What is Renewable Energy?Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resourcessuch as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heatwhich are renewable (naturally replenished). Renewable energy technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and bio fuels for transportation.Renewable energyis energy that is generated from natural processes that are continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is constantly renewed.Alternative energyis a term used for an energy source that is an alternative to using fossil fuels. Generally, it indicates energies that are non-traditional and have low environmental impact. The term alternative is used to contrast with fossil fuels according to some sources. By most definitions alternative energy doesn't harm the environment, a distinction which separates it from renewable energy which may or may not have significant environmental impact. Renewable energy is any energy source that is naturally replenished, like that derived from solar, wind, geothermal or hydroelectric action. Energy produced from the refining of biomass is also often classified as renewable. Coal, oil or natural gas, on the other hand, are finite sources.

What is Biomass?Biomass, is a renewable organic matter, and can include biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels.Wood energy is derived both from harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste products. Waste energy can be generated from municipal waste, manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Biomass alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived almost exclusively from corn.What is Biodiesel?Biodieselis fuel made from plant oils that can be used in diesel engines. They are typically made of renewable organic raw materials such as soybean or rapeseed oils, animal fats, waste vegetable oils or microalgae oils.There are many sources of energy that are renewable and considered to be environmentally friendly and harness natural processes. These sources of energy provide an alternate cleaner source of energy, helping to negate the effects of certain forms of pollution. All of these power generation techniques can be described as renewable since they are not depleting any resource to create the energy. While there are many large-scale renewable energy projects and production, renewable technologies are also suited to small off-grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development.10Tidal Power

Tidal energy can be generated in two ways, tidal stream generators or by barrage generation. The power created though tidal generators is generally more environmentally friendly and causes less impact on established ecosystems. Similar to a wind turbine, many tidal stream generators rotate underwater and is driven by the swiftly moving dense water. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of the USA. The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times. Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative motions of the EarthMoon system, and to a lesser extent from the EarthSun system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with Earths rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides. British company Lunar Energy announced that they would be building the worlds first tidal energy farm off the coast of Pembrokshire in Wales. It will be the worlds first deep-sea tidal-energy farm and will provide electricity for 5,000 homes. Eight underwater turbines, each 25 metres long and 15 metres high, are to be installed on the sea bottom off St Davids peninsula. Construction is due to start in the summer of 2008 and the proposed tidal energy turbines, described as a wind farm under the sea, should be operational by 2010.9Wave Power

Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture of that energy to do useful work for example for electricity generation, water desalination, or the pumping of water (into reservoirs). Wave energy can be difficult to harness due to the unpredictability of the ocean and wave direction. Wave farms have been created and are in use in Europe, using floating Pelamis Wave Energy converters. Most wave power systems include the use of a floating buoyed device and generate energy through a snaking motion, or by mechanical movement from the waves peaks and troughs. Though often co-mingled, wave power is distinct from the diurnal flux of tidal power and the steady gyre of ocean currents. Wave power generation is not currently a widely employed commercial technology although there have been attempts at using it since at least 1890. The worlds first commercial wave farm is based in Portugal, at the Aguadora Wave Park, which consists of three 750 kilowatt Pelamis devices. In the United States, the Pacific Northwest Generating Cooperative is funding the building of a commercial wave-power park at Reedsport, Oregon. The project will utilize the PowerBuoy technology Ocean Power Technologies which consists of modular, ocean-going buoys. The rising and falling of the waves moves the buoy-like structure creating mechanical energy which is converted into electricity and transmitted to shore over a submerged transmission line. A 40 kW buoy has a diameter of 12 feet (4 m) and is 52 feet (16 m) long, with approximately 13 feet of the unit rising above the ocean surface. Using the three-point mooring system, they are designed to be installed one to five miles (8 km) offshore in water 100 to 200 feet (60 m) deep.8Solar Power

Photovoltaic (PV) Solar power is harnessing the suns energy to produce electricity. One of the fastest growing energy sources, new technologies are developing at a rapid pace. Solar cells are becoming more efficient, transportable and even flexible, allowing for easy installation. PV has mainly been used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. The 1973 oil crisis stimulated a rapid rise in the production of PV during the 1970s and early 1980s. Steadily falling oil prices during the early 1980s, however, led to a reduction in funding for photovoltaic R&D and a discontinuation of the tax credits associated with the Energy Tax Act of 1978. These factors moderated growth to approximately 15% per year from 1984 through 1996. Since the mid-1990s, leadership in the PV sector has shifted from the US to Japan and Germany. Between 1992 and 1994 Japan increased R&D funding, established net metering guidelines, and introduced a subsidy program to encourage the installation of residential PV systems. Solar installations in recent years have also largely begun to expand into residential areas, with governments offering incentive programs to make green energy a more economically viable option. In Canada the government offers the RESOP (Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program).7Wind Power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy by wind turbines into a useful form, such as electricity or mechanical energy. Large-scale wind farms are typically connected to the local power transmission network with small turbines used to provide electricity to isolated areas. Residential units are entering production and are are capable of powering large appliances to entire houses depending on the size. Wind farms installed on agricultural land or grazing areas, have one of the lowest environmental impacts of all energy sources. Although wind produces only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use, it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. Wind energy has historically been used directly to propel sailing ships or converted into mechanical energy for pumping water or grinding grain, but the principal application of wind power today is the generation of electricity. As of 2008, Europe leads the world in development of offshore wind power, due to strong wind resources and shallow water in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, and limitations on suitable locations on land due to dense populations and existing developments. Denmark installed the first offshore wind farms, and for years was the world leader in offshore wind power until the United Kingdom gained the lead in October, 2008. Other large markets for wind power, including the United States and China focused first on developing their on-land wind resources where construction costs are lower (such as in the Great Plains of the U.S., and the similarly wind-swept steppes of Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia in China), but population centers along coastlines in many parts of the world are close to offshore wind resources, which would reduce transmission costs.6Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste. Small scale hydro or micro-hydro power has been an increasingly popular alternative energy source, especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernible environmental effect or disruption to fish migration. Most small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water diversion, but rather use water wheels to generate energy. This was approximately 19% of the worlds electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and accounted for over 63% of electricity from renewable sources. While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. In the Scottish Highlands there are examples at Kinlochleven and Lochaber, constructed during the early years of the 20th century. The Grand Coulee Dam, long the worlds largest, switched to support Alcoa aluminum in Bellingham, Washington for Americas World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminum power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealands Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.5Radiant Energy

This natural energy can perform the same wonders as ordinary electricity at less than 1% of the cost. It does not behave exactly like electricity, however, which has contributed to the scientific communitys misunderstanding of it. The Methernitha Community in Switzerland currently has 5 or 6 working models of fuelless, self-running devices that tap this energy. Nikola Teslas magnifying transmitter, T. Henry Morays radiant energy device, Edwin Grays EMA motor, and Paul Baumanns Testatika machine all run on radiant energy. This natural energy form can be gathered directly from the environment or extracted from ordinary electricity by the method called fractionation. One of the earliest wireless telephones to be based on radiant energy was invented by Nikola Tesla. The device used transmitters and receivers whose resonances were tuned to the same frequency, allowing communication between them. In 1916, he recounted an experiment he had done in 1896. He recalled that Whenever I received the effects of a transmitter, one of the simplest ways [to detect the wireless transmissions] was to apply a magnetic field to currents generated in a conductor, and when I did so, the low frequency gave audible notes.4Geothermal Power

