Religion and Sport Development in New Zealand (1893-1946)
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Transcript of Religion and Sport Development in New Zealand (1893-1946)
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A study of the impact of engagement with religious institutions andsporting activities on social cohesion in New Zealand between 18931946
Dion Karepa Lucre
This dissertation is submitted in part-fulfilment of the MSC in Development
Economics
Birmingham University
Birmingham Business School
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4
2. Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 6
Economic Policies ............................................................................................................. 6
Geography......................................................................................................................... 8
New Zealand Wars & Colonial Growth Strategies ............................................................ 10
Institutions ....................................................................................................................... 12
Informal Institutions: Religion and Sports ......................................................................... 13
Religion and New Zealand ............................................................................................... 16
Religion and Neuroscience .............................................................................................. 18
Sports .............................................................................................................................. 20
Sporting Neuroscience .................................................................................................... 23
Analysing Institutional Development ................................................................................ 25
CHAPTER TWO
3. Methodology and Method ............................................................................................. 27
Quantitative Data collection: ............................................................................................ 29
Qualitative Sampling Rationale: ....................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER THREE
4. Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 31
How did Religion and Sport impact New Zealand? .......................................................... 31
Population Cohesion and Growth Analysis ...................................................................... 35
Urban Church Attendance Analysis ................................................................................. 40
Urban Sporting Analysis .................................................................................................. 45
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New Zealands Religion and Sporting Development ............................................................ 52
Religion and Sporting Development Framework.............................................................. 55
CHAPTER FOUR
5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 56
6. Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 59
7. Figures ......................................................................................................................... 60
9. References. ................................................................................................................. 62
12. Appendices ................................................................................................................... 68
12.1 Quantitative Analyses Calculations .......................................................................... 68
12.3 Government Finances ............................................................................................. 70
12.4 Demographic Figures .............................................................................................. 74
12.6 Urban Working Male ................................................................................................ 76
12.7 Regression Data: Urban Church Attendance ........................................................... 82
12.7 Regression Data: Urban Sports Participation ........................................................... 84
10. News Paper Articles and Interviews ......................................................................... 86
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CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
This study will discuss the impact of engagement with religious institutions and
sporting initiatives on social cohesion in New Zealand between 1893 1946.
The rationale for the study relates to the lack of research into the correlation
between these two institutions and the consequent relationship with social
cohesion. It is hypothesised that engagement in these two different activities is
further correlated with pro-social behaviour.
A definition of the key concepts and the rationale for their use will preceded a
review of the relevant literature pertaining to economic growth and social
cohesion. The key factors which are considered to be significant for economic
growth will be explored, within the literature review.
Social cohesion refers to the bonds that bring society together; it is based onmaterial conditions such as employment, income, health, education and housing,which facilitate good relations between and within communities
http://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/social
Prosocial behaviour, or voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another is asocial behaviour that "benefits other people or society as a whole, such ashelping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering.
http://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htm
This dissertation will include the following chapters
Chapter OneLiterature Review
A thorough review of the key measurements of economic growth, revealed a
number of interconnected themes. These were economic policies, geography
and institutions, the focus of this research will be on two key institutions.
http://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/socialhttp://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/socialhttp://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htmhttp://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/policy/research/game-life/social -
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The rationale for this choice is linked to the neuro-scientific evidence which
supports the idea that engagement in affiliative activities such as religion and
sport promotes pro-social behaviour.
Chapter TwoMethodology and Method
This chapter will describe the use of a triangulation methodology to investigate
the development of pro-social behaviour. Data was collected using a primary
resource between 1893 1946 which created a time series trend for economic
initiatives relevant to religion and sports. Qualitative data was also gathered to
identify pro-social behaviour. An elasticity regression was utilised to identify
demand in relation to living standards.
Chapter ThreeAnalysis
The data was analysed to understand the correlations between legislation,
government expenditure, taxation and the development of religious and sporting
institutions.
Chapter FourConclusions and Recommendations
This study concludes that pro-social behaviour is clearly evident within these two
samples of the population. The economic impact of exogenous shocks makes
the exact causality of pro-social behaviour difficult to measure. This study
recommends that further research relating to the ratio between religion and sport
development could strengthen these preliminary findings.
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2. Literature Review
Economic Policies
Yanikkaya, (2002) investigated trade openness using a cross section of 100
developed and developing countries between 1970 and 1997. The measurement
of openness includes; telephone main lines and life expectancy as a proxy of
capital and human capital accumulation. However, Yanikkaya (2002) identified
that trade restriction within their study was positively related to growth, which it
was argued depends on economic circumstances.
Furthermore, Easterly & Levins (2003) study on openness to trade and by
disregarding capital account controls potential long-tern success can be
exhibited. In addition, and regarding religion Mangeloja, (2003) argues that
religion can improve trade openness by allowing trust to be established between
countries.
