Aquilaria species

Bahan untuk pengobatan yang dihasilkan dari jamur yang menyerang kayu yang luka; pohon yang terancam. Diekspor. G ©

Edible birds’ nests / sarang walet / Collocalia fuciphaga & C. maxima

Burung walet gua yang membuat sarang dari air liurnya; sarang dimasak menjadi sop seperti resep tradisional Cina untuk meningkatkan kesehatan. Diekspor. D ©

Rattan / rotan / Calamus, Korthalsia, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Retispatha, Daemonorops and Ceratolobus (family Palmae)

Palm pemanjat berduri, batangnya memiliki multiguna, untuk penggunaan lokal dan industri komersial. G ©

Damar / damar / Shorea species (family Dipterocarpaceae)

Eksudasi resin yang mudah terbakar dari mayoritas pohon dewasa komersial. Digunakan untuk pernis, cat, menambal badan kapal dan kremasi. G

Wild honey / madu / Apis species (lebah) bersarang di Koompassia excelsa dan jenis pohon yang lain

Dipanen oleh para pria lokal yang memanjat pohon sarang lebah yang besar. Madu umumnya dijual atau dimanfaatkan secara lokal. D, tapi pohon sarang harus jenis pohon alami dewasa.©

Wild fruits / buah-buahan hutan / beragam

Setidaknya 53 jenis liar di hutan Hulu Tabalong, diantaranya 17 jenis merupakan jenis favorit yang ditanam di kebun-kebun desa. G ©

Song birds / burung berkicau / beragam

Setidaknya ada 4 jenis yang ditangkap di Hulu Tabalong merupakan jenis popular sebagai burung tangkaran di Kalsel dan Kaltim. D

Pangolin / tenggiling / Manis javanica

Sisik mamalia yang digunakan untuk obat Cina. D

(“Cardamom”) / kapulaga / Amomum compactum

Merupakan jenis liar pengganti dari cardamom yang sesungguhnya, dan dipergunakan secara lokal sebagai bahan baku obat tonic jamu. D ©

(none) / kedaung / Parkia timoriana Dipergunakan secara lokal sebagai bahan baku jamu. D © Medicinal plants / tumbuhan obat / banyak

Pemilahan yang cukup sulit terhadap jenis dan penggunaannya. Umumnya D, beberapa G ©

Fish / ikan / beragam Sekitar 50 jenis tercatat di sungai-sungai Hulu Tabalong; untuk konsumsi sendiri dan dijual. G

Wild meats / daging satwa / beragam

Jenis babi dan rusa liar paling banyak diburu di Hulu Tabalong untuk konsumsi sendiri dan dijual. G

Keruing oil / minyak keruing / Dipterocarpus species

Dipergunakan untuk tinta, pernis dan anti air, juga obat-obatan. Saat ini tidak dimanfaatkan, diusulkan sebagai HHBK bernilai tinggi yang mana pengelolaan yang berhasil akan mendukung upaya konservasi hutan. G

Illipe nuts / tengkawang / beberapa Shorea species, terutama S. pinanga

Bahan baku yang digunakan untuk kosmetik dan coklat berkualitas tinggi. Saat ini tidak dimanfaatkan; diusulkan karena pengelolaan yang berhasil akan mendukung upaya konservasi hutan. G

Selebihnya, Biodiversity prospecting (=Bioprospecting= mengidentifikasi tumbuhan dengan obat-obatan atau ilmu pengobatan yang terkait, dan mengisolasikan bahan baku kimiawi yang ada didalamnya) dan pariwisata yang telah diusulkan sebagai peluang ekonomi bukan kayu bagi hutan di Hulu Tabalong.


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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AYI Aya Yayang Indonesia CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora Dbh diameter at breast height Ha hectare(s) HTI Hutan Tanaman Industri (industrial tree plantation) IDR Indonesian rupiah Kg kilogram(s) NTFP non timber forest product


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Table of Contents

PREFACE..................................................................................................................................................................................i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................................................ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................................................iii RINGKASAN (Indonesian Summary) .....................................................................................................................................v ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS...............................................................................................................................vii 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Objectives........................................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Overview of literature .....................................................................................................................................1 1.3 Definitions.......................................................................................................................................................2 1.4 Classifications .................................................................................................................................................3 1.5 Information sources for this report ..................................................................................................................5 1.6 Arrangement in this report ..............................................................................................................................5 2 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE NTFPS OF UPPER TABALONG....................................................................8 2.1 Descriptions of the major NTFPs....................................................................................................................8 2.1.1 Gaharu ..........................................................................................................................................................8 2.1.2 Edible birds’ nests ......................................................................................................................................10 2.1.3 Rattan .........................................................................................................................................................13 2.1.4 Damar .........................................................................................................................................................17 2.1.5 Honey .........................................................................................................................................................21 2.1.6 Wild fruits ..................................................................................................................................................24 2.1.7 Song birds...................................................................................................................................................29 2.1.8 Pangolin scales ...........................................................................................................................................32 2.1.9 Kapulaga (“Cardamom”)............................................................................................................................34 2.1.10 Kedaung .....................................................................................................................................................36 2.1.11 Medicinal plants .........................................................................................................................................38 2.1.12 Fish.............................................................................................................................................................42 2.1.13 Wild meats..................................................................................................................................................43 2.1.14 Keruing oil..................................................................................................................................................47 2.1.15 Tengkawang ...............................................................................................................................................49 3 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................51

List of Tables

Table 1 Demonstration of NTFP classification and appearance in the study area....................................................................4 Table 2 Classification and description of product sub-groups for major traded items in the study area ..................................5 Table 3. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPSs) harvested from the PT AYI area .................................................................6 Table 4 Commercial rattans of upper Tabalong......................................................................................................................15 Table 5. Trees of upper Tabalong that produce edible fruits ..................................................................................................25 Table 6. The most popular song birds species native to upper Tabalong ...............................................................................29 Table 7 Some wild medicinal plants of upper Tabalong.........................................................................................................38 Table 8. Main wild mammal species hunted for meat in upper Tabalong ..............................................................................45


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List of Figures

Figure 1. A group of Banjar men returning from a gaharu-harvesting expedition in forest on the South and Central Kalimantan border areas, photographed near Sinangoh River in 1999. They have caught an infant sun bear (man on left), which was later sold in Tanjung..............................................................................................................................8

Figure 2. Entrance to the Penyanggar edible birds nest cave, in the Tanggur limestone hill north of Missim village. ..........11 Figure 3. Calamus caesius ......................................................................................................................................................13 Figure 4. Making a fish trap from rattan.................................................................................................................................14 Figure 5. Bundles of recently harvested rattan .......................................................................................................................16 Figure 6. The characteristic black damar found on meranti kuning trees ...............................................................................18 Figure 7. Damar harvesters (from Nusa Tenggara) at Sinangoh river area, 1999; pieces of damar can be seen under the

empty sacks....................................................................................................................................................................19 Figure 8. Ladder built by honey harvesters on to the trunk of a Koompassia excelsa tree near Missim river........................22 Figure 9. Pitanak (Dracontomelum costatum) ........................................................................................................................27 Figure 10. Lahung (Durio dulcis) ...........................................................................................................................................27 Figure 11. Kembayau (Dacryodes species) ............................................................................................................................27 Figure 12. Kangkala (Litsea garciae) .....................................................................................................................................27 Figure 13. Terap (Artocarpus elasticus) .................................................................................................................................27 Figure 14. Buku-buku (Dimocarpus longan)..........................................................................................................................27 Figure 15. Maritam (Nephelium ramboutan-ake) ...................................................................................................................28 Figure 17. Pangolin (Manis javanica) caught in upper Missim river by ulin wood harvesters ..............................................32 Figure 18. Amomum compactum growing in its natural habitat of fertile, moist lowland soils. .............................................35 Figure 19. Kapulaga fruits harvested and dried for sale .........................................................................................................35 Figure 20. Rhizomes and flowers of Amomum compactum....................................................................................................36 Figure 21. Kedaung (Parkia timoriana) .................................................................................................................................37 Figure 22. Luvunga species ....................................................................................................................................................40 Figure 23. Rubus moluccanus (right side, with red berries, used to treat fevers) and Melastoma malabathricum (lower left,

used to treat dysentery) ..................................................................................................................................................41 Figure 24. Recently hunted young male sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) in the PT AYI 1999-2000 felling block.................44 Figure 25. Natural mineral lick on Tutui river, used by large herbivorous mammals to supplement their mineral

requirements...................................................................................................................................................................46 Figure 26. Illegally-felled keruing tree in the PT AYI arboretum ..........................................................................................48


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1 Introduction

1.1 Objectives The objectives of this report are to provide :

(a) a review of definitions and various ways to classify NTFPs; and (b) descriptions of all main NTFPs in upper Tabalong.

1.2 Overview of literature

NTFPs have got much attention during the last decade and the related international literature has become quite voluminous.

Useful sources on actual literature on NTFPs are:

⇒ For updated references: The FAO website for their NWFP programme http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP with a long list of literature references

⇒ For updated info.: The FAO Non-wood forest products report serial and in their information bulletin “non-wood NEWS”. The latter is available in the above FAO website

Profound’s special website www.ntfp.org

⇒ Species information: ICRAF’s Agroforestree Database on their website http://www.cgiar.org/icraf

⇒ On bamboo & rattan: International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) website http://www.inbar.org.cn/publist.asp and INBAR Newsletter

CIFOR has made a description about databases available on NTFPs (Tan et al., 1996). The list tends to be a bit out-dated. Annex 1 of the list provides contact addresses of the following databases, here listed by country and creation year:

♦ Belgium, 1986 PHARMEL (PHARmacopoeia MEdicaL plants traditional)

♦ China, 1987 China Bamboo

♦ Costa Rica, 1993 Biodiversity Management Information System

♦ India, 1993 MFP Database

♦ India, 1993 INMEDPLAN (Medicinal Plants Distributed Databases Network)

♦ Indonesia, 1988 PROCEA Databank


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♦ Kenya, 1990 Plants for life

♦ Philippines (UNESCO) Asian Pacific Information Network on Medicinal & Aromatic Plants

The most comprehensive and recent reference lists concerning Kalimantan NTFPs, which includes specific references concerned to information on, are given by Grossman, 1997 (12 pp) and Valkenburg, 1997 (16 pp). Additionally Leaman, 1991 has a specialized list in plants and animal products that are attributed to medicinal or toxic properties.