Geothermal energy is a very powerful and efficient way to extract a renewable energy from the earth through natural processes. This can be performed on a small scale to provide heat for a residential unit (a geothermal heat pump), or on a very large scale for energy production through a geothermal power plant. It has been used for space heating and bathing since ancient roman times, but is now better known for generating electricity. Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly, but has previously been geographically limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for direct applications such as home heating. The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. As of 2004, five countries (El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica) generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources. Geothermal power requires no fuel, and is therefore immune to fluctuations in fuel cost, but capital costs tend to be high. Drilling accounts for most of the costs of electrical plants, and exploration of deep resources entails very high financial risks. Geothermal power offers a degree of scalability: a large geothermal plant can power entire cities while smaller power plants can supply rural villages or heat individual homes. Geothermal electricity is generated in 24 countries around the world and a number of potential sites are being developed or evaluated.3Biomass

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, refers to living and recently dead biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. In this context, biomass refers to plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce for example trash such as dead trees and branches, yard clippings and wood chips biofuel, and it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil). The particular plant used is usually not important to the end products, but it does affect the processing of the raw material. Production of biomass is a growing industry as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. The existing commercial biomass power generating industry in the United States produces about 0.5 percent of the U.S. electricity supply. Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the largest biomass power plant in North America. The facility reduces dependence on oil by more than one million barrels per year, and by recycling sugar cane and wood waste, preserves landfill space in urban communities in Florida.2Compressed Natural Gas

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline, diesel, or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released). CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel vehicles (gasoline/CNG). Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used in Europe and South America due to rising gasoline prices. In response to high fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in light-duty passenger vehicles and pickup trucks, medium-duty delivery trucks, transit and school buses, and trains. Italy currently has the largest number of CNG vehicles in Europe and is the 4th country in the world for number of CNG-powered vehicles in circulation. Canada is a large producer of natural gas, so it follows that CNG is used in Canada as an economical motor fuel. Canadian industry has developed CNG-fueled truck and bus engines, CNG-fueled transit buses, and light trucks and taxis. Both CNG and propane refueling stations are not difficult to find in major centers. During the 1970s and 1980s, CNG was commonly used in New Zealand in the wake of the oil crises, but fell into decline after petrol prices receded.1Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in use today is through nuclear fission, though other methods might one day include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. All utility-scale reactors heat water to produce steam, which is then converted into mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion. In 2007, 14% of the worlds electricity came from nuclear power, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. There are 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. According to the World Nuclear Association, globally during the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average, and by the year 2015 this rate could increase to one every 5 days. According to a 2007 story broadcast on 60 Minutes, nuclear power gives France the cleanest air of any industrialized country, and the cheapest electricity in all of Europe. France reprocesses its nuclear waste to reduce its mass and make more energy. Reprocessing can potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium in spent nuclear fuel, putting it into new mixed oxide fuel. This produces a reduction in long term radioactivity within the remaining waste, since this is largely short-lived fission products, and reduces its volume by over 90%. France is generally cited as the most successful reprocessor, but it presently only recycles 28% (by mass) of the yearly fuel use, 7% within France and another 21% in Russia.Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign oil. Proponents also emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western World is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. Critics believe that nuclear power is a potentially dangerous energy source, with decreasing proportion of nuclear energy in power production, and dispute whether the risks can be reduced through new technology. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also point out that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries. Critics point to the issue of storing radioactive waste, the history of and continuing potential for radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, the history of and continuing possibility of nuclear proliferation and the disadvantages of centralized electricity production. Solar EnergyThe Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy.The sun, an average star, is a fusion reactor that has been burning over 4 billion years. It provides enough energy in one minute to supply the world's energy needs for one year. In one day, it provides more energy than our current population would consume in 27 years. In fact, "The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day period is equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy sources."Solar energy is a free,inexhaustible resource, yet harnessing it is a relatively new idea. The ability to use solar power for heat was the first discovery. A Swiss scientist, Horace de Saussure, built the first thermal solar collector in 1767, which was later used to heat water and cook food. The first commercial patent for a solar water heater went to Clarence Kemp of the US in 1891. This system was bought by two California executives and installed in one-third of the homes in Pasadena by 1897.Producing electricity from solar energywas the second discovery. In 1839 a French physicist named Edmund Becquerel realized that the sun's energy could produce a "photovoltaic effect" (photo = light, voltaic = electrical potential). In the 1880s, selenium photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed that could convert light into electricity with 1-2% efficiency ("the efficiency of a solar cell is the percentage of available sunlight converted by the photovoltaic cell into electricity"), but how the conversion happened was not understood. Photovoltaic power therefore "remained a curiosity for many years, since it was very inefficient at turning sunlight into electricity." It was not until Albert Einstein proposed an explanation for the "photoelectric effect" in the early 1900s, for which he won a Nobel Prize, that people began to understand the related photovoltaic effect.CHECK OUT THE SOLAR MAP

