RELIGION IN A GLOBAL

CONTEXT

India

Globalisation has brought rapid economic

growth and has seen India become important

in politics and prosperous.

Nanda examines the role of Hinduism in

legitimating the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra

nationalism’ and the prosperity of the middle

class.

Hinduism and Consumerism

Globalisation created a prosperous, urban, scientifically

educated middle class. These are the people

secularisation theorists predicted would abandon religion

first. But, Nanda observes this class continue to believe in

the supernatural.

The Centre for the Study of Developing societies found (30%

of) Indians are becoming more religious. It also found that

“urban educated Indians are more religious than their rural

and illiterate counterparts”.

Nanda notes it is becoming fashionable to be

religious. The religious middle class are also

attracted to what were once low status village

Gods and Goddesses who the poor

worshipped. This is because these deities are

seen as being more responsive to peoples

needs.

Nanda examines what motivates the

sophisticated, urban middle class to believe in

miracles and supernatural beings. She rejects

poverty or existential security as they aren’t poor

and that religiosity is a defence against

modernisation and Westernisation. The Indian

middle class are optimistic about what

globalisation brings them. She argues their

increasing religiosity is the result of their

ambivalence about their new wealth.

This ambivalence stems from tension between

the traditional Hindu belief of renunciation of

materialism and wordly-desires and the new

prosperity of the middle class. This is resolved

by the modern holy men and TV gurus to

whom they turn and who preach the message

that desire is not bad, but a manifestation of

divinity that motivates people to do things.

Similarly, they dispense business-friendly versions of

Hinduism and take the edge off guilt by teaching

middle class consumerism can be ‘spiritually

balanced’ by paying for the performance of

appropriate (and extravagant) rituals.

Modern versions of Hinduism therefore legitimate

the position of the middle class and allow them to

adjust to globalised consumer capitalism.

Hindu Ultra-Nationalism

Nanda looks at the role of Hinduism in

legitimating a triumphant version of Indian

nationalism.

The Pew Global Attitude found 93% agreed with:

“Our people aren’t perfect but our culture is

superior to others”

This percentage is higher than any other

country.

Nanda notes India’s success in the global

market is increasingly attributed to the

superiority of ‘Hindu values’ which the media

promote and the idea that Hinduism is the

essence of Indian culture and identity.

In this Hindu ‘ultra nationalism’, the worship of

Hindu Gods has become the same as

worshipping the nation of India; Hinduism has

become a civil religion.

But, she notes this is creating a widening gulf between

Hindu and non-Hindu minorities. Hinduism also

penetrated public life, so that the supposedly secular

state is increasingly influenced by religion. ‘Hindu

sciences’ (e.g. Astrology) are being taught in education

and are being used to predict natural disasters; the

Ministry of Defence is sponsoring research into weapons

with magical powers (mentioned in ancient Hindu texts);

the Health Ministry is investing in research into cow

urine as a cure for every ailment (cows are sacred in

Hinduism)

East Asia

The success of capitalism in East Asia led some

sociologists to argue religion played a similar role to

Calvinism in its development. Redding sees the spirit of

capitalism amongst Chinese entrepreneurs in tiger

economies as having ‘post-Confucian’ values which

encourage hard-work, self-discipline and commitment to

education and improvement. The effect of this value

system is that it leads to economic productivity and the

accumulation of Capital.

Pentecostalism in Latin America

Berger argues Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a ‘functional equivalent’ to Weber’s Protestant ethic. That is, it encourages the development of capitalism (like Calvinism). He concludes Pentecostalism has a strong affinity with modern capitalism. Berger agrees it is necessary to promote economic development and raise society out of poverty. This process can be led by an active minority with this-wordly ascetism.

Pentecostalism: Global & Local

Lehmann distinguishes between two phases in

the Pentecostalism expansion

1st Christianity accompanies colonisation

and was imposed on the indigenous

populations by conquest, often forcibly

suppressing local religions

2nd it has spread as it gained a popular

following from below

Lehmann attributes the success of Pentecostalism as a global religion in part to its ability to ‘plug into’ and incorporate local beliefs. It preaches a similar message worldwide, but uses symbolism and imagery drawn from local cultures and existing beliefs. It creates new local religious forms, rather than replacing existing ones. It appeals to the poor and uses global communication to spread its message.

Religion and the ‘clash of civilisations’

Huntington (neo-conservative) thinks conflicts such as

9/11 have intensified since the collapse of communism

in 1989 and are symptoms of the ‘clash of civilisations’.

He identifies 7 civilisations

Western

Latin America

Confucian

Japanese

Islamic

Hindu

Slavic-Orthodox

Each civilisation has a common cultural background and

history and is closely identified with one of the world’s

great religions.

Shared religion creates social cohesion within

civilisations but can cause conflict between them.

Religious differences have become a source of identity...

With the fall of communism, political differences between nations

have become less important as a source of identity

Globalisation has made nation-states less significant as a source of

identity, creating a gap that religion has filled

It also makes contact between civilisations easier and more

frequent, increasing the likelihood of old conflicts re-emerging

In Huntington’s view, religious differences are creating a

new set of hostile ‘us and them’ relationships with

increased competition between civilisations for

economic and military power. He sees religious

differences as harder than political ones to resolve as

they are deeply rooted in culture and history.

Huntington sees History as a struggle of ‘progress against

barbarism’. He believes the West is under threat and

predicts growing conflict between ‘the West and the

rest’. He fears the emergence of new anti-Western

military alliances and urges the West to reassert its

Christian identity.

Criticisms

Jackson sees his work as an example of Orientalism –a western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations and people as untrustworthy and inferior.

Casanova argues he ignores important religious divisions with the ‘civilisations’

Horrie and Chippindale see the ‘clash of civilisations’ as a grossly misleading neo-conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy. In reality, only a tiny minority of Muslims are remotely interested in a ‘holy war’ against the West.

Armstrong argues hostility towards the West doesn’t stem from Fundamentalist Islam but is a reaction to Western foreign policy.

The Real Clash of Civilisations?

Using data from the World Values survey, Inglehart and Norris

conclude the issue that divides the West from the Muslim world is

sexuality, not democracy. There are great differences in attitudes

when it comes to abortion, gender equality, divorce and gay rights;

Western attitudes are liberal whilst Muslim’s are traditional.

Inglehart and Norris comment that in the last decade, democracy has

become the political ideology to gain global appeal. But, there is no

global agreement about self-expression values. In their view, ‘these

divergent values constitute in the real clash of civilisations between

Muslin societies and the West’