Most valid references concerned to the South Kalimantan conditions on product specified information:

⇒ General NTFPs Hildebrand, 1949

⇒ Rattan Dransfield & Manokaran, 1994, Tropenbos, 1997

⇒ Bird nests Leh, 1998

⇒ Medical herbs Leaman, 1991

1.3 Definitions

The acronym NTFP (non timber forest product) is used synonymously with NWFP (non-wood forest product) and preferred, as the term NTFP has been most widespread and generally accepted, though FAO prefers to continue using the term NWFP. In studies on NTFPs the term has not been used consistently, and have too often not covered the same range of products by different authors to be comparable. Examples of recent definitions are:

FAO www.fao.org/forestry/fop/fopw/nwfp (updated June 2001) has given the following definition: “NWFP are products of biological origin other than wood derived from forests, wooded lands and trees outside forests. NWFP may be gathered from the wild, or produced in forest plantations, agroforestry schemes and trees outside forests. Examples of NWFP include products used as food and food additives (edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, herbs, spices and condiments, aromatic plants, game), fibres (used in construction, furniture, clothing or utensils), resins, gums, and plant and animal products used for medicinal, cosmetic or cultural purposes”

Dykstra & Heinrich, 1996 (FAO): “All biological material, other than industrial roundwood, that may be extracted from natural ecosystems, either for commercial purposes, for use within household or for social, cultural of religious uses”.

Sist et al., 1998 (CIFOR) has used the same definition with the exception that “natural ecosystems” has been replaced with “forest”.

Profound’s www.ntfp.org (2001) has further elaborated this definition as: “NTFP encompasses all biological materials other than timber which are extracted from forests for human use”, thereby replaced industrial roundwood with timber and “use within household or for social, cultural of religious uses” with “human use”.

This last definition is not contradictory to FAO’s website definition and has been followed in this report with some exceptions described below.


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1.4 Classifications

There is no generally accepted classification standard of NTFPs. Here three examples of classifications of product types are given:

Pancel, 1993:

1. Gums and resins 2. Dyes and tannins. Dyes come from a variety of plant parts as bark, leaves and

fruits. Tannins are soluble phenols secreted from plant parts as bark or wood. 3. Edible plants 4. Fibre crops 5. Medicine 6. Animal products

Qwist-Hoffman et al., 1998 (RECOFTC):

1. Fibres and flosses 2. Edible products 3. Extracts and exudates 4. Medical plants 5. Ornamental plants 6. Animal products

Profound’s webpage www.ntfp.org (2001) has given the following classification into five groups, which is a mixture of product groups and product types:

Edible plants ♦ Food ♦ Edible oils ♦ Spices ♦ Fodder ♦ Other edible plants

Non-edible plant products ♦ Rattan ♦ Bamboo ♦ Sustainably produced wood ♦ Ornamental plants ♦ Chemical components ♦ Other non-edible plant products

Medicinal products ♦ All medicinal products

Edible animal products ♦ Terrestrial animals ♦ Animal products ♦ Fish and aquatic invertebrates ♦ Other edible animal products

Non-edible animal products ♦ Insect products ♦ Wildlife products and live animals ♦ Other non-edible animal products


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The basic problem with the classifications has been the mix of structural classes and use classes. Structural classes are e.g. fibres and extracts and use classes are e.g. edible and medicinal. Additionally a product, e.g. damar is species related. The product can be of different quality depending on from which species the resin has been collected. One resin could be used as a medicinal product, as well as edible oil and for cosmetics industry and would be classified as “gums and resins” or “medicine” by Panchel and “extracts & exudates” or “medical plant” by Qwist-Hoffman but the classifications will not fit for cosmetics use. In Profound’s classification the resin will fit into all three vegetative groups rather than a distinct group. Additionally bamboo as NTFP is both edible (young shoots) and non-edible (culms). This causes confusion in a strict classification.

The classification of NTFPs is further made complicated as people sometimes refer to the collected product and sometimes to the industrial product. Here the NTFP is the collected product in the forest and not the industrial product. Examples of this case are:

♦ Wood is collected for industrial extraction of resin to be used as ingredience in chemical factories, which produce hygienic products as soap or perfume;

♦ Pine resin collected to be used for the industrial product turpentine;

♦ Dipterocarpaceae nuts collected for small-scale industrial extraction of oil to be used as an ingredience for edible butter.

Table 1 Demonstration of NTFP classification and appearance in the study area

Product type: Product group

1

Wooden

2

Fibres &

Flosses 3

Extracts &

Exudates 4

Edible

5

Medi-cinal

6

Ornamen-tal &

Exhibit. 7

Vegetative Tree Palm Shrub Climber Herb Grass

X

X X

X

X

X X

X X X

X

X

X

Non-vegetative Mammal Bird Insect

X X X

X X

Source : Skarner (2001)

The problem of using a mixture of structural and use related product types remains. Columns 2-4 in Table 2-1 are structural and columns 5-7 are use related, and sometimes there is confusion how to classify. When in doubt the most important product type has been chosen.

The product group “climber” is not clear, as rattan by definition is a spiny climbing palm (Prosea, 1994), or a thorny climbing palm (FAO, website 2001). In the


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project database rattan has been classified in the “climber” product group and not in the “palm” product group.

The evaluation groups used in this report are the product sub-groups. The use of sub-group is convenient, as e.g. the sub-group “rattan” produces NTFP “cane”, but as NTFP it is generally called rattan. Bee is then the sub-group producing NTFPs honey and wax, which is collected in the same time.

The major traded products found in the field studies have then been classified and described as in Table 2.

Table 2 Classification and description of product sub-groups for major traded items in the study area

Product Sub-group

Product Group

Product Type

NTFP Species

Price Factor

Vegetative Rattan Damar Gaharu Kedaung Kapulaga

Climber Tree Tree Tree Herb

Fib. & flo. Ext. & exu. Wooden Medicinal Edible

Cane Damar resin Gaharu wood Kedaung seed Seed

Many species Mainly Dipterocarpaceae spp. Aquilaria spp. Parkia timoriana Amomum compactum

Species Colour Fragrance/Colour Sub-species

Non-veg. Bee Animal Bird nest Cage bird

Insect Mammal Bird \Bird

Edible Edible Edible Ornamental

Honey & wax Wild meat Bird nest Song birds

Honey bees (& host plants) Different animal/bird species Two swiftlet species Various

Taste Taste Colour Beauty, rareness

Source : Skarner (2001)

1.5 Information sources for this report The information compiled in this report on the NTFPs of upper Tabalong is based on SCKPFP reports (Alfan & Payne, 2001; Basir, 2000; MacLachlan, 2001a,b; Mogea & Alfan, 2001; Skarner, 2001; and Werner, 2001), unpublished SCKPFP field reports and notes, relevant literature, and discussions with SCKPFP advisers.

1.6 Arrangement in this report Table 3 summarises the main NTFPs recorded in upper Tabalong by SCKPFP. Any types not listed are unlikely to impinge significantly on forest management issues, or to be significant in terms of contributing to the income or food requirements of local people.

The order of NTFP descriptions in section 2 of this report is based on the following groups (noted in column C in Table 3) :

1. NTFPs characterized by small quantities being available only in remote or

scattered sites; very high value per kg; there is a constant market; most “harvesting” time is spent seeking or guarding the NTFP; the sole purpose is for cash income.


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2. NTFPs which are relatively common and widespread, and normally harvested in large quantities through planned group efforts; most harvesting is done when there are pre-arranged buyers, when prices paid are satisfactory to harvesters, and when alternative activities (notably rubber tapping, rice farming) are less attractive; most is sold but some may be for household use.

3. NTFPs which tend to be available seasonally, or for which harvesting is done by a small number of specialists; most is sold but some may be for household use; harvesting can yield a modest “windfall” income.

4. NTFPs harvested for own consumption or sold for human consumption. 5. Potential commercial NTFPs currently not harvested in upper Tabalong. 6. “Minor” NTFPs that are not discussed further in this report.

Table 3. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPSs) harvested from the PT AYI area

Common name Scientific names of producing organisms

Some key management issues

C

Gaharu Aquilaria species Incense produced by fungi in rare, endangered trees

1

Edible birds’ nests Collocalia fuciphaga & C. maxima

Small cave-nesting swiftlets 1

Rattan Calamus, Korthalsia, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Retispatha, Daemonorops and Ceratolobus (family Palmae)

Spiny climbing palms, stems multi-purpose, local use & commercial manufacturing

2

Damar Mainly Shorea species (family Dipterocarpaceae)

Resinous exudate; from the major commercial trees

2

Honey Apis species 3

Wild fruits Various, in several families Many species; some already domesticated

3

Song birds Various wild birds Popular in South Kalimantan

3

Pangolin scales Manis javanica Chinese medicine 3

Kapulaga (“Cardamom”)

Amomum compactum Used in jamu (traditional tonic)

3

Kedaung Parkia timoriana Used in jamu (traditional tonic)

3

Medicinal plants Many, in many families Complicated array of types and uses

4

Fish Various For own use & sale 4

Wild meats Various vertebrate animals For own use & sale 4


7

Common name Scientific names of producing organisms


C

Keruing oil Dipterocarpus species 5

Tengkawang Some Shorea species, mainly S. pinanga

5

Sungkai bark Peronema canescens Used for roofing in rural villages; the bark regrows readily on healthy trees.

6

Bamboo Various species Small quantities available, mainly in villages rather than forest

6

Mushrooms Various species 6

Orchids Dendrobium species, Eria species, Coelogyne species and others

Upper Tabalong has few wild orchids of significant commercial value

6

“Wild pets” Primates (Hylobates muelleri, Macaca species) and honey bear (Helarctos malayanus)

Occasionally caught opportunistically for sale

6

In addition, biodiversity prospecting and tourism have been proposed as economic opportunities for upper Tabalong (MacLachlan, 2001b).


8

2 Descriptions of the NTFPs of upper Tabalong

2.1 Descriptions of the major NTFPs

2.1.1 Gaharu

English names : Aloeswood, Agarwood or Eagle-wood

Local name : Gaharu (= the product harvested; the name “put” is used locally by Manyan Dayaks for Aquilaria trees, and “ramin bukit” for Gonystylus trees)

Scientific names : Species of the genera Aquilaria and Gonystylus (family Thymelaceae).

Figure 1. A group of Banjar men returning from a gaharu-harvesting expedition in forest on the South and Central Kalimantan border areas, photographed near Sinangoh River in 1999. They have caught an infant sun bear (man on left), which was later sold in Tanjung

Description

The producing plant & its habitat Aquilaria beccariana, A. malaccensis and Gonystylus affinis have been identified in upper Tabalong. All are trees of closed canopy forest, reaching a mximum height of about 40 m.