"Solar technology advancedto roughly its present design in 1908 when William J. Bailey of the Carnegie Steel Company invented a collector with an insulated box and copper coils." By the mid-1950s Bell Telephone Labs had achieved 4% efficiency, and later 11% efficiency, with silicon PV cells. From then on, interest in solar power intensified. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the space program took an active role in the development of photovoltaics. "The cells were perfect sources of electric power for satellites because they were rugged, lightweight and could meet the low power requirements reliably." Unfortunately, the cells were not practical for use on earth due to the high cost of making them efficient and lightweight, so further research was necessary.Solar energy may have had great potential, but it was left on the backburner whenever fossil fuels were more affordable and available. "Only in the last few decades when growing energy demands, increasing environmental problems and declining fossil fuel resources made us look to alternative energy options have we focused our attention on truly exploiting this tremendous resource." For instance, the US Department of Energy funded the installation and testing of over 3,000 PV systems during the 1973-1974 oil embargo. By the late 1970s, energy companies and government agencies had invested in the PV industry, and "a tremendous acceleration in module development took place." Solar energy improvements were again sought during the Gulf War in the 1990s.Considering that"the first practical solar cells were made less than 30 years ago," we have come a long way.The profligation of solar professional companies designing unique and specific solar power systems for individual homes, means there is no longer an excuse not to consider solar power for your home. The biggest jumps in efficiency came "with the advent of the transistor and accompanying semiconductor technology." The production cost has fallen to nearly 1/300 of what it was during the space program of the mid-century and the purchase cost has gone from $200 per watt in the 1950s to a possible mere $1 per watt today. The efficiency has increased dramatically to 40.8% the US Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Lab'snew world recordas of August 2008.We still use solar powerin the same two forms today, thermal and photovoltaic. The first concentrates sunlight, converts it into heat, and applies it to a steam generator or engine to be converted into electricity in order "to warm buildings, heat water, generate electricity, dry crops or destroy dangerous waste." Electricity is generated when the heated fluid drives turbines or other machinery. The second form of solar power produces electricity directly without moving parts. Today's photovoltaic system is composed of cells made of silicon, the second most abundant element in the earth's crust. "Power is produced when sunlight strikes the semiconductor material and creates an electric current." The smallest unit of the system is a cell. Cells wired together form a module, and modules wired together form a panel. A group of panels is called an array, and several arrays form an array field.There are several advantages of photovoltaic solar powerthat make it "one of the most promising renewable energy sources in the world." It is non-polluting, has no moving parts that could break down, requires little maintenance and no supervision, and has a life of 20-30 years with low running costs. It is especially unique because no large-scale installation is required. Remote areas can easily produce their own supply of electricity by constructing as small or as large of a system as needed. Solar power generators are simply distributed to homes, schools, or businesses, where their assembly requires no extra development or land area and their function is safe and quiet. As communities grow, more solar energy capacity can be added, "thereby allowing power generation to keep in step with growing needs without having to overbuild generation capacity as is often the case with conventional large scale power systems." Compare those characteristics to those of coal, oil, gas, or nuclear power, and the choice is easy. Solar energy technologies offer a clean, renewable and domestic energy source.Photovoltaic powereven has advantages over wind power, hydropower, and solar thermal power. The latter three require turbines with moving parts that are noisy and require maintenance.Solar energy is most sought todayin developing countries, the fastest growing segment of the photovoltaics market. People go without electricity as the sun beats down on the land, making solar power the obvious energy choice. "Governments are finding its modular, decentralized character ideal for filling the electric needs of the thousands of remote villages in their countries." It is much more practical than the extension of expensive power lines into remote areas, where people do not have the money to pay for conventional electricity.Indiais becoming one of the world's main producersof PV modules, with plans to power 100,000 villages and install solar-powered telephones in its 500,000 villages. By 2000, Mexico plans to have electrified 60,000 villages with solar power. Zaire 's Hospital Bulape serves 50,000 outpatients per year and is run completely on solar power, from air conditioning to x-ray equipment. And in Moroccan bazaars, carpets, tin ware, and solar panels lie side by side for sale. Probably the most outstanding example of a country's commitment to solar power is in Israel . In 1992, over half of all households (700,000) heated their water with solar energy systems. And there are 50,000 new installations every year.Solar power is just as practicalin populated areas connected to the local electrical power grid as it is in remote areas. "An average home has more than enough roof area to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power needs. With an inverter, which converts direct current (DC) power from the solar cells to alternating current (AC), which is what most home appliances run on, a solar home can look and operate very much like a home that is connected to a power line."Household energy supplyis but one use of solar power. There are actually four broad categories that can be identified for solar energy use: industrial, rural habitation, grid-connected, and consumer/indoor. Industrial uses represent the largest applications of solar power in the past 30 years. "Telecommunications, oil companies, and highway safety equipment all rely on solar power for dependable, constant power far from any power lines." Roadside call boxes and lighted highway signs rely on the sun's energy in order to provide reliable services without buried cable connections or diesel generators. Navigational systems such as marine buoys and other unmanned installations in harsh remote areas are also ideal applications for solar power because "the load demands are well known and the requirements for reliable power are the highest." Rural habitation includes "cabins, homes, villages, clinics, schools, farms, as well as individually powered lights and small appliances." Grid-connected systems pair solar power with an existing grid network in order to supply a commercial site with enough energy to meet a high demand, or to supplement a family's household supply. Consumer/indoor uses of PV cells include watches and calculators; PV modules power computers and radios.The practicality and environmentally safe natureof solar power is influencing people worldwide, which is evident in equipment sales. According toSeimens Solar, production of PV cells and modules increased threefold from 40 MW in 1990 to about 120 MW in 1998. "Worldwide sales have been increasing at an average rate of about 15% every year during the last decade . We believe that there is a realistic possibility for the market to continue to grow at about a 15% rate into the next decade. At this rate, the world production capacity would be 1000 MW by 2010, and photovoltaics could be a $5 billion industry."There are only two primary disadvantagesto using solar power: amount of sunlight and cost of equipment. The amount of sunlight a location receives "varies greatly depending on geographical location, time of day, season and clouds. The southwestern United States is one of the world's best areas for sunlight . Globally, other areas receiving very high solar intensities include developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America ." See alsosustainable house designBut a person living in Siberia would not benefit much from this renewable resource. And while "solar energy technologies have made huge technological and cost improvements, [they]are still more expensive than traditional energy sources." However solar equipment will eventually pay for itself in 2 to 5 years depending on h ow much sun a particular location receives. Then the user will have a virtually free energy source until the end of the equipment's working life, according to a paper called "Energy Payback Time of Crystalline Silicon Solar Modules." Future improvements are projected to decrease the payback time to 1 to 3 years.The best way of lowering the cost of solar energyis to improve the cell's efficiency, according to Larry Kazmerski, Director of the DOE's National Center for Photovoltaics. "As the scientists and researchers at the NCPV push the envelope of solar-cell efficiency, we can begin to visualize the day when energy from the sun will be generating a significant portion of the country's electric power demand." Any improvements and subsequent cost cuts will also be vital to space applications.Also try finding the right Electric company in order to save money.Power companiescan help you benefit with decisions such as this.As the price of solar power lowersand that of conventional fuels rises, photovoltaics "is entering a new era of international growth." So much so, that solar power "will remain an excellent energy option, long after the momentary fossil fuel model fades into smoke.

Wind EnergySocieties have taken advantage of wind power for thousands of years.The first known use was in 5000 BC when people used sails to navigate the Nile River . Persians had already been using windmills for 400 years by 900 AD in order to pump water and grind grain. Windmills may have even been developed in China before 1 AD, but the earliest written documentation comes from 1219. Cretans were using "literally hundreds of sail-rotor windmills [to] pump water for crops and livestock."The WindmillThe Dutch were responsible for many refinements of the windmill, primarily for pumping excess water off land that was flooded. As early as 1390, they had connected the mill to "a multi-story tower, with separate floors devoted to grinding grain, removing chaff, storing grain, and (on the bottom) living quarters for the windsmith and his family." Its popularity spread to the point that there were 10,000 windmills in England. But perfecting the windmill's efficiency to the point that it "had all the major features recognized by modern designers as being crucial to the performance of modern wind turbine blades" took almost 500 years. By then, applications ranged from saw-milling timber to processing spices, tobacco, cocoa, paints, and dyes.The windmill was further refined in the late 19th century in the US; some designs from that period are still in use today. Heavy, inefficient wooden blades were replaced by lighter, faster steel blades around 1870. Over the next century, more than six million small windmills were erected in the US in order to aid in watering livestock and supplying homes with water during the development of the West. The first large windmill to produce electricity was the "American multi-blade design," built in 1888. Its 12-kilowatt capabilities were later superceded by modern 70-100 kilowatt wind turbines.Wind Energy SourcesToday, people are realizing that wind power "is one of the most promising new energy sources" that can serve as an alternative to fossil fuel-generated electricity.With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America's electricity (or about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than 1% of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be occupied by wind equipment-the remaining 95% could continue to be used for farming or ranching. By the year 2020, 10 million average American homes may be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO2 emissions every year. Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all living things, and wind energy can do just that.The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines annually displace the energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons of carbon emissions, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid rain. In other words, "more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions."Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not imagined that wind power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact, many utility services around the world offer wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3 cents per kWh. If a household used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or $5 dollars per month for it and the price is still dropping.Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear power. Wind energy is therefore "cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural gas.[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of electricity it generates." The success of this energy is in part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the early 1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost dropping by an additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005."Electricity from windGermany, the US, Spain, Denmark, India and Australia are among the world's leading nations in the acquisition of wind energy. Wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds.Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $3 billion in 2008. Major offshore developments are likely in northern European waters in the early part of the next century.This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on landAs of 1999, global wind energy capacity topped 10,000 megawatts, which is approximately 16 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. That's enough to serve over 5 cities the size of Miami , according to the American Wind Energy Association. Five Miamis may not seem significant, but if we make the predicted strides in the near future, wind power could be one of our main sources of electricity. "With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America 's electricity (or about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than 1% of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be occupied by wind equipment the remaining 95% could continue to be used for farming or ranching." By the year 2010, 10 million average American homes may be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO 2 emissions every year.Lessening our dependence on fossil fuelsis critical to the health of all living things, and wind energy can do just that. "The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines annually displace the energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons of carbon emissions, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid rain." In other words, "more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions."Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years,but it was not imagined that wind power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact, many utility services around the world offer wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3 cents per kWh. If a household used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or $5 dollars per month for it and the price is still dropping. Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear power. Wind energy is therefore "cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural gas[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of electricity it generates." The success of this energy is in part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the early 1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost dropping by an additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005."Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, and Indiaare among the world's leading nations in the acquisition of wind energy. According to Chris Flavin, a speaker at the World Oil Forum held in Denver , Colorado , on October 30, 1998, " Navarro , Spain , is utilizing wind power to generate 23% of its electricity needs." Denmark now generates 8 percent of its electricity from wind power. Flavin, a vice president and senior energy policy analyst at theWorldwatch Institute,reported that wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds. In fact, according toWorldwatch Institute Online, "The world added 2,100 megawatts of new wind energy generating capacity in 1998, a new all-time record, and 35% more than was added in 1997. Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $2 billion in 1998." Major offshore developments are likely in northern European waters in the early part of the next century. This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land.According to an April 1999 press release,"Worldwide, wind energy capacity has expanded at an annual rate of 25.7% during the 1990s, with the total doubling every three years and the cost of production declining steadily as each doubling occurs and economies of greater volume are realized." Christophe Bourillon, executive director of the European Wind Energy Association, remarked that Europe has emerged "as a world leader in wind energy development" in the 1990s, which he expects this to continue.As far as the wind industry in the US is concerned,June of 1999 signaled the end of the best year yet. The executive director of the American Wind Energy Association attributes this "wind rush" to "progressive state policies and growing consumer demand for 'green' (low-environmental-impact) power." Many states now require that part of their energy production come from renewable sources. And utilities are now offering people "the choice of buying green power at a premium over power from conventional, environmentally-damaging sources such as fossil fuels. In most cases, wind, as one of the lowest-cost renewable energy sources, is the primary beneficiary." Utilities as well as policymakers are continuously surprised by the public's positive response to the availability of this green power.Bird fatalities on wind farms are a concern.A study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area in California found 182 dead birds, 119 of which were raptors. In response to this, the wind industry is committed to modifying the equipment in order to make the area safer for birds. Ideas include reducing the number of perches on turbines, spacing turbines far apart and in the direction of migration, painting patterns on blades that contrast with landscape colors, and even broadcasting a radio frequency to keep birds away altogether. Amidst its efforts to take responsibility in this issue, the industry quietly points out how many millions of species are killed annually during the acquisition and distribution of most conventional sources of energy.

Overall, the advantages of wind powerheavily outweigh the disadvantages. Although it can only supplement other sources of energy for now, it provides skilled jobs for people in rural communities, replaces environmentally harmful energy sources, and is inexhaustible." It will never be subject to embargoes or 'price shocks' caused by international conflicts," and "unlike oil fields, wind energy is renewable, year after year, forever."Wind Energy News

Will They Fly? Storms Buffet Wind-Power AlternativesWind-energy alternatives that go beyond those ubiquitous ground-based turbines face technical challenges and new competition from cheap gas.Posted on 27 September 2014 | 11:22 amTexas Tech Wind Researchers Receive $1.4 Million for Innovative Project

What Is Renewable Energy?Renewable energy sources can be replenished in a short period of time. The five renewable sources used most often are: Biomass including wood and wood waste, municipal solid waste, landfill gas, biogas, ethanol and biodiesel Water (hydropower) Geothermal Wind SolarWhat Role Does Renewable Energy Play in the United States?The use of renewable energy is not new. More than 150 years ago, wood, which is one form of biomass, supplied up to 90% of our energy needs. As the use of coal, petroleum and natural gas expanded, the United States became less reliant on wood as an energy source. Today, we are looking again at renewable sources to find new ways to use them to help meet our energy needs.In 2009, consumption of renewable sources in the United States totaled 7.4 quadrillion Btu 1 quadrillion is the number 1 followed by 15 zeros or about 7% of all energy used nationally.

The Role of Renewable Energy Consumption in the Nation's Energy SupplyAbout 8% of U.S. electricity was generated from renewable sources in 2009, with over half going towards the production of electricity. The next largest use of renewable energy is the production of heat and steam for industrial purposes. Renewable fuels, such as ethanol, are also used for transportation and to provide heat for homes and businesses.Renewable energy plays an important role in the supply of energy. When renewable energy sources are used, the demand for fossil fuels is reduced. Unlike fossil fuels, non-biomass renewable sources of energy (hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar) do not directly emit greenhouse gases or other pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, mercury and carbon monoxide.

Facts about RenewablesAs the impact of fossil fuels on our environment becomes ever more stark, renewable energy - with its non-polluting qualities and infinite capacity - is just what we need to save our fragile planet. Thanks to the work of engineers and scientists we are able to harness the renewable energy available to us and make it useful. Prepare yourself for our top 10 must-know renewable energy facts...1. There are five main forms of renewable energy: solar, wind, water, biofuel and geothermal (heat from the earth).2. If it could be properly harnessed, enough sunlight falls on the earth in just one hour to meet world energy demands for a whole year!3. Ever the innovator, Albert Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 for his ground-breaking experiments with solar power and photovoltaics.4. The geothermal energy from the core of the Earth is closer to the surface in some areas than in others. Where hot underground steam or water can be tapped and brought to the surface it can be used to generate electricity.5. A world record was set in 1990 when a solar-powered aircraft flew across the USA in 21 stages, using no fuel at all.6. One wind turbine can produce enough electricity to power up to 300 homes.7.The largest wind turbine in the world, soon to be located in the North Sea, has blades almost the length of a football field.8. An average wind speed of just 14mph is needed to convert wind energy into electricity; that shouldn't be too hard to come by in breezy Britain!9. Water is the most commonly used renewable energy resource, providing enough power to meet the needs of 28.3 million people.10.Those clever old Romans not only gave us the modern drainage system and many of our roads, they were also among the first to use geothermal energy to heat

Biomass Energy

The term "biomass"refers to organic matter that has stored energy through the process of photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be transferred through the food chain to animals' bodies and their wastes, all of which can be converted for everyday human use through processes such as combustion, which releases the carbon dioxide stored in the plant material. Many of the biomass fuels used today come in the form of wood products, dried vegetation, crop residues, and aquatic plants. Biomass has become one of the most commonly used renewable sources of energy in the last two decades, second only to hydropower in the generation of electricity. It is such a widely utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and indigenous nature, that it accounts for almost 15% of the world's total energy supply and as much as 35% in developing countries, mostly for cooking and heating.Biomass is one of the most plentiful and well-utilised sources of renewable energy in the world. Broadly speaking, it is organic material produced by the photosynthesis of light. The chemical material (organic compounds of carbons) are stored and can then be used to generate energy. The most common biomass used for energy is wood from trees. Wood has been used by humans for producing energy for heating and cooking for a very long time.Biomass has been converted by partial-pyrolisis to charcoal for thousands of years. Charcoal, in turn has been used for forging metals and for light industry for millenia. Both wood and charcoal formed part of the backbone of the early Industrial Revolution (much northern England, Scotland and Ireland were deforested to produce charcoal) prior to the discovery of coal for energy.Wood is still used extensively for energy in both household situations, and in industry, particularly in the timber, paper and pulp and other forestry-related industries. Woody biomass accounts for over 10% of the primary energy consumed in Austria, and it accounts for much more of the primary energy consumed in most of the developing world, primarily for cooking and space heating.It is used to raise steam, which, in turn, is used as a by-product to generate electricity. Considerable research and development work is currently underway to develop smaller gasifiers that would produce electricity on a small-scale. For the moment, however, biomass is used for off-grid electricity generation, but almost exclusively on a large-, industrial-scale.There are two issuesthat affect the evaluation of biomass as a viable solution to our energy problem: the effects of the farming and production of biomass and the effects of the factory conversion of biomass into usable energy or electricity. There are as many environmental and economic benefits as there are detriments to each issue, which presents a difficult challenge in evaluating the potential success of biomass as an alternative fuel. For instance, the replacement of coal by biomass could result in "a considerable reduction in net carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to the greenhouse effect." On the other hand, the use of wood and other plant material for fuel may mean deforestation. We are all aware of the problems associated with denuding forests, and widespread clear cutting can lead to groundwater contamination and irreversible erosion patterns that could literally change the structure of the world ecology.Biomass has to be consideredin the search for an alternative source of energy that is abundant in a wide-scale yet non-disruptive manner, since it is capable of being implemented at all levels of society. Although tree plantations have "considerable promise" in supplying an energy source, "actual commercial use of plantation-grown fuels for power generation is limited to a few isolated experiences." Supplying the United States ' current energy needs would require an area of one million square miles. That's roughly one-third of the area of the 48 contiguous states. There is no way that plantations could be implemented at this scale, not to mention that soil exhaustion would eventually occur. Biomass cannot replace our current dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas, but it can complement other renewables such as solar and wind energy.According to Flavin and Lenssen of the Worldwatch Institute, "If the contribution of biomass to the world energy economy is to grow, technological innovations will be needed, so that biomass can be converted to usable energy in ways that are more efficient, less polluting, and at least as economical as today's practices." When we have enough government support and have allotted enough land for the continuous growth ofenergy crops for biomass-based energy, we may have a successful form of alternative energy. But "as long as worldwide prices of coal, oil and gas are relatively low, the establishment of plantations dedicated to supplying electric power or other higher forms of energy will occur only where financial subsidies or incentives exist or where other sources of energy are not available." Although it is currently utilized across the globe, biomass energy is clearly not capable of sustaining the world's energy needs on its own.Hydroelectric Power