9

The product exploited The heartwood of some Aquilaria and Gonystylus trees becomes black with aromatic resin probably following a fungal infection. The aromatic black substance is called gaharu.

Regional distribution Aquilaria malaccensis occurs from India through mainland South-east Asia to Indonesia and Philippines. Most other species which produce gaharu are confined to Borneo, Sumatera and/or Peninsular Malaysia.

Use of the product Gaharu is exported, mainly to Arab countries, and is burned with charcoal to produce a fragrance which is said to relieve mental illnesses and stress, and induce calmness.

Availability in upper Tabalong

Local distribution Gaharu producing trees occur as scattered individuals in lowland and hill dipterocarp forest.

Abundance and production potential Two Aquilaria trees (10.6 cm and 15.5 cm dbh) and two Gonystylus trees (22.5 cm and 36.4 cm dbh) were recorded amongst 2698 trees in 6.63 ha of forest in the PT AYI concession (24 SCKPFP plots and 5 transects). This suggests a density of 0.6 trees/ha with potential to yield gaharu. However, only some Aquilaria trees (reported in Barden et al. undated, as perhaps one in ten for mature trees) and fewer Gonystylus trees produce gaharu.

Constraints to harvesting Due to the high value of gaharu, harvesters seek it everywhere and there are effectively no constraints to harvesting.

Current utilisation in upper Tabalong

Who harvests? The only group met in the PT AYI forest (Figure 1) appeared to consist mainly of Banjar men from villages in upper Tabalong.

Harvesting methods Gaharu is harvested by groups of men who travel far into extensive forest areas, seeking gaharu for periods of up to several weeks. A hole is cut into the trunk of Aquilaria and Gonystylus trees to see if there is gaharu inside. If gaharu or dark stains are seen, the tree is felled.

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown.

Prices Good quality gaharu (black, elastic) is sold at IDR1 million / kg in upper Tabalong, while lower quality (blackish, hard) fetches IDR750,000 / kg (Basir, 2000). World Conservation Monitoring Centre (U.K.) quotes prices of between US$100 and US$10,000 / kg in Arab countries in the mid 1990’s. A Florida (USA) based company that retails exotic products by internet (Katmandu Incence and Imports) currently (year 2001) quotes prices of US$31.75 for a 10 g piece of gaharu, or US$10 for 40 grams of powder. This is equivalent to US$3175 and US$250 respectively / kg.

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Gaharu harvesting is unlikely to be sustainable. The only Aquilaria trees seen in the SCKPFP plots and transects are immature. Harvesters now travel to remote areas for periods in excess of two weeks in Tabalong. Harvesting not only destroys most gaharu-bearing trees, but


10

seemingly all Aquilaria trees found are damaged and sometimes felled in search of gaharu.

Current legislation

Peraturan Pemerintah 59/1998 (“Tarif atas penerimaan Negara bukan pajak yang berlaku pada department Kehutanan dan Perkebunan”) indicates that gaharu is a protected species, but no Indonesian law or regulation has been found which identifies gaharu producing trees as protected.

Aquilaria malaccensis is listed on Appendix 2 of CITES

Relevant information from other areas/studies

A good recent (year 2000) overview of use of and trade in gaharu is available (Barden et al., undated).

In 2001, gaharu seedlings were offered for sale by a private supplier in Samarinda (“Gaharu Lestari” at Jl. Bukit Barisan 1 A No. 35, RT 21, Kp. Jawa, Samarinda 75122. Tel 0541 735675. [email protected] )


Gaharu trees are endangered not only from overharvesting of trees containing gaharu, but also reckless damaging or felling of Aquilaria trees without gaharu even in remote areas. In practice, control may be impossible. Cultivation offers better prospects for future supplies.

2.1.2 Edible birds’ nests

English name : EDIBLE BIRDS’ NESTS

Local name : Sarang Walet

Scientific names : Collocalia fuciphaga (produces white nests = sarang putih) and Collocalia maxima (produces black nests = sarang hitam)

Description

The producing animal & its habitat The edible nests are produced by swiftlets, small birds of the family Apodidae, which feed on small flying insects. The swiftlets can survive in urban and non-forested areas, although forest is their original habitat. Their main limiting factor is access to caves (or buildings) in which the nests are made. The swiftlets nest communally; the number of nests is probably limited by amount of surface area for nesting, along with mortality caused by many generations of harvesting by man.


11

The product exploited White nests are made from strands of the swiftlets’ own hardened saliva. Black nests are made from the birds’ own feathers, stuck together with saliva.

Regional distribution Southern China, South-east Asia, Indonesia, Philippines (Collocalia fuciphaga). Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Philippines (Collocalia maxima).

Use of the product The saliva is consumed cooked as a soup; the softened strands are gelatinous and almost tasteless.

Figure 2. Entrance to the Penyanggar edible birds nest cave, in the Tanggur limestone hill north of Missim village.


Local distribution There are scattered small caves in the Tanggur limestone ridge which extends from Missim village northwards past the upper Tutui and Missim Rivers into Central Kalimantan; in the small outcrops near Banian; and probably in the karst limestone of the upper Ayu-Pasuang river. The only cave within the PT AYI area that produces edible nests that has been visited by SCKPFP staff is Penyanggar (Figure 2: located at 1o 37’ 30” S, 115o 25’ 10” E, in the Tanggur ridge, about 2 km upstream from the Pasuang tributary of the Missim River). Other caves are more remote.

Abundance and production potential Unknown


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Constraints to harvesting Due to the high value of edible birds’ nests, absence of road access is not an issue. In Sabah, Malaysia, 1 kg consists of approximately 70 nests; the ratio is presumably similar for upper Tabalong nests. Individual lots of nests brought out of the forest for sale appear to normally be much less than 1 kg each. There are effectively no constraints to harvesting.


Who harvests? Harvesters are said to be residents of Dusun Missim, Desa Dambung Raya.

Harvesting methods Nests are simply cut from the cave walls. Ropes and ladders of rattan, wood or bamboo are used to reach the less accessible nests. Local informants state that nests are harvested every six weeks.

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown. Basir (2000) quotes information from local informants which suggest about 1 kg per year from each of two caves in Tanggur and 9 nests in one year from a cave at Banian.

Prices Basir (2000) quotes IDR10 million / kg for white nests in 1999.

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The situation in upper Tabalong is not known (see below). There appears to be a mistaken belief, however, that (a) current harvesting in Tabalong is “sustainable” because collecting is “infrequent”, and (b) “management” by traditional local communities will ensure sustainability. In Tabalong, as elsewhere, the very high prices paid for nests leads to inevitable over-harvesting.

Current legislation, regulation and taxation

Peraturan Pemerintah 59/1998 (“Tarif atas penerimaan Negara bukan pajak yang berlaku pada department Kehutanan dan Perkebunan”) indicates that edible birds’ nests are protected by law, but does not identify which law.


In theory, harvesting of edible birds’ nests from wild populations can be sustainable by harvesting each cave twice per year. The swiftets tend to breed simultaneously. The first harvest should occur just before new nests have been completed, and before eggs have been laid. The second harvest (about 7-8 months later) should occur just after young birds have flown from the nest. Any other “system” leads to mortality of chicks and eggs, and diminished ability of adults to maintain breeding success.

In practice, due to the very high prices of nests, a sustainable system does not occur anywhere in the wild. All wild populations of edible nest swiftlets investigated indicate a continuing trend of declining nest yields due to overharvesting. Populations could be totally eliminated by harvesting unless there are parts of caves which are inaccessible to harvesters.


13


Each nest is equivalent to about IDR150,000 stuck to the cave wall. With such prices, implementation of sustainable harvesting of wild populations may be impossible. The extremely small numbers of nests harvested from the Missim River area, quoted by Basir (2000), suggests a population nearing extinction in that area.

2.1.3 Rattan

English name : RATTAN

Local name : Rotan

Scientific names : All species of the genera Korthalsia, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Retispatha, Daemonorops, Calamus and Ceratolobus (family Palmae)

Figure 3. Calamus caesius

Description

The producing plant & its habitat Rattans are spiny climbing palms with slender tough stems that can grow to lengths of tens of metres into the forest canopy (Figure 3). About 27 species have been identified in AYI area (Mogea & Alfan, 2001), of which about 10 – 12 species are harvested for sale or household use (Alfan & Payne, 2001). In this report, “commercial” rattan refers to all rattans sold for industrial manufacture of furniture and mats outside the Upper Tabalong area and rattans used for manufacture of products used by local households (e.g. bags, baskets, mats) that are not necessarily always sold but for which there is a local market in Upper Tabalong.


14

The product exploited After removing the leaf sheaths which cover it, the stem can be bent, split lengthways or cut, thereby making it ideal for production of furniture, mats, baskets and other items where weaving or tying is required.

Regional distribution Rattans occur in the forests of South and South-east Asia, and Australasia. Borneo has the greatest number of species. Indonesia is the major producer of canes and rattan products.

Uses of the product (For sale) furniture, mats, baskets, handicrafts; (for local use) mats, baskets, fish traps (Figure 4) construction of temporary houses in rice fields, tying fences etc.

Figure 4. Making a fish trap from rattan


Local distribution Rattan may occur naturally wherever there is forest, including primary dipterocarp forest, logged forest and secondary growth. Distribution of rattan is patchy. Rattans appear to be most common in heavily disturbed forest sites, but most of these rattans (except raung) are non-commercial species. The best commercial rattans tend to require forest in good condition. Seeds are dispersed by gibbons, macaque monkeys, hornbills and other birds, all of which require forest for their survival. Seedlings are sometimes planted in rubber small-holdings.

Abundance and production potential Based on 17 x 0.5 ha plots in the PT AYI area (Alfan & Payne, 2001), there are an average of 240 rattan stems/ha in the PT AYI area, of which only 35% are of commercial species. Most rattan species grow as clumps of stems; harvesting some stems allows the plant to grow new stems. Amongst commercial species, only manau grows as a single stem, whereby harvesting kills the plant. Biological production potential is unknown.

Constraints to harvesting (1) Road access to areas not recently harvested. (2) The species with highest price/stem (notably manau Calamus manan and minong C. ornatus) are rare and scattered in occurrence.


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Table 4 Commercial rattans of upper Tabalong

Local name(s) Scientific name(s) M % Main use Price (IDR)

Buyung, Suko

Calamus optimus 6.0 2.5 Mats, plait 600-660/kg

Manau Calamus manan 0.5 0.2 Furniture 3000-3500/4m (= 850/kg)

Minong Calamus ornatus 2.0 0.8 Furniture 1400-1500/4m (= 350/kg)

Taman Calamus caesius 2.4 1.0 Furniture, plait

Semambu (not identified) - - (unknown) 140/kg Welatong (not identified) - - (unknown) 160/kg Raung Korthalsia rostrata 45.8 19.2 Plait, fish

traps 1500/kg

Pulut Calamus laevigatus var. laevigatus; Ceratolobus subangulatus

7.6 3.2 Furniture, baskets

80/kg

Talusuk Korthalsia echinometra 17.2 7.2 Plait, furniture

400/kg

Tu-u Calamus scipionum 1.9 0.8 Furniture 500/4m Source : Alfan & Payne (2001)

Μ = average number of stems / hectare based on 17 x 0.5 ha plots in PT AYI area (- not seen in the plots)

% = % of all rattan stems counted in the 17 x 0.5 ha plots; total is less than 100%, as most rattans are non-commercial (- not seen in the plots)

Price = usual price in IDR paid to harvesters in PT AYI area in 1999 (Basir, 2000) and 2000 (Alfan & Payne, 2001) by kilogram (kg) or 4 metre length (4m)


Who harvests? Dayak and Banjar men from Dambung Raya, Panaan, Lalap, Bahalang, Binjai, Pasar Batu.

Harvesting methods Rattan stems are pulled from the forest canopy and cut into lengths of between 2 – 10 m (depending on species) and either rolled (thin diameter species) or stacked (thicker diameter species). They are carried or dragged to a river bank (Figure 5) or road. Rattan is harvested by groups of between about 4 – 40 men, and usually about 20. The groups sell rattan to a local trader (based in Tabalong or Amuntai).


16

Figure 5. Bundles of recently harvested rattan

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Basir (2000) reported that in 1999, one trader purchased 468 tons of rattan harvested from the PT AYI area, at a cost of IDR215.5 million. This rattan was reported to be sold to industries in Banjarmasin. A second trader was reported to have purchased 9 tons plus 2700 lengths of rattan harvested from the PT AYI area in 1999, at a cost of IDR15.7 million. This rattan was used for manufacture of mats in Amuntai. It is unknown whether other traders bought rattan from the PT AYI area in 1999.

Prices See Table 4.

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival (1) Varies with species, but no species is likely to go extinct in upper Tabalong as a result of harvesting, as “economic extinction” will probably occur before biological extinction. (2) Amongst commercial species, the rarity of manau (Calamus manan) and minong (Calamus ornatus) is to due to a combination of their ecological requirements for closed-canopy forest and long periods of over-harvesting. These species are likely to decline to levels where commercial harvesting in the AYI area is no longer viable in the absence of planting. (3) The two commonest commercial species raung (Korthalsia rostrata) and talusuk (K. echinometra) appear to be more robust to forest damage and regenerate well naturally. (4) Most commercial rattan species will regenerate naturally under well-managed commercial logging, but excessive opening of the canopy (due to wide roads, unplanned “cruising” by bulldozer drivers, illegal logging) will act to (a) remove essential support trees for rattan growth, (b) cause high mortality of rattan seedlings from dessication and competition from weeds, and (c) reduce rattan seed dispersal by primates and birds.


None found.


17


There is an extensive literature of rattan, including much from Malaysia that is relevant to Indonesia.


The most valuable rattan species (Calamus caesius, Calamus ornatus, Calamus manan and Calamus scipionum) are all scattered and rare, and have suffered from over-harvesting. Forest of good structure is necessary to favour these high-value species and to ensure that they can achieve commercially valuable stem lengths.

For harvesters, raung is now probably the most profitable rattan as it is locally abundant, allowing bigger harvests per day’s work.

Rattan harvesting in Upper Tabalong has low environmental impact.

Commercial rattan sustainability will be enhanced by implementing practices that favour good regeneration of timber trees.

2.1.4 Damar

English name : DAMAR

Local name : Damar

Scientific names : Species of the genera Anisoptera, Hopea, Shorea and Vatica (family Dipterocarpaceae). A few other tree genera in other families may produce small quantities of damar, but these are either absent from Upper Tabalong or of no commercial significance.

Alternative names : There is a complex and confusing traditional naming of different kinds of damar. Hildebrand (1949) provides a list of about 55 local names for South Kalimantan. Most of these names are no longer used, and their practical application to distinguish either scientific species or different qualities of damar seems highly doubtful. It is recommended that local naming in relation to damar be ignored unless it can be shown to be of some practical value.

Description

The producing plant & its habitat Damar (Figure 6) is produced as a natural resin-like exudate from the trunk and large branches of certain tree species. In relation to upper Tabalong, all damar-producing trees are part of a mature forest ecosystem. No pioneer trees of secondary forest produce damar. Almost all damar -producing trees are commercial species which reach 50 cm dbh or more. Some damar is produced in healthy trees, but the amount produced increases greatly as a


18

result of damage (e.g. boring insects, branch falls, damage to the trunk resulting from nearby tree falls, logging or fire). In the forest, damar is found not only on the trees but also as lumps on the ground or buried in leaf litter or topsoil.

Figure 6. The characteristic black damar found on meranti kuning trees

The product exploited Damar burns readily with a pleasant odour. It can be used where a substance is required that can be liquefied (by heat or with a solvent) and hardened with a glossy, waterproof surface.

Regional distribution Damar is produced throughout the range of the genus Shorea and other dipterocarp trees (South and South-east Asia).

Uses of the product Caulking joints and cracks in boats, to make fires and light (traditional use in Kalimantan); cremation of human bodies (India); varnishes and specialist paints (export elsewhere)


Local distribution Damar occurs wherever there is natural forest with Shorea trees. Apart from pieces left in soil after natural forest has been cleared, it is absent from all other vegetation types. It is most common in hill dipterocarp forest undamaged or minimally damaged by logging.

Abundance and production potential Based on 17 x 0.5 ha plots, it is estimated that current average damar abundance is about 10 kg/ha (Alfan & Payne, 2001). Note that this estimate is of damar on the ground and low parts of tree trunks, and excludes damar higher up. This estimate is of “current standing crop” in year 2000; it consists of many years of production with periodic harvesting in some areas. Biological production potential is unknown, but is expected to be on average much less than 10 kg/ha/year.

Constraints to harvesting Road access to areas not recently harvested.


19


Who harvests? The first group of damar harvesters met in the forest by the Ecologist in 1999 were from Nusa Tenggara (Figure 7). No such people were evident when formal data collection of damar harvesting was being done. Basir (2000) reports that some harvesters were from Bahalang (Manyan Dayak). Many harvesters, however, appear to be Banjar from outside the AYI area. Residents of Dusun Bianon (on the west side of Kasali hills), mainly Dayak Lawangan, harvested damar from upper Karau River and Kasali in 2001.

Figure 7. Damar harvesters (from Nusa Tenggara) at Sinangoh river area, 1999; pieces of damar can be seen under the empty sacks

Harvesting methods (1) Damar is harvested by groups of between about 5 – 15 people who reportedly walk up to about 7 km from their current base camp or from their house if they live near forest. Existence of motorable roads is an important feature, (a) to allow collectors into previously rather remote areas where there has been no damar collection in recent years and (b) to allow access to trucks (given the ratio of price/kg of damar to weight, it is not worth carrying damar more than a few km to a roadside). (2) All damar seen by collectors and accessible to them is collected. Most is picked up from the ground or from with leaf litter or buried under the soil surface (damar may fall to the ground and remain for many years, being slowly degraded by natural physical and chemical processes). A relatively small percentage is knocked or cut from tree trunks or branches (damar is often too high up to be worth the effort climbing to obtain it). Pieces of damar harvested from the forest vary in weight from about 100 g to more than 10 kg, but most weigh less than 500 g per piece (survey notes, Alfan Subekti). Very small pieces are not worth the effort to seek and collect. (3) Harvested damar pieces are collected in used sacks (ex rice, sugar or chicken-feed) which can hold up to 50 kg of damar each. Damar of all sizes and qualities is mixed into the same bag. (4)


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Basir (2000) reported that three groups of damar collectors operated in the AYI area during 1999. Each group was led by a coordinator, and each consisted of between 10 – 15 persons. Working schedule was roughly 2 weeks’ work followed by 1 week off. One group worked this schedule over a 9-month period, another over a 6-month period, and the other over a 3-month period. The groups sell damar to traders who are often based temporarily at Kalingai. Unlike in some other parts of Indonesia and Philippines, trees are not damaged by damar harvesters in upper Tabalong in order to stimulate damar production.

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Basir (2000) reported that three groups of damar collectors harvested a total of about 172,500 kg of damar in the AYI area during 1999. This figure may be compared to the estimate of Alfan & Payne (2001) of 10 kg available/ha, implying that annual harvesting must occur over an area of about 17,250 ha. This is unlikely. Instead, presumably harvesters concentrate effort where damar abundance is high (patches of forest with numerous Shorea trees), and do not spread searching effort evenly through the forest. The Ecologist observed intensive and widespread damar harvesting along all roads, by harvesters, mainly Banjar, who entered via the main PT AYI logging road, from early to about November 2000. No damar harvesting activity was seen in the PT AYI area during 2001. However, Dayak residents harvested damar (mainly outside upper Tabalong, but on the western fringes of the PT AYI area in Central Kalimantan) during 2001, in response to requests from Banjarmasin buyers; there had been no market in this area during year 2000 (reported by residents of Bianon, 9 November 2001).

Prices Basir (2000) and Alfan & Payne (2001) report that damar (all qualities mixed together) was sold during 1999-2000 for IDR 600/kg, with higher prices for “red” or “black” damar if separated. Residents of Bianon reported prices of IDR600/kg for mixed pieces and IDR500/kg for damar powder in November 2001.

Official export data for South Kalimantan province are 94.8 tons exported from Banjarmasin January-July 2000, valued at US$14,670 (Maclachlan, pers com., 2000); most of this probably derives from upper Tabalong and parts of Meratus mountains.

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival (1) Most damar collected is old. In one year, harvesters may remove many years of damar production from one site. Damar production potential continues to fall as forest condition is degraded. Potential extraction rate in the medium-term (c. 5 years) will depend mainly on extent and location of road access into areas not yet worked. Long-term productivity depends on retaining some mature Shorea trees in all areas at all times and halting of illegal logging. Production is likely to decline greatly after about 5 – 10 years from now, as amount harvested/year clearly is much greater than the rate of natural production. (2) Survival of the species (= mature Shorea trees) depends on halting illegal logging and improving forest management by PT AYI.


None found.