Moving water is a powerful entityresponsible for lighting entire cities, even countries. Thousands of years ago the Greeks used water wheels, which picked up water in buckets around a wheel. The water's weight caused the wheel to turn, converting kinetic energy into mechanical energy for grinding grain and pumping water. In the 1800s the water wheel was often used to power machines such as timber-cutting saws in European and American factories. More importantly, people realized that the force of water falling from a height would turn a turbine connected to a generator to produce electricity. Niagara Falls , a natural waterfall, powered the first hydroelectric plant in 1879.Man-made waterfallsdamswere constructedthroughout the 1900s in order to maximize this source of energy. Aside from a plant for electricity production, a hydropower facility consists of a water reservoir enclosed by a dam whose gates can open or close depending on how much water is needed to produce a particular amount of electricity. Once electricity is produced it is transported along huge transmission lines to an electric utility company."By the 1940s,the best sites for large dams had been developed." But like most other renewable sources of energy, hydropower could not compete with inexpensive fossil fuels at the time. "It wasn't until the price of oil skyrocketed in the 1970s that people became interested in hydropower again." Today one-fifth of global electricity is generated by falling water."Over the past 100 years,the United States has led the world in dam building. Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt recently observed that, 'on average, we have constructed one dam every day since the signing of the Declaration of Independence.'"Of the 75,187 dams in the US , less than 3% are used to produce 10-12% of the nation's electricity. With over 2,000 facilities, the US is the second largest producer of hydropower worldwide, behind Canada . The dams that do not produce electricity are used for irrigation or flood control. Many people believe these pre-existing sites could contribute to the country's power supply in a cost-effective manner if hydroelectric facilities were constructed.There are several favorable features of hydropower.Anywhere rain falls, there will be rivers. If a particular section of river has the right terrain to form a reservoir, it may be suitable for dam construction. No fossil fuels are required to produce the electricity, and the earth's hydrologic cycle naturally replenishes the "fuel" supply. Therefore no pollution is released into the atmosphere and no waste that requires special containment is produced. Since "water is a naturally recurring domestic product and is not subject to the whims of foreign suppliers," there is no worry of unstable prices, transportation issues, production strikes, or other national security issues.Hydropower is very convenientbecause it can respond quickly to fluctuations in demand. A dam's gates can be opened or closed on command, depending on daily use or gradual economic growth in the community. The production of hydroelectricity is often slowed in the nighttime when people use less energy. When a facility is functioning, no water is wasted or released in an altered state; it simply returns unharmed to continue the hydrologic cycle. The reservoir of water resulting from dam construction, which is essentially stored energy, can support fisheries and preserves, and provide various forms of water-based recreation for locals and tourists. Land owned by the hydroelectric company is often open to the public for hiking, hunting, and skiing. Therefore, "hydropower reservoirs contribute to local economies. A study of one medium-sized hydropower project in Wisconsin showed that the recreational value to residents and visitors exceeded $6.5 million annually." Not to mention the economic stimulation provided by employment.Hydroelectric poweris also very efficient and inexpensive."Modern hydro turbines can convert as much as 90% of the available energy into electricity. The best fossil fuel plants are only about 50% efficient. In the US , hydropower is produced for an average of 0.7 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is about one-third the cost of using fossil fuel or nuclear and one-sixth the cost of using natural gas," as long as the costs for removing the dam and the silt it traps are not included. Efficiency could be further increased by refurbishinghydroelectric equipment. An improvement of only 1% would supply electricity to an additional 300,000 households.Hydropower has become"the leading source of renewable energy. It provides more than 97% of all electricity generated by renewable sources worldwide. Other sources including solar, geothermal, wind, and biomass account for less than 3% of renewable electricity production." In the US , 81% of the electricity produced by renewable sources comes from hydropower. "Worldwide, about 20% of all electricity is generated by hydropower." Some regions depend on it more than others. For example, 75% of the electricity produced in New Zealand and over 99% of the electricity produced in Norway come from hydropower.The use of hydropower"prevents the burning of 22 billion gallons of oil or 120 million tons of coal each year." In other words, "the carbon emissions avoided by the nation's hydroelectric industry are the equivalent of an additional 67 million passenger cars on the road 50 percent more than there are currently." The advantages of hydropower are therefore convincing, but there are some serious drawbacks that are causing people to reconsider its overall benefit.Since the most feasible sites for damsare in hilly or mountainous areas, the faults that often created the topography pose a great danger to the dams and therefore the land below them for thousands of years after they have become useless for generating power. In fact, dam failures do occur regularly due to these terrain conditions, and the effects are devastating.When a new dam's reservoir floods the countryside,people who live in the area have to move and relinquish their former lifestyles in order to make way for the project. This is very stressful and often controversial, especially if a community has maintained a particular way of life on the same land for generations. Such is the case in Chile, where the indigenous Pehuenche "are currently fighting construction of the 570MW, US $500,000,000 Ralco Dam on the Biobo River Eight families continue to refuse to negotiate land exchanges with Endesa [the utility company], and wish to remain on their lands." If the project succeeds, a 13-square-mile reservoir would flood the land and force 600 people out of their homes, 400 of whom are Pehuenche "whose ancestral home is the upper Biobo." A total of five dams have been planned, which "would force the relocation of 1,000 Pehuenches, 20% of the survivors of this ancient culture."The construction of a damnot only affects the people nearby, it can severely alter a river's natural functions. According to American Rivers, a conservation organization, "by diverting water for power, dams remove water needed for healthy in-stream ecosystems. Stretches below dams are often completely de-watered." This may not seem like a significant problem until animal species are studied. Birds that have migrated to a specific riparian environment for generations no longer have enough insects on which to prey when the water level drops. If they have few migration alternatives, that could mean the endangerment of species that once flourished. Fish species such as salmon "depend on steady flows to flush them down river early in their life and guide them upstream years later to spawn. Stagnant reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and significantly increase the duration of their migration." Native populations of fish may decrease or disappear altogether due to temperature changes caused by dams. Slower water flow means warmer temperatures, and bottom-release of cold water means cooler temperatures. Several of hydropower's disadvantages focus on fish. It is easy to forget how important fish and other aquatic life are, some of which reside at the bottom of the food chain.The environmental changes caused by hydroelectric projectsmay be obvious to the local biologist, but elude the average person. Most people will more readily notice a smoggy haze developing in an area where a coal plant is operating than a smaller population of a particular bird species where a hydropower facility functions. Such oversights lead people to believe that nothing is wrong.Hydroelectric companies and organizationsoften emphasize their "clean" manufacture of electricity and neglect to mention the long-term environmental hazards. "Dams hold back silt, debris, and nutrients." Silt collects behind the dam on the river bottom, accumulating heavy metals and other pollutants. Eventually this renders the dam inoperable, leaving the mess for future generations, who will either have to remove the collected debris or live with a potentially catastrophic mudflow poised to inundate the area below the dam.There is also a debatebetween preserving rivers for their aesthetic value versus meeting the energy needs of thousands of people. The latter has prevailed. Today "there are 600,000 river miles impounded behind dams. In contrast, only 10,000 river miles (not even half of 1%) are permanently protected under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System." The only undammed river in the US that is longer than 600 miles is the Yellowstone .Hydropower may be better on the environmentthan fossil-fuel sources, but its future is so uncertain that we may need to focus on other alternatives. According to the National Hydropower Association, "an increasing array of statutes, regulations, agency policies and court decisions have made the hydroelectric licensing process costly, arbitrary and time-consuming. A typical hydropower project takes 8 to 10 years to find its way through the licensing process. By comparison, a natural gas fired plant, which emits significant carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) gases, can typically be sited and licensed in 18 months. Given this uncertain climate, few investors are willing to risk their capital on new hydropower development. Furthermore, some project owners and operators contemplate abandonment of their projects rather than proceeding with relicensing."Relicensing is a complex processin which private dams are re-evaluated every 30 to 50 years. The Federal Energy Regulatory Committee "considers anew whether it is appropriate to commit the public's river resources for private power generation FERC is now required, when deciding whether to issue a license, to consider not only the power generation potential of a river, but also to give equal consideration to energy conservation, protection of fish and wildlife, protection of recreational opportunities, and preservation of other aspects of environmental quality." Relicensing was infrequent until 1993, when hundreds of licenses began to expire. "The Hydropower Reform Coalition formed in 1992 to take advantage of this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to restore river ecosystems through the relicensing process." To the Coalition's dismay, a new bill is being considered called the Hydroelectric Licensing Process Improvement Act, which if passed, "would limit the abilities of federal agencies to protect natural resources," making relicensing easier for dam operators.Some people favor dam removalso that healthy rivers and riverside communities can be restored, but American Rivers reports that most of the larger dams in the US "are not likely candidates for removal." In that case it may be wasteful not to use them to their full potential as long as they are still sturdy. A hydropower assessment conducted by the US Department of Energy found that 4,087 sites could be developed without constructing a new dam. "The assessment consider[ed] such values as wild/scenic protection, threatened or endangered species, cultural values and other non-power issues. If all of this potential were to be developed 22.7 million metric tons of carbon could be avoided." But this savings in carbon emissions pales when compared to the tonnage of silt and other material that must be handled if the river is to be restored to a freely-flowing state. All rivers will eventually silt up the dam. At this point future generations will have the choice to either keep the useless dam or remove it. Keeping the poorly consolidated silt and mud behind the dam is potentially dangerous. Removal costs will often exceed the value of power produced over the dam's lifetime.Unlike other renewables such as wind and solar powerthat receive more praise than criticism, hydropower is a highly controversial issue. While it does have many merits, it too is like so many other sources of energy if we ignore the critics' warnings, we may not realize its full imHydrogen and Fuel Cells