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As long as collection methods do not involve damage to damar-producing trees, damar can be harvested from protection forests, protection zones and unloggable sites in production forest without detriment to the forest function.

Damar harvesting is compatible with timber production in a well-managed production forest because such forests are managed to retain old damaged trees and large seed source trees, and to stimulate growth of young timber trees which will produce damar as they mature.

Conditions in upper Tabalong (logging damage by PT AYI, along with massive illegal logging and ladangs), however, are converting accessible parts of the region into secondary growth depleted in damar producing trees.

Stimulation of damar production by means of deliberately damaging trees in the forest should not be permitted. The practice would merely serve to further degrade degraded forests and undermine the prime goal of future commercial timber production.

2.1.5 Honey

English name : Honey

Local name : Madu

Scientific names : (Wild bees that produce the honey) Apis dorsata, A. koschevnikovi, A. andreniformis & A. cerana

Description

The producing animal & its habitat Wild honey is produced by bees of the genus Apis which make nests on the branches of tall forest trees. The bees apparently select very tall trees where the crown emerges above the surrounding forest canopy, and smooth-barked trees are preferred. The probable main reason for selection of emergent trees is to permit easy navigation of bees back to the tree. The probable main reason for preferring smooth bark is to avoid predation by bears (Helarctos malayanus), which seek honey and which can climb smaller, rough-barked trees. The great majority of nests are made in Koompassia excelsa trees (Figure 8; local names manggeris or kusi); some nests are made in Canarium decumanum and C. pseudodecumanum trees (local name gagala); and some in Ficus albipila trees (local name wilas). Few nests are made in other trees, although very tall, emergent Shorea trees are used by the bees in hilly areas where smooth-barked trees are absent.


22

Figure 8. Ladder built by honey harvesters on to the trunk of a Koompassia excelsa tree near Missim river.

The product exploited Honey.

Regional distribution Through mainland South-east Asia to Indonesia and Philippines.

Use of the product Some local village residents and visitors buy as much honey as is available for their own consumption. Many villagers or outsiders buy honey in large quantity to be resold in Tanjung and Amuntai.


Local distribution The trees preferred by wild bees for nesting are most common on flat land, valleys, riversides and lower slopes of hills on relatively fertile soils.

Abundance and production potential Alfan & Payne (2001) record an average of about 1 honey bee nesting tree / ha in the PT AYI area. However, the distribution of these trees is very patchy, and many parts of upper Tabalong have no such trees. One honey bee tree may support between five and several tens of nests. Honey production potential of upper Tabalong is unknown.

Constraints to harvesting None significant


Who harvests? Residents of villages near the forest, usually Dayak.


23

Harvesting methods Honey is normally harvested from the nests five months after the nest has been started, in order to ensure that the maximum amount of honey is obtained. A team of at least five men is involved in harvesting. A ladder is built into the bole of the nest tree, using ulin wood pegs hammered into the trunk, and tied together with rattan (Figure 8). Since bees normally return to the same trees year after year, it is common for old ladders to be repaired and re-used annually. Harvesting is done at night in order to use a combination of restricted light and smoke to lead bees away from the nest and therefore to minimize stings to the harvesters. A fire is lit under the honey bee tree, serving to provide light and to help direct the bees away from the nest site once the nest is disturbed. One man ascends the ladder carrying a wad of smoky burning bark (used to help disperse the bees away from the nests), a wooden knife to slice pieces of nest from the branch, and a container attached to a long rattan rope used to lower the nests to the ground. Normally, the honey is squeezed from the waxy nest immediately into small plastic containers for storage and sale.

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Annual honey production in this area fluctuates greatly from year to year, being linked to annual variation in weather conditions. Basir (2000) records that about 690 litres of wild honey were harvested from the PT AYI area in 1999, which was considered to be rather low but more than 1997 or 1998 (both years affected by the El Nino drought). If one nest yields 20-25 litres of honey (Alfan & Payne, 2001), this implies that about 30 nests were harvested in 1999. It is likely that several tens of trees are harvested in years with more “normal” rainfall, with perhaps a minimum of 3 nests per tree. This suggests that more than 100 nests are harvested in “good” years.

Prices In 1999, honey was sold by the harvesters at IDR30,000/litre to local traders and consumers; traders sold the honey at IDR35,000/litre (Basir, 2000). In 2000, harvesters sold honey for between IDR25,000 – 50,000/litre (Alfan & Payne, 2001; MacLachlan, 2001a). Prices in year 2001 are reported at IDR30,000-35,000 (local informants to J. Payne)

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Traditionally, all honey bee trees are protected by local people and never felled. PT AYI does not fell these trees. It is widely assumed by rural people that the continued existence of these “honey bee trees” is necessary to permit the continued production and harvesting of honey. Some local residents also believe that another tree species (Endertia spectabilis; locally known as biwan) is important as the main supplier of nectar and pollen as food for wild honey bees. However, biwan trees are unlikely to be such a limiting factor as nesting trees, because biwan is absent from most of Kalimantan, yet honey bees occur and breed throughout the island wherever suitable nesting trees exist. Harvesting of honey from wild bee nests is inevitably destructive in that normally the entire contents of every nest are harvested, and so none of these nests will produce breeding bees. Thus, the sustainability of honey harvesting presumably depends on the survival of some bee nests which are too far from a settlement for commercial harvesting. Presumably, to date, there have always been sufficient remote nests to produce bees that migrate to more accessible areas. It should be cautioned that if market prices of wild honey increase significantly, there may be increased pressure to harvest nests from remote areas, thereby leading to a real decline in the bee populations. In terms of conserving honey bee trees, current sentiment is positive, and no local residents will knowingly cause the loss of a nesting tree. Traditionally, anyone who fells a honey bee tree is fined a gong. Now, a fine of IDR 500,000 is normal. However, it should not be assumed that this


24

situation will necessarily persist. As large trees currently cut for sale disappear, there will be pressure to fell any remaining trees that can be accepted by a factory or mill. Residual “customary norms” of the Dayak community in Upper Tabalong may continue to weaken, especially in the absence of law enforcement.


None found.


The SCKPFP Socio-agriculture adviser recommends that harvesting of wild honey be banned because traditional methods damage bee populations. However, granting of formal recognition and protection of all honey bee trees, and allowing traditional harvesting, may represent the sole means of protecting such trees from illegal loggers.

2.1.6 Wild fruits

English name : Wild fruits

Local name : Various (see Table 5)

Scientific name : Various (see Table 5)

Description

The producing plants & their habitat Trees and one genus of lianas. All are predominantly species of closed canopy forest; no pioneer species produce fruits edible to people. They range from under-canopy small trees which fruit when the tree trunk is about 12 cm dbh (such as Microcos and Baccaurea) to trees which can exceed 100 cm dbh (such as Dialium and Pometia).

The product exploited Fruits.

Regional distribution Various.

Use of the product Human food.


Local distribution Varies with species. It is likely that in some locations, wild fruit trees (especially Durio and Artocarpus) were planted in long-abandoned rice field and villages, that have regenerated to forest. Old fruit tree groves are maintained in cultivated areas in Dambung Raya, Salikong and the old settlements between Panaan and Durui.


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Abundance and production potential Table 5 provides an indication of relative abundance in the PT AYI area, based on SCKPFP forest, soil and ecology survey plot and transect data. No absolute estimates are available.

Constraints to harvesting For all species, a combination of the scattered distribution of trees, uncertainty over fruiting frequency, relatively high weight compared to low market price, and short period available to transport fruit to a market make wild fruits of rather limited significance as a NTFP.

Table 5. Trees of upper Tabalong that produce edible fruits

Local name Scientific name F C Notes / prices

Ramania Bouea macrophylla - C IDR1,000 – 2,000/kg. Possibly introduced

Pani-pani Bouea oppositifolia -

Pitanak Dracontomelum costatum 1 C Lowlands (Figure 9)

Sengkuang Dracontomelum dao 1 C Mainly riversides

Kasturi Mangifera casturi - C Native but only found cultivated

Hambawang Mangifera foetida - C Fruit has strong, distinct odour

Asam payang Mangifera pajang - C Fruits usually pickled

Asam pulasan Mangifera torquenda -

Asam Other Mangifera species 1

Solenocarpus philippinensis -

Spondias cytherea -

Alphonsea species 1 Small rare tree

Willughbeia species - Liana, with white latex

Lahung Durio dulcis 2 (Figure 10)

Durian merah Durio graveolens 1

Pampakin Durio kutejensis - C Commonly planted in Tabalong

Durian enggang Durio lanceolatus 2

Kerantungan Durio oxleyanus -

Durian Durio zibethinus - C

Kenari Canarium denticulatum -

Kembayau Dacryodes species 11 Fruits best softened in boiling water (Figure 11)

Kedondong Santiria species 4 Fruits best softened in boiling water

Bhesa paniculata -

Licania splendens 3

Wungan Maranthes corymbosa - Rare timber tree

Kayu arang Diospyros macrophylla - Other Diospyros species common in Tabalong


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Local name Scientific name F C Notes / prices

Lipasu Baccaurea lanceolata - Sour fruits used as “sambal”

Baccaurea stipulata -

Bridelia glauca 2

Tapos, Wayan Elateriospermum tapos 22 Seeds edible if roasted; wood is favoured for firewood

Ryparosa hirsuta -

Manggis hutan Garcinia nervosa - Most Garcinia species have inedible fruits

Kangkala Litsea garciae - C IDR500/kg. Fruits are best cooked (Figure 12)

Keranji Dialium species 14 About IDR2,000/kg. Commercial timber tree

Petai Parkia speciosa - C Normally eaten with rice

Bintawa Artocarpus anisophyllus 4

Artocarpus dadah

Terap Artocarpus elasticus 2 C (Figure 13)

Cempedak Artocarpus integer C

Lempoto Artocarpus lanceifolius 13

Tampang Artocarpus nitidus 1

Artocarpus odoratissimus

Artocarpus species 20 Large trees have commercial timber

Penjalin Xanthophyllum species 9

Buku-buku Dimocarpus longan - IDR30,000/kg (Figure 14)

Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum 2 C

Maritam Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Figure 15)

Rambutan hutan Nephelium uncinatum 1

Rambutan hutan Nephelium species 3

Matoa Pometia pinnata 3 Commercial timber tree

Hapuak Microcos cinnamomifolia 5 Small tree Source of records : SCKPFP “forest, soil and ecology survey” plots and transects; identifications made by Dr Kade Sidiyasa and Zainal Ariffin of Wanariset Samboja herbarium; identifications made by Dr. Paul Kessler; field notes of J. Payne. There are other “local” fruit tree species in villages in upper Tabalong; only those known to occur wild in the production forest are listed here. F = number of mature trees recorded in 6.63 ha of SCKPFP plots and transects. C = cultivated in Kalimantan (others are not reported to be cultivated) All species are trees except where noted otherwise.


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Figure 9. Pitanak (Dracontomelum costatum) Figure 10. Lahung (Durio dulcis)

Figure 11. Kembayau (Dacryodes species) Figure 12. Kangkala (Litsea garciae)

Figure 13. Terap (Artocarpus elasticus) Figure 14. Buku-buku (Dimocarpus longan)


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Figure 15. Maritam (Nephelium ramboutan-ake)


Who harvests? Fruits from planted trees are usually harvested by the owner or his descendents. Otherwise, anyone harvests forest fruits on an opportunistic basis.

Harvesting methods Varies; fruits may be picked from the tree (requiring climbing skills) or harvested from the ground. Sometimes, entire trees are felled just to obtain the fruit.


Prices See Table 5 for local prices in upper Tabalong (all quoted by Werner, 2001). (Local fruits sold in Tanjung are often from rural gardens, not from natural production forest.)

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Depends mainly on retention and management of good quality forest.


Wild durian (Durio zibethinus) trees less than 60 cm dbh may not be felled (under SK Mentan N0. 54/Kpts/Um/2/1972. Despite contrary beliefs, no other fruit trees enjoy legal protection.


The main value of wild fruit trees is as a source of material (seeds and bud-grafting material) for cultivation.


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2.1.7 Song birds

English name : Song birds (several species; see Table 6)

Local name : Burung berkicau (several species; see Table 6)

Scientific names : Various (see Table 6)

Description

The producing animals & their habitat Wild birds; all require some tree cover for breeding and survival, but the species differ in exact ecological requirements. None depend on high quality forest.

The product exploited Live birds.

Regional distribution Varies with species, but most are widespread in South-east Asia.

Use of the product The birds are kept for their singing ability.

Table 6. The most popular song birds species native to upper Tabalong

Local name

Indonesian English Scientific Notes

Punglor kembang

Anis kembang

Chestnut-capped thrush

Zoothera interpres Most popular & expensive species

Murai batu Kucica hutan

White-rumped shama Copsychus malabaricus

Cucak hijau

Cica-daun Greater Green Leafbird

Chloropsis sonnerati

Cucak hijau

Cica-daun Blue-winged Leafbird

Chloropsis cochinchinensis

Cucak rawa

Cucak rawa Straw-headed bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus Locally extinct

Source : Nunuk & Payne, 2001


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Figure 16. Immature Chestnut - capped Thrush (Zoothera interpres)


Local distribution Chestnut-capped Thrush (Figure 16) is confined mainly to areas with a stream and dense tree cover, both in tall forest and old secondary growth. White-rumped Shama prefers dense secondary or riverine growth with abundant lianas. Leafbirds live in the canopy of middle level trees. Straw-headed Bulbul, normally in open forest near to larger rivers, appears to be locally extinct in upper Tabalong.

Abundance and production potential Unknown.

Constraints to harvesting Few people have the interest and skill to specialize in catching wild birds.


Who harvests? Three groups are know to operate in the PT AYI area : (a) Dayaks from Dusun Missim, (b) Dayaks from Saing Pipa (near Bahalang), and (c) Banjar from Muara Uya. All appear to be farmers native to the Tabalong district, who have rubber small-holdings. Teenagers and children may assist the catchers (Nunuk & Payne, 2001).

Harvesting methods Camps are based on availability of water supply, normally on a roadside, near to streams. Specific locations for trapping are sought by walking along streams until the call of the target bird species is heard. Bird droppings are sought as a sign of intense bird activity or a nest. If there are young birds in a nest, efforts will be made to climb and take the young birds directly. If a nest with eggs is found, the team will visit the site periodically until the young birds have hatched. All groups use pulut (a sticky substance normally consisting of latex from


31

Artocarpus trees) as the main means to catch birds, with additional birds caught by snare traps. For all capture methods there are risks of injury and death of the birds, but injured birds fetch lower prices, so there is a strong incentive to minimise damage to and death of birds caught.


Prices Chestnut-capped Thrush: IDR15,000 – 175,000 per bird according to age and condition (price paid to harvester); IDR200,000 - 1,500,000 per bird (paid by urban bird-collectors).White-rumped Shama: IDR15,000 – 25,000 per bird according to age and condition (price paid to harvester); IDR150,000 - 1,750,000 per bird (paid by urban bird-collectors). Leafbirds: IDR15,000 – 45,000 per bird according to age and condition (price paid to harvester). Straw-headed Bulbul: over IDR1 million (paid by urban bird-collectors) (Nunuk & Payne, 2001).

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The Missim bird harvesting group (led by Rarianto) report a noticeable decline in bird numbers between km 54 and km 81, but this is perhaps not surprising in view of this group’s intensive activity in this zone during year 2000. The two other bird harvesting groups interviewed by Nunuk Kasyanto in early 2001 did not claim any decline in numbers of Chestnut-capped Thrush, White-rumped Shama or Leafbirds. Presumably the habitat requirements of these species are sufficiently broad that adequate young birds reach maturity in areas away from the roads and migrate into the areas already harvested. However, Straw-headed Bulbul may have become extinct locally due to excessive harvesting of these birds in their limited habitat type near larger rivers. There are no obvious adverse environmental impacts resulting from song bird harvesting.


None of the bird species currently harvested from upper Tabalong are protected by law. According to the PT. AYI forest utilisation right (Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops decree No. 840/Kpts-II/1999) the company shall not hunt or allow illegal hunting of any wild animal within its working area.


In terms of the extra income gained by rural farmers and the pleasure gained by buyers, the harvesting of song birds is relatively benign. Apart from Straw-headed Bulbul, current harvesting levels appear to be sustainable, although this is not certain.

The issues of cruelty to birds during capture and whether keeping wild-caught birds in small cages is ethical is not generally considered a significant concern in South Kalimantan.

There are health concerns; birds can infect humans with viral diseases.


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2.1.8 Pangolin scales

English names : Pangolin or Scaly Anteater

Local names : Tenggiling (Bahasa Indonesia); Ayem (Lawangan)

Scientific name : Manis javanica

Figure 17. Pangolin (Manis javanica) caught in upper Missim river by ulin wood harvesters

Description

The producing animal & its habitat A toothless, ant- and termite-eating mammal that is covered in scales rather than hair.

The product exploited Scales.

Regional distribution South-east Asia.

Use of the product Chinese medicine, for promoting flow of blood, reducing swelling, and stimulating lactation.


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Local distribution Throughout forests and (sometimes) orchards and rural gardens.


Constraints to harvesting Few people have the interest and skill to specialize in catching pangolins.


Who harvests? Basir (2000) reports one specialist Dayak hunter from Desa Panaan. Some pangolins are caught by people seeking other forest products (Figure 17).

Harvesting methods The specialist hunter uses dogs and spear to seek pangolins at night (Basir, 2000).

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown overall. Basir (2000) reports that the specialist hunter from Panaan obtains about 70 pangolins per year from upper Tabalong. It is unlikely that any other hunter even approaches this rate of capture.

Prices Basir (2000) reports IDR110,000/kg paid by local traders to harvesters in 1999 and IDR140,000 in Banjarmasin. Payne (1999) reports IDR150,000/kg. One pangolin is said to yield about 0.5 kg scales (Basir, 2000).

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Unknown.


Protected under Regulations on the Flora and Fauna Preservation (No. 7/1999), with further rules under Exploitation of Flora and Fauna (8/1999), but neither the meaning of “protected” nor the agency responsible for implementing the regulations are specified. According to the PT. AYI forest utilisation right (Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops decree No. 840/Kpts-II/1999) the company shall not hunt or allow illegal hunting of any wild animal within its working area.


This is not a significant NTFP in terms of number of people involved and income gained.

Hunting of pangolins should in principle be discouraged because hunting could potentially endanger local populations, and because this species is on Appendix 2 of CITES.


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2.1.9 Kapulaga (“Cardamom”)

English name : “Cardamom” (Since this product resembles cardamom but is not cardamom, the preferred name in English would be kapulaga)

Local name : Kapulaga

Scientific name : Amomum compactum (family Zingiberaceae)

Description

The producing plant & its habitat The original cardamom is Elettaria cardamomum (family Zingiberaceae), a native of mountains in southern India, which would not grow well, if at all, in the lowlands of Kalimantan. The kapulaga of upper Tabalong is Amomum compactum (Figure 18; although Alpinia species may also be referred to locally as kapulaga). It is better to refer to this product as kapulaga, rather than cardamom.

The product exploited Fruits and also rhizome (Figures 19 & 20).

Regional distribution A. compactum occurs from southern China to Java.

Uses of the product In local jamu tonic medicines, also as a spice.


Local distribution Mainly secondary growth on village fringes and gardens.


Constraints to harvesting None significant, but fruits are said to be available only July-December.


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Figure 18. Amomum compactum growing in its natural habitat of fertile, moist lowland soils.

Figure 19. Kapulaga fruits harvested and dried for sale


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Figure 20. Rhizomes and flowers of Amomum compactum


Who harvests? Village residents of Salikong, mainly women; said to be about 211 (sic) people involved in 1999 (Basir, 2000).

Harvesting methods Fruits are picked, about 0.2 kg/day (Basir, 2000) and sold fresh or dried (3 days needed for drying).

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts 21,000 kg harvested in Salikong area in 1999; also small quantities in Dambung Raya (Basir, 2000).

Prices IDR16,500/kg dried (or IDR7,000/kg fresh) in Salikong in 1999; IDR35,000 in Muara Uya; IDR60,000 in Banjarmasin (Basir, 2000). From IDR8,000 – 60,000/kg dried, for several villages in upper Tabalong (Werner, 2001)

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The combination of price, relative abundance of this plant in damp secondary forest and the fact that harvesting of fruits is non-destructive suggest that kapulaga harvesting from the wild is sustainable, but that cultivation in village gardens is a more viable option (Werner, 2001).

2.1.10 Kedaung

English name : (None)

Local name : Kedaung (also Kupang)

Scientific name : Parkia timoriana (synonyms are Parkia javanica and Parkia roxburghii (family Leguminosae)


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Figure 21. Kedaung (Parkia timoriana)

Description

The producing plant & its habitat A tree, mainly in lowlands.

The product exploited Seeds (Figure 21).

Regional distribution North-east India, South-east Asia, Indonesia.


Local distribution Mainly at lower elevations, especially river valleys.