Hydrogen and Fuells Cells HomeHydrogen and Fuell Cells PowerHydrogen and Fuel Cells ProductionHydrogen and Fuel Cells Transportation and DistributionIntroductionFossil and nuclear fuel reservesare becoming increasingly limited, and the world's energy future will have to include several renewable alternatives to these failing resources. A promising possibility is to exploit the energy potential of the most plentiful element in the known universe hydrogen.We will look at how hydrogen was initially discoveredand how it has been used in the past. Next we will examine methods of production, distribution, and transport of hydrogen, as well as how hydrogen can be used safely. Then we will look how hydrogen can be used safely. Lastly, we will examine the present state of the art in terms of energy applications available now, such as fuel cells and hydrogen as a combustible fuel, and we will also consider the developing ideas and technologies that will be used in our energy future.HistoryThe quest for understanding the natural worldaround us is as old as human consciousness. This quest continues in the present day, as scientists and researchers delve with increasing intensity into the mysteries of physics, chemistry, and biology to unlock the secrets inherent in the physical universe.Hydrogen HAtomic Number: 1 Atomic Weight: 1.00794 Electronic Configuration: 1Hydrogen is a gaseous element that was first discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1766. It is the first element on the Periodic Table. Hydrogen is: Colorless Tasteless Odorless Slightly soluble in water Highly explosiveHydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, and serves as the fuel for the fusion reactions in stars. Normal hydrogen is diatomic (two hydrogen atoms chemically paired). Atmospheric hydrogen has three isotopes: protium (one proton in nucleus), deuterium (one proton and one neutron in nucleus), and tritium (one proton and two neutrons). ( 1 )

Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Swiss physician,naturalist and alchemist, was a contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci and Copernicus. In the course of investigating what would become chemistry and medicine, Paracelsus wrote of combining sulfuric acid and iron, noting that this combination produced a gas or "air" as he conceived it at the time, and that when this air was produced it was released under considerable pressure.Later a French chemist, Nicholas Lemery, showed that the gas produced in the sulfuric acid/iron reaction was flammable, but it was Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), a British physicist, who was credited with the discovery of hydrogen in 1766. Another French chemist, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1793), considered the founder of modern chemistry, described one of the component elements of water ashydrogen, from the Greek words hudor (water) and gennan (generate). It was also Lavoisier who noted that the only byproduct of burning hydrogen was water itself.In 1802 a British chemist named Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829)was studying the chemical effects of electricity when he found that by passing an electric current through water, he was able to cause the water to chemically decompose into its component elements of hydrogen and oxygen. This process, which later became known as electrolysis, led Davy to theorize that chemical compounds are bound together by electric energy.Working with the concept of chemical decompositionthrough applied electricity, a Welsh lawyer and non-scientist who was also a knighted judge, Sir William R. Grove, expanded on the work done by Sir Humphry Davy. Grove demonstrated that the process of chemical decomposition could be reversed, and that hydrogen and oxygen could be compelled to bind together forming water. At the same time the process produced an electric current that "could be felt by five persons joining hands, and which when taken by a single person was painful." Grove's discoveries came to fruition in the form of the first hydrogen fuel cell, which he invented in 1839. While it would be over one hundred years before interest was rekindled in Grove's work, it would prove to be extremely important in fuel cell technology, which today is the main source of electric power for space vehicles.During the latter part of the Nineteenth Century, before the advent of what we now know as natural gas, a hydrogen-rich gas was produced from coal to be used in the gas lamps and heaters of European and American homes. Known in the U.S. as "town gas," and consisting of 50% hydrogen and 50% carbon monoxide, this fuel helped lay the foundation for the safe use of hydrogen, which due to its highly volatile nature, must be handled and transported with the utmost care.For most of us, the most infamous use of hydrogenwas in the lighter-than-air zeppelin. While balloons and flying air ships had been using hydrogen for almost fifty years, it was the development in 1900, by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin of Germany, of the rigid framed air ship that allowed for greater speed and durability in flight than had previously been possible. With its aluminum skeleton framing a solid outer shell, von Zeppelin's first ship, the LZ 1, was designed with military applications in mind, opening up the possibility of long range battlefield reconnaissance from the air, as well as opportunities for tactical options like dropping bombs.With Germany's entrance into World War I,zeppelins were equipped with bombs and machine guns, making them dangerous targets for the fledgling efforts of early British air forces using the limited biplane technology of the time. Bombs were carried from German held bases in France , and dropped with impunity over London . While the accuracy of these attacks was very poor, they served a devastating psychological role in demoralizing Britains . By the end of the war however, improvements in airplane design and capability, as well as the innovation of the phosphorus coated incendiary tracer bullets spelled the end of the hydrogen-filled dirigible.Following World War I ,Germany and the United States both continued with the development of rigid framed air ships, enhancing their air speed and reliability. Especially in Germany , these huge dirigibles, often over four hundred feet in length, became commonplace, and were used extensively for luxurious passenger travel. In 1928, the Graf Zeppelin, designated LZ127, was launched, and would go on to fly farther than any zeppelin before or since.Test flown initially in March of 1936,the zeppelin Hindenburg would fly into history as perhaps the most memorable air disaster of the Twentieth Century. Having made the transatlantic crossing from Germany to Lakehurst , New Jersey ten times in the year previous to May of 1937, the 804-foot air ship represented the state of the art in zeppelin design, and such trips were fairly routine.American manufactured air shipshad by this time switched to the less volatile and nonflammable lighter-than-air helium gas. However, the German ship still used hydrogen as its lift medium, a fact which still generates controversy sixty years after the events that would indelibly link the Hindenburg tragedy with the dangers of hydrogen gas.On May 6, 1937, as the Hindenburg approached its mooring towerat the Lakehurst Naval Air Station, it burst into flames. While the fire consumed only the zeppelin's cover material at first, it quickly ignited the explosive hydrogen within the massive ship. Thirty-five of the ninety-seven people aboard the Hindenburg lost their lives that day, as well as one American Navy crewman on the ground.The continuing controversy over the cause of the Hindenburg crashis central to the issues here, as modern historians and investigators differ in their opinions as to the chain of events leading up to the disaster. Unsubstantiated rumors of sabotage not withstanding, opinions differ as to whether the fire was started by leaking hydrogen ignited by a static electricity spark, or by static electricity starting a fire in the zeppelin's cover material. Thunderstorms were passing through the Lakehurst area that day, providing ample conditions for a static discharge, but whether it was the cover material or leaking hydrogen that provided the fire with its starting place will probably never be known.The Hindenburg experience has actually helpedensure the safe handling of hydrogen in what are primarily industrial applications in the present. Safer storage mediums have also been developed, which will be described later, replacing earlier dangerous storage. The perception that handling hydrogen is inherently dangerous has done much to hamper the public acceptance of hydrogen research and applications. However, properly handled, hydrogen is no more dangerous than gasoline or propane. Curiously, it was reported that no fatality from the Hindenburg accident was directly attributable to hydrogen burns, as the millions of cubic feet of hydrogen burned off in less than one minute. It was the diesel fuel, which powered the air ship's drive engines, that burned many of the dead and injured that day, as well as feeding the ground fire which took several hours to extinguish.It was in the United States that Francis Bacon,a descendant of the famous English scientist and philosopher, developed the first modern successful hydrogen fuel cell in 1932, which was refined until a 5 kilowatt fuel cell system was demonstrated in 1952. As the United States began its push for space flight in the late 1950's, fuel cell technology appealed to many scientists and engineers. It was much less dangerous than any known nuclear application, much more compact and lighter than any type of battery, as well as being simpler to deal with mechanically than any solar photo-voltaic technology available at that time. Today hydrogen fuel cells provide much of the electric power for the Space Shuttle, as well as power for electric automobiles and varied other emerging applications. With a little imagination we can see the direct line from Paracelsus five hundred years ago to the possibilities that lay in front of us in the near future.pact on our natural resources until it is too late.