Abundance and production potential Unknown. The only data reported is where two people spent five days in 1999 collecting 80 kg of fruits from four trees near to Salikong (Basir, 2000).

Constraints to harvesting None significant, except that fruiting is seasonal.


Who harvests? Village residents, especially Salikong

Harvesting methods Fruits are obtained by picking up from the ground, knocking them down with sticks or climbing the tree.


Prices IDR400 – 2,000/kg; 4,000/kg (Basir, 2000).

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Although most seeds are probably harvested from accessible trees near villages, there are wild trees elsewhere, from which seeds may be distributed by monkeys, squirrels, hornbills and other wildlife. The species has been tried in HTI, where growth rate and form


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appear to be generally rather poor. Cultivation on fertile soils in village gardens is a viable option.

2.1.11 Medicinal plants

English name : Medicinal plants

Local name : Tumbuhan obat

Scientific names : Many (see below; Table 7 shows some prominent species of upper Tabalong arranged by local name)

Description

The producing plants & their habitat Over 50 wild plant species recorded in 17 NTFP inventory plots (Alfan & Payne, 2001) and elsewhere in upper Tabalong (Uway, 2001) are used locally for a variety of medicinal purposes. Some of the more interesting examples are summarized in Table 7.

The product exploited Medicinal plants represent a homogeneous group of NTFPs only in the sense that these are plant products used for medicinal (in some cases cosmetic or flavouring) purposes. In other respects, this is not a homogeneous grouping. Medicinal plants include trees, bushes, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs and herbs. Some medicinal plant species used in upper Tabalong are native to South Kalimantan while some are introduced from elsewhere. Some occur in closed canopy forests (such as Luvunga, which occurs in old secondary forest; Figure 22), while some are pioneer plants that require open conditions (such as Rubus and Melastoma; Figure 23). It appears that some medicinal plant species contain chemical substances that have a physiological effect on the human body,

Table 7 Some wild medicinal plants of upper Tabalong

Local names Scientific name(s) F Habitat Use and other notes

Akar kuning Fibraurea chloroleuca, Coscinium fenestratum & possibly other species

L Forests To cure diseases of the liver. Highly regarded in South Kalimantan ; believed to be as effective as “modern” medicines, yet cheaper

Asam tanduy or Binjai

Mangifera caesia T Forest. Also planted

Root boiled to treat diabetes

Bangban Donax canaeformis H Secondary growth

Juice from stem used to treat reddish eye infections

Bekakang, Karamunting, Piduduk

Melastoma malabathricum

H Secondary growth

Decoction of bark used for fevers and hypertension

Empap, Rubus moluccanus C Roadsides in Decoction of leaves used to treat


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Local names Scientific name(s) F Habitat Use and other notes Bambap forest dysentery

Halaban Vitex pinnata T Open areas Leaves used to prevent and cure malaria; bark used to treat toothache

Ikik Costus globosus, Costus speciosus

H Damp areas in forest

Alkaloid in stem used by women for birth control

Ko’e Trichosanthes beccariana

L Forest edge Liquid from stem used to treat liver and kidney disease in children

Laurpulu Piper species C Lowland secondary forests

Pounded leaves reduce itchiness caused by hairy caterpillars

Mahang Macaranga species T Abundant in secondary and logged forests

To cure diarrhea. Inner bark is washed, chopped and boiled in water. When cool, the water is drunk daily for two or three days

Mali-mali Leea indica S Forests, often in damp, rocky areas

To speed healing of body injuries. Leaves are pounded and applied to injuries as a poultice

Pasak bumi Eurycoma longifolia S Well-drained shady sites

Relief of painful waist / lower back; aphrodisiac; anti-malarial. Root is washed, chopped and boiled in water. When cool, the water is drunk.

Seluang balum Luvunga eleutheranda and Luvunga motleyi

L Tall forests, often on lower hills and valleys

Aphrodisiac. Pieces of roots are cleaned, boiled in water, and the water consumed immediately. Seemingly unknown or lesser known outside South Kalimantan.

Salakiki Lepisanthes amoena T Forests Pounded leaves used to treat acne and blackheads

Tabat barito Ficus deltoidea E Forests A tonic for women. Leaves are pounded together with jambu (Psidium guajava) leaves, to make pellets which are dried and eaten

Tengkijet Connarus odoratus L Primary forest Juice of pounded root used to treat painful swellings, bruises

Source : Uway (2001) F = plant form : C non-woody climber E epiphyte, H herb, L liana, S small tree, T tree

while others seem unlikely to have any scientific basis and the supposed medicinal effects are connected with traditional belief. Both sorts, however, are regarded locally as “medicine”. Some medicinal plants seem to be well-known to many rural people, while others are known only to a few interested individuals. As with trees, confusion may be generated as a result of one name being used for more than


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one biological species, and through different people having different ability to recognize and name the plants. For the purpose of this report, only woody plants occurring naturally in the PT AYI forest area are considered

Regional distribution Various.

Use(s) of the product Various (see Table 7).

Figure 22. Luvunga species


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Figure 23. Rubus moluccanus (right side, with red berries, used to treat fevers) and Melastoma malabathricum (lower left, used to treat dysentery)


Local distribution Various, according to species.


Constraints to harvesting None significant.


Who harvests? Anyone who lives near or works in the forest, according to opportunity and need.

Harvesting methods Various, according to species.


Prices Unknown. Most medicinal plants are harvested for private consumption

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Harvesting of medicinal plants in upper Tabalong appears to have no significant impacts on the survival of the plants, with two exceptions, where the root is required : (a) Pasak bumi (plants harvested are mainly saplings and small trees, which have not produced fruit before they are removed from the forest) and (b) Seluang balum (which appears to exist naturally at rather low population densities and which is usually harvested before first fruiting).


Unknown.


In general, most people in upper Tabalong prefer to go to “modern” doctors and hospitals to seek “modern” medicines, but lack of medical facilities in the villages, coupled with poverty and lack of transportation often prevent this. There is still a considerable knowledge of traditional medicines amongst residents of Dambung Raya and other old villages.

With the possible exception of pasak bumi (also kedaung fruits and kapulaga; see sections 2.1.9 and 2.1.10), there is no formal trading of medicinal plants in this area.

Only four medicinal plants identified by SCKPFP work appear to require forest in good condition for their survival and reproduction : Merijang, Pasak bumi, Seluang balum and Ulin. Of these, Merijang and Ulin are much more significant as timber trees.


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Over long periods, rural people will have sought, identified and favoured plants that thrive in secondary growth and forest edge, because such habitats occur in and near human settlements. There may be less knowledge and less use of plants from closed canopy forests, as such areas are normally far from villages. It is likely that there are more plant species with real medicinal potential in closed canopy forests, which contain higher species diversity but which have not been systematically explored for chemical compounds.

Pasak bumi is very well-known throughout Kalimantan, as well as elsewhere in Indonesia and Malaysia (where it is called Tongkat Ali). Whole and powdered roots are sold in towns, and an export market to Europe and North America is being developed in Malaysia, using material harvested in Malaysia and Indonesia. If consideration is given to promoting this plant in Tabalong, it is better to promote development nurseries and plantations on private land, both to ensure sustainability and to allow for satisfactory income levels.

2.1.12 Fish

English name : Freshwater fish

Local names : Ikan (see Tjakrawidjaja & Pramudyagarini, 2001)

Scientific names : Various (see Tjakrawidjaja & Pramudyagarini, 2001)

Description

The producing animals & their habitat Fish, in most streams and rivers in upper Tabalong. Tjakrawidjaja & Pramudyagarini (2001) recorded 93 fish species in upper Tabalong (in the Tabalong Kiwa River above Desa Panaan and on the Ayu River above Salikong), of which 50 are suitable for human consumption.

The product exploited Fish.

Regional distribution Various, according to species.

Use of the product Food for personal family consumption or local sale.


Local distribution Varies with species; see Tjakrawidjaja & Pramudyagarini (2001).




Who harvests? Many people who live or work in upper Tabalong.

Harvesting methods Hook and line, nets, dart gun, poison and electricity.


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Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown overall.

Prices Unknown

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Unknown. There is a long history of intensive fishing in upper Tabalong, including use of poisons and electricity; thus populations are depleted, and sensitive species are probably at risk of local extinction. Tjakrawidjaja & Pramudyagarini (2001) note that forest clearance and destructive fishing methods adversely affect fish populations in upper Tabalong. Martin-Smith et al (1999) found from studies in similar habitat and terrain in Sabah, Malaysia (northern Borneo) that all wild fish species are resistant or resilient to logging. It is likely that destructive fishing methods represent a far more serious threat to fisheries in upper Tabalong than does logging or traditional farming.


Perarturan Daerah Propinsi Daerah Tingkat 1 Kalimantan Selatan N0. 6/1992 tentang Izin Usaha dan Pungutan Hasil Perikanan (province level fishing regulations) covers all fisheries within South Kalimantan. Gubernur Kalimantan Selatan Seruan No. 8/2000, Pelestarian Sumber Daya Perikanan Perairan Umum dan Perairan Laut forbids fishing using poisons, explosives and electricity.

2.1.13 Wild meats

English names : Various (see Table 8)

Local names : Various (see Table 8)

Scientific names : Various (see Table 8)

Description

The producing animals & their habitat Many species are eaten by non Muslims, including mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. Muslims normally hunt and eat only deer and also porcupines. The mammal species most often hunted in an organized manner in upper Tabalong are listed in Table 8.

The product exploited Meat.


Use(s) of the product Food for personal family consumption or sale.


Local distribution All species may be found in any forest, but different species have different preferences. Bearded pig may move large distances in search of fallen fruits, and often enter rural gardens in search of fruits and edible roots; they range on all types of topography. Sambar deer (Figure 24) favour areas with young leafy growth, including abandoned roads, secondary growth and riverbanks.


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Barking deer occur mainly in hill forests. Mouse-deer favour lower elevations near rivers.

Figure 24. Recently hunted young male sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) in the PT AYI 1999-2000 felling block.


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Table 8. Main wild mammal species hunted for meat in upper Tabalong

Local names English Scientific Notes

Babi hutan, bawui Bearded pig Sus barbatus Move seasonally with forest fruit availability, but a pest on human food crops in rural villages.

Rusa, manjangan, minjangan, takayuw

Sambar deer Cervus unicolor Favoured target of Muslim hunters.

Kijang, kalawus Barking deer Muntiacus muntjak Based on infrequency of records of calls (loud barks) and sightings, appears unusually rare in upper Tabalong.