Other Forms of Renewable EnergyOther forms of conventional renewable energyinclude tidal, ocean thermal, wave, and hot fusion. Tidal energy utilizes the gravitational energy of the attraction of the Sun, Earth and Moon. Wave power converts the energy released in crashing waves, which originated in the wind, which is driven by sunlight. Ocean thermal energy exploits the greatest collector of solar energy on Earth the sea. Hot fusion is not strictly renewable since it consumes hydrogen, but hydrogen is so abundant that it can be considered limitless for human purposes. Each of these energy forms has its own advantages and disadvantages, but none of them is the answer to the looming energy crunch. We will address each of them in turn.Tidal Energyworks on the same fundamental principal as the water wheel. In the case of tidal energy, however, the difference in water elevation is caused by the difference between high and low tides. The technology involves building a dam, or barrage, across an estuary to block the incoming tide, the outgoing tide, or both. When the water level on one side of the dam is higher than the level on the other side due to a tidal change, the pressure of the higher water builds. The water is channeled through a turbine in the dam in order to get to the other side, which produces electricity by turning an electric generator.Tidal energy is being harnessedin several countries around the world, from facilities in Russia to France with 400 kW to 240 MW capacities. Some proposed sites, however, exhibit extraordinary potential. Britain 's Severn Estuary and Canada 's Bay of Fundy have potential capacities of as much as 8,000 and 30,000 MW, respectively. The Severn Estuary averages an 8.8-meter (26-foot) tidal range and the Bay of Fundy averages a 10.8-meter (32-foot) tidal range, ideal for substantial electricity generation. But the rarity of these exceptionally high tides is the main limitation of this energy source. Considering that "a tidal range of at least 7 meters is required for economical operation and for a sufficient head of water for the turbines," few places in the world can make a facility's establishment worthwhile. Since tidal power's "estimated capacity is 50 times smaller than the world's hydroelectric power capacity," it cannot compare to other renewables.Another constraint to the tidal systemis the sheer amount of time that passes in which little electricity can be generated between the rising and falling tides. During these times, the turbines may be used to pump extra water into the basin to prepare for periods of high electricity demand, but not much else can be done in the interim to generate more electricity. By its very nature, a tidal-based energy facility can only generate a maximum of ten hours of electricity per 24-hour day. That means it cannot be expected to supply power at a steady rate or during peak times.Although the operation and maintenance of a tidal power plantis low, the cost of the initial construction of the facility is prohibitive, so the overall cost of the electricity generated would be quite high. For example, it is estimated that the Severn tidal project with a proposed capacity of 8,640 MW will cost $1,600 per kW, or over $13.8 billion. This cost exceeds that of coal and oil facilities by a considerable amount.In contrast to the combustion of fossil fuels, the use of tidal energy makes no contribution to global warming. But tidal energy facilities do not come without an environmental price tag. The alteration of the natural cycle of the tides may affect shoreline as well as aquatic ecosystems. Pollution that enters a river upstream from the plant may be trapped in the basin, while the natural erosion and sedimentation pattern of the estuary may be altered. Local tides could decrease by more than a foot in some areas, and the "enhanced mixing of water" could stimulate the growth of organisms, better known for their red tide effect, which paralyze shellfish. So little is known about the potential harm of a tidal energy facility that some people believe "one of the only methods of increasing our knowledge about how tidal barrages affect ecosystems may be the study of the effects after such facilities have been built." With such uncertainty, tidal power appears to be an unproven alternative energy candidate.Assuming that the high costs and the environmental issueswere circumvented, the problem of distributing the energy generated by tidal facilities would still exist. Since the collection sites are limited and fixed at unalterable locations, the power they generate must still be distributed throughout the inland areas serviced by the plant via a transmission grid system. The distribution of the energy across vast inland spaces presents formidable problems. This would make it extremely difficult to replace the existing energy infrastructure, and our entire electricity needs could never be met by tidal power alone."Worldwide, approximately 3000 gigawatts(1 gigawatt = 1 GW = 1 billion watts) of energy is continuously available from the action of tides. Due to the constraints outlined above, it has been estimated that only 2% or 60 GW can potentially be recovered for electricity generation." Despite tidal power's inability to replace conventional energy sources, it will not be dismissed in the near future. Britain , India , and North Korea have planned to supplement their grid with this renewable energy source. Meanwhile, "a university study in January [1998] said New Zealand could become the first country in the world to run solely on fossil fuel-free power if it exploited the tides on its long coastlines as well as its plentiful wind and sunshine. But while the wind may not constantly blow and the sun may not shine 24 hours a day, the advantage of the tides is that they never cease."Wave Energy,like tidal power, will always be available, but there are current constraints that limit its contribution to the electrical grid. Areas with the strongest winds will produce the highest concentrations of wave power a low-frequency energy that can be converted to a 60-Hertz frequency. The best areas are on the eastern sides of the oceans (western side of the continents) between the 40 and 60 latitudes in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The waters off California and the UK are regarded as the best potential sites. " California 's coastal waters are sufficient to produce between seven and 17 MW per mile of coastline."There are several drawbacks of wave energy.While the "wave power at deep ocean sites is three to eight times the wave power at adjacent coastal sites," constructing and mooring the site and transmitting the electricity to shore would be prohibitively costly. Especially considering that "a wave power unit will probably not have much more than three times the output of a single wind turbine." Once in place, the device could be a dangerous obstacle to navigational craft that cannot see or detect it on radar, while fishermen may have trouble with the underwater mooring lines. Conversely, an onshore wave energy system or offshore platform would have a significant visual impact. Scenic views would be replaced by industrial activity.Wave energy has received little attentionin comparison to other renewable sources of energy. Though 12 broad types of wave energy systems have been developed combinations of fixed or moveable, floating or submerged, onshore or offshore s cientists have not fully investigated this technology. "Many research and development goals remain to be accomplished, including cost reduction, efficiency and reliability improvements, identification of suitable sites in California, interconnection with the utility grid, better understanding of the impacts of the technology on marine life and the shoreline. Also essential is a demonstration of the ability of the equipment to survive the salinity and pressure environments of the ocean as well as weather effects over the life of the facility." Even a successfully built and operated wave power facility could not provide extra power for peak demand, nor would it be a reliable source of energy.There is a handful of wave energy demonstration plantsoperating worldwide, but none produces a significant amount of electricity. Projects have been discussed for various sites in California San Francisco, Half Moon Bay , Fort Bragg , and Avila Beach but no firm plans have been made. While government agencies in Europe and Scandinavia are sponsoring research and development, "wave energy conversion is not commercially available in the United States . The technology is in the early stages of development and is not expected to be available within the near future due to limited research and lack of federal funding."Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)seems to be a promising source of renewable, non-polluting energy for the future. The oceans comprise over two-thirds of the earth's surface, meaning they collect and store an enormous amount of solar energy. The raw numbers show that if even 0.1% of this stored energy could be tapped, the output would be 20 times the current daily energy demands of the United States .Ocean thermal energy conversionexploits the temperature gradient between the varying depths of the ocean, requiring at least a 36F difference from top to bottom, as is found in tropical regions. This difference in temperature is the "heat engine" for a thermodynamic cycle. There are three types of OTEC designs: open cycle, closed cycle, and hybrid cycle. In an open cycle, seawater is the working fluid. Warm seawater is evaporated in a partial vacuum, expanding through a turbine connected to an electrical generator. The steam then passes through a condenser that uses cold seawater from the depths of the ocean, and the result is desalinated water that can be used for other purposes. New seawater is used in the next cycle. In a closed cycle, a low boiling point liquid such as ammonia or refrigerant is used as the working fluid, vaporized by warm seawater. After expanding through a turbine connected to an electrical generator, cold seawater is used to condense the vapor back into a liquid to start the process again. A hybrid cycle combines the two processes, in which flash-evaporated seawater creates steam, which in turn vaporizes a working fluid in a closed cycle. The vapor from the working fluid powers the turbine while the steam is condensed for desalinated water, as in an open system. The hybrid system continues to process seawater and produce electricity.OTEC taps energyin a consistent fashion, producing what "is probablythemost environmentally friendly energy available on the planet today." Unfortunately, the realization of this promising potential is largely experimental in nature for the time being. In fact, the only ocean thermal energy conversion plant in the U.S. was an experimental facility the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELHA), which was closed at the end of a successful test in 1998.The technology is still far from being developedto an extent to make this type of innovation viable as a widespread alternative energy source. The facility in Hawaii , for instance, produced the highest amount of electricity to date with a 210 kW open-cycle OTEC experimental facility that operated from 1992 to 1998. When considering the capacity of conventional combustion turbines, ranging from a typical output of 25 MW to a maximum 220 MW, this technology is not even in the running. It is most applicable on small islands that depend on imported fuels. This system would render an island more self-sufficient while improving the sanitation and nutrition standards, with an abundance of desalinated water that could be used to grow aquaculture products.It will be some time before OTEC technologyis in a position to partially phase out the use of fossil fuels. The location limitations stall any worldwide progress, and the ability of the technology to produce the quantity of energy needed to supply the world energy demands is still largely theoretical.Nuclear fusionhas been called "the Holy Grail of the energy field." It is the diametrically opposite process of nuclear fission, in which an atom of the heavy isotope Uranium-238 is split in a collision with an accelerated neutron, releasing some of the energy from inside the atom. Fusion involves combining light atoms, which releases an enormous amount of energy. The waste product of this reaction is helium and it is precisely this process which fires most stars, in particular our sun. "Fusion is attractive as an energy source because of the virtually inexhaustible supply of fuel, the promise of minimal adverse environmental impact, and its inherent safety."The atoms fused togetherin a reaction are not ordinary hydrogen atoms that contain only one proton in the nucleus. They are the heavy isotopes of deuterium or tritium that contain one or two neutrons along with the protons in their nucleus. These isotopes are somewhat rare in nature "about one part [deuterium] in 6000 is found in ordinary water" but the technology exists to isolate them in great abundance.The fundamental problem with traditional nuclear fusionis that the fuel, the heavy hydrogen, must be raised to over one hundred million degrees. At such a tremendous temperature, the electrons are stripped away from the heavy hydrogen atoms leaving a fully ionized state called "plasma." This plasma must then be held together in order to produce useful amounts of electricity. There are no known construction materials that can withstand such temperatures, so the plasma must be contained by magnetic or inertial confinement. "Magnetic confinement utilizes strong magnetic fields, typically 100,000 times the earth's magnetic field, arranged in a configuration to prevent the charged particles from leaking out (essentially a 'magnetic bottle'). Inertial confinement uses powerful lasers or high energy particle beams to compress the fusion fuel."Another fundamental problem with hot fusionrevolves around "whether a fusion system producing sufficient net energy gain to be attractive as a commercial power source can be sustained and controlled." While fusion power production has increased from less than one watt to over 10 million watts over the years, we still have yet to witness a net energy gain. Even if this were to be achieved in the near future, the metallurgical requirements that must be met by the surrounding structural materials are extremely demanding and cost prohibitive. Accomplishing a net energy gain in hot fusion will involve the construction of a $1 billion device for experimenting with burning plasma. Add to this the estimate of $300 million per year that the fusion community in the US will require for "significant enhancements of the program" up from the current $230 million. The US is not alone in its fusion expenditure. Concerned about reliance on imported energy, Japan and Europe, respectively, have allotted 1.5 and 3 times the budget that the US currently spends for hot fusion.The incredible complexity and costof this process is the precis