Pelandok, pelanok Larger Mouse-deer Tragulus napu

Abundance and production potential Unknown. However, based on the experience of the SCKPFP Ecologist during field work form 1999-2001, population density of all species is noticeably lower in upper Tabalong than in similar habitats in Sabah and Sarawak. It is possible that the low abundance of these mammals reflects a combination of natural circumstances (relatively infertile soils and absence of natural concentrated mineral sources), consistent high hunting pressure since at least 1974 (when the area was opened for commercial logging), general reduction in habitat quality (due to widespread logging over nearly 30 years) and perhaps heavy mortality during the periodic droughts and fires of the past two decades. Only one natural concentrated mineral source has been recorded in the PT. AYI forest area, on the Tutui River at 1o 32’ 50” S, 115o 29’ 16” E (Figure 25), which is visited by bearded pig, sambar deer and (formerly) banteng (Bos javanicus).



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Figure 25. Natural mineral lick on Tutui river, used by large herbivorous mammals to supplement their mineral requirements


Who harvests? Various. Basir (2000) reports the existence six regular hunting groups, based in Panaan, Kalingai, Salikong and Mimban. Other groups may enter the PT AYI area periodically from other villages. Some PT AYI staff based in felleing areas away from the main camp hunt for food.

Harvesting methods Various, depending on what is available to the hunting group, including : dogs and spears; noose traps made of wire or rope; guns; and nets.

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts Unknown overall. Pig hunters informed Basir (2000) that 10 pigs/day are obtained during “fruiting seasons”, said to be a 3-month period. Based on the Ecologist’s observations of pig abundance and seasonality of movements in upper Tabalong, this would be an unusual maximum that possibly occurred pre-1970s. It is very unlikely that 10 pigs would be obtained daily over 90 days.

Prices Basir (2000) reports prices in local villages in 1999 of IDR7,000/kg of bearded pig meat; IDR10,000/kg for small deer; and IDR12,000/kg for sambar deer.

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival Unknown.


Sambar deer and Barking deer are protected under regulations on Flora and Fauna Preservation (No. 7/1999), with further rules under Exploitation of Flora and Fauna (8/1999), but neither the meaning of “protected” nor the agency responsible for


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implementing the regulations are specified. According to the PT. AYI forest utilisation right (Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops decree No. 840/Kpts-II/1999) the company shall not hunt any wild animal within its working area, and shall prevent illegal hunting. Since there appears to be no specific law or regulation to prevent hunting in upper Tabalong, other than 840/Kpts-II/1999, then effectively hunting by PT. AYI appears to be illegal but hunting by any other party would be legal.


The opening of previously remote forests for logging concessions in Borneo typically leads to increased hunting and an unsustainable market in wild meats sold in towns (Robinson et al, 1999). This has not happened in upper Tabalong, where almost all meat is consumed locally or sold locally.


Probably for a combination of reasons, mammals which are hunted for meat exist at rather low population densities in upper Tabalong.

However, in terms of providing protein for poor rural families, wild meats are one of the most significant NTFPs in upper Tabalong.

2.1.14 Keruing oil

English names : Keruing oil, Gurjun Balsam

Local name : Minyak Keruing

Scientific names : Dipterocarpus species

Description

The producing plant & its habitat Keruing represents one of the characteristic large trees of dipterocarp forest. Nine species have been recorded in the PT AYI area (see below), all of which are felled as commercial timber trees (> 50 cm dbh in production forest, > 60 cm dbh in limited production forest).

The product exploited Keruing oil (not harvested in upper Tabalong) is an oleo-resin obtained by tapping (= damaging in a deliberate, controlled manner) the tree trunk. All species of keruing produce this oil, but only some species yield quantities sufficient for commercial collecting.


Use of the product Production of perfumes, specialist inks and varnishes; waterproofing paper; medicinal, for skin lesions.


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Figure 26. Illegally-felled keruing tree in the PT AYI arboretum


Local distribution Varies with species, but most are found concentrated on lower areas of moderate slope in upper Tabalong, and patchily on the volcanic derived hills of the west side of the PT AYI area. Compared to other dipterocarps in the PT AYI area (meranti (Shorea species), kapur (Dryobalanops lanceolata) and Hopea species) keruing tend to be uncommon on steep slopes, ridges and at higher altitudes. Four species recorded in upper Tabalong are known to be suitable for tapping: D. cornutus, D. crinitus, D. grandiflorus and D. palembanicus (Soerianegara & Lemmens, 1994). Five other species recorded in upper Tabalong are unsuitable or of unknown suitability: D. borneensis, D. humeratus, D. pachyphyllus, D. stellatus and D. tempehes.

Abundance and production potential Out of 2,698 live trees > 10 cm dbh recorded in SCKPFP plots and transects (total of 6.63 ha in area), 53 (= 2%) were keruing. Thirteen were > 40 cm dbh (an arbitrary size, assumed to be suitable for tapping), equivalent to about two large trees/hectare on average. The relative abundance of the different species is unknown.

Constraints to harvesting (a) The majority of large accessible keruing have been felled and remaining trees are cut illegally (Figure 26). (b) Large keruing trees tend to be rather scattered and localized in distribution. (c) Absence of law enforcement to prevent further illegal felling. (d) No history of tapping minyak keruing in South Kalimantan.


Who harvests? No-one.


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Harvesting methods Traditionally in Thailand harvesting of keruing oil is destructive, involving cutting large holes in the tree trunk and periodicic firing to stimulate oleo-resin production for collection in a container placed at the bottom of the hole (Soerianegara & Lemmens, 1994). However, less damaging methods similar to rubber tapping have been tried in Peninsular Malaysia (MacLaghlan, 2001b)

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts None.

Prices Unknown.

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival MacLaghlan (2001b) reports that 300 g of oil can be harvested in a non-damaging manner per tree per week in an experimental situation, yielding 210 g of distilled oil. The main issue in upper Tabalong is whether mature keruing trees in any accessible sites can be protected from illegal felling.


None.


See Appanah & Turnbull (1998) and Soerianegara & Lemmens (1994).

2.1.15 Tengkawang

English name : Illipe nuts

Local name : Tengkawang

Scientific names : Shorea pinanga also S. beccariana, S. macrophylla and S. seminis)

Description

The producing plant & its habitat Tengkawang is a name used to refer to trees of the genus Shorea (generally known locally as meranti), which produce relatively large seeds that contain an edible oil. The seeds are known as illipe nuts. All are species of lowland dipterocarp forests, and all except one (S. seminis) belong to the meranti merah (= red meranti) group. Tengkawang trees may reach heights of 50 m. Although regarded as a protected species, tengkawang are sometimes felled and sold as meranti merah.

The product exploited Seeds.


Use(s) of the product MacLachlan (2001b)


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Local distribution Of 15 species of Shorea recorded in the PT AYI area four (S. pinanga, S. beccariana, S. macrophylla and S. seminis) are classed as tengkawang. Most tengkawang species favour relatively moist sites at low altitudes and gentle topography. S. pinanga is patchily common in the PT AYI area at lower altitudes, and it appears to regenerate well in lightly-logged forest. S. macrophylla and S. semininis appear to be rare and confined to riverine areas. S. beccariana is also rare in the PT AYI area.

Abundance and production potential Out of 2,698 live trees > 10 cm dbh recorded in SCKPFP plots and transects (in 6.63 ha total area), 16 (= 0.6%) were identified as tengkawang. Only three were > 40 cm dbh (an arbitrary size, assumed to be mature enough to produce good fruit crops), equivalent to about 0.5 large tengkawang trees/hectare on average. Production potential is unknown. In any case, it will vary unpredictably from year to year; in most years, very few or no tengkawang trees produce fruit. No tengkawang trees have been observed fruiting during the period 1999-2001 in the AYI area.

Constraints to harvesting (a) Any remaining large tengkawang left by PT AYI have been or are likely to be felled illegally. (b) Large tengkawang trees tend to be rather scattered. (c) Absence of law enforcement to prevent further illegal felling. (d) Fruit is produced rarely and unpredictably. (e) No history of harvesting illipe nuts in South Kalimantan.


Who harvests? No-one harvests the fruit for sale.

Harvesting methods Recently fallen ripe fruits are collected.

Estimate of current annual harvest amounts None.

Prices See MacLachlan (2001b)

Sustainability of harvesting & species survival The main issue in upper Tabalong is whether tengkawang trees can be protected from illegal felling.


Under SK Menteri Kehutanan No. 26/Kpts-IV/1990 and under Government Regulation No. 7/1999 on Flora and Fauna Preservation, S. pinanga, S. beccariana, S, gysberstiana (= S. macrophylla) and S. seminis are listed as protected species. However, the regulation does not define either the meaning of protected species, or responsibility for protecting them, or penalties for not protecting them.


See Peters (1996a).


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3 References Appanah, S. & Turnbull, J M (Eds) 1998 A Review of Dipterocarps. Taxonomy, ecology

and silviculture. CIFOR, Bogor.

Alfan S. & Payne, J 2001 The Availability of Rattan, Damar, Medicinal Plants and Wild Honey in the PT AYI Concession Area. SCKPFP Environmental Working Paper No. 12.

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Grossman C M 1997. Significance and development potential of non-wood forest products in central East Kalimantan – A case study from PT. Limbang Ganeca, Long Lalang and Ritan Baru. Sustainable Forest Management Project Document No. 13 (1997), 68 pp + 5 App. (17pp). Samarinda, Indonesia

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Leh C M U 1998. A guide to bird’s nests of Sarawak. Sarawak Museum, 29pp. Kuching, Malaysia


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MacLachlan, A S 2001a Marketing Potential for Local Produce. SCKPFP Socio-agriculture Consultancy Paper No. 4

MacLachlan, A S 2001b The Feasibility of a Non-Timber Forest Product-Based Enterprise and its Role in Improving Livelihoods of Forest Communities. SCKPFP Industry and Economics Working Paper No. 3.

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Peters, C M 1996a Illipe nuts (Shorea spp) in West Kalimantan: use, ecology and management potential of an important forest resource. Pp. 23-244. In : C Padoch & N Peluso, eds. “Borneo in Transition : People, Forests, Conservation and Development”. Oxford University Press.

Peters, C M 1996b Observations on the Sustainable Explotation of Non-timber Tropical Forest Products. An Ecologist’s Perspective. In : Current Issues in Non-timber Forest Products Research, Eds. M R Perez and J E M Arnold. CIFOR, Bogor.

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Soerianegara, I & Lemmens, R 1994 Plants resources of South-east Asia. N0. 5(1). Timber trees: major commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor.

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REP092 Non timber forest products - SFM Tabalong (1), J Payn

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