Mangeloja (2003) also highlighted the potential impact of religion on growth,
there has been little discussion, however, about the impact of informal
development of an economy. Although trade openness has an impact on growth,
surely openness must start within the economy itself before exceptional
international trade can be realised. Therefore, could religion and sport help the
population realise the benefits of regional and national openness. This question
and others will be debated systematically through the course of the literature.
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Hall and Jones (1999) discuss how institutions and government polices improved
output per worker. Their study ran regressions using a Cobb-Douglass model on
127 countries analysing measurement of social infrastructure. The measurement
of social infrastructure investigated government anti-diversion policies, law &
order, and government diversion of corruption and reputation.
Their key findings concurred with Endogenous Growth Theory regarding
correlations between educational attainment in relation to output and incomes. In
addition, Western influence was used as an instrument which identified that
European influence contributed to the degree of social infrastructure (Hall and
Jones 1999).
In addition, Glaseser, LaPorta, Lopez-De-Silanes & Shleifer, (2004) propose that
political institutions and human capital accumulation can also contribute to
growth. The key findings highlight that human and social capital can potentially
impact on the level of institutional productivity.
However, there has been little discussion of social activities such as religion and
sport that have been evident to some extent within every culture. It could also be
argued that these two activities were apparent before any modern economic
policy.
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Geography
Geography plays a pivotal role in the development of a countrys resources.
Gallup, Sachs and Mellinger (1999) ran a cross section regression, between
1950-1990, to identify the macro effects and geography. The research uses
education attainment, trade openness, quality of institutions, malaria index,
population density, coastal and inland, parameters across 29 countries.
The results identified that tropical locations were predominately poor and more
prone to diseases such as, malaria. Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson (2002)
label the tropics as the temperate drift hypothesis, which favoured these areas
at earlier stages of human development; however, technological changes in
agricultural techniques tend to favour cooler geographical locations (Gallup, et
el, 1999).
In addition, coastal economies had generally higher incomes than landlocked
economies. These variances were a result of the cost of transport, and proximity
to large markets. However, the impact of population density was inconclusive as
Australia and New Zealand were shown to have high incomes despite their
sparse population (Gallup, et el, 1999).
Gallup et al. (1999), discuss the effects of geography on economic policy
implementation. The study investigates the elasticity of output due to
international trade taxes. The results illustrate that coastal economies attach low
taxes and inland economies charge higher taxes (Easterly & Levine 2003).
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Easterly & Levine (2003) discuss how endowments can contribute to growth,
using; latitude, crops, minerals, landlocked, institutions, trade openness
exchange rate, inflation, religion, and settler mortality as an instrument. The
model highlights potential growth through the use of endowments.
Gallup et al (1999), propound the significance of geographical location to
understand global variances in wealth. However, Acemoglu et al (2002) proclaim
that geography alone may not always create growth, but that industrialisation
must also be apparent.
Greasley & Oxley (2010) also claim that high abundance of resources alone did
not increase incomes during 1861-1939 in New Zealand, but that farming
innovation through factory integration produced higher yields of output and
income accumulation.
The articles highlight potential measures of growth; however, they do not
highlight informal relationships and how they may have been established or
maintained. These informal relationships must have been essential in a country
were government institutions and basic infrastructure were at their infancy.
Therefore, could they have been established through engagement with religious
institutions and sporting activities?
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New Zealand Wars & Colonial Growth Strategies
There was evidence of warfare and discord in New Zealand before formal
colonisation amongst Maori tribes as early as 1810 with the introduction of
muskets. However, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, laying the
foundations of British colonialism triggering additional wars between Maori and
the British during 1845-1872. These wars were mainly triggered by the
confiscation of land (Yearbooks collection New Zealand).
Stenhouse, (1998) discusses religion and how Maori, Christians and European
Christians, argued against legislation and confiscation. Stenhouse, (1998) also
highlights the growing diversity of religious beliefs within the New Zealand
population which contributed to inter-colonial rifts.
In addition, Acemoglu et al, (2002) researched urbanisation from 1500 to 2000 of
European colonies. They identify that there has been a shift in levels of general
wealth in that countries that were relatively rich at that time are now viewed as
relatively poor.
Acemoglu et al, (2002) argue this reversal of fortune has resulted from the
types of economic policies implemented by the colonisers. However, the study
does not dispute the impact of geography that is illustrated by the location of the
wealthy nations, such as New Zealand, Australia and the United States as
opposed to Latin America.
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The conclusion of this study is based on extraction strategies compared with
property rights development. New Zealand falls into the property rights and
protection category where policy and government growth ensured the distribution
of wealth amongst citizens. Opposed to extraction strategies which restricted
wealth distribution and ultimately had a stifling impact on growth (Acemoglu et al,
2002).
Sokoloff & Stanley (2000) concur with the property rights hypothesis as it
ensures voting rights amongst citizens. Consequently, the development of
democracy and social participation has potentially contributed to the success of
richer nations (Sokoloff & Stanley, 2000).
Social participation benefits are argued by Alberto & La Ferrara, (2000), who
studied participation within heterogeneous communities within the United States.
Their findings highlight the impact of social interaction and the development of
trust and human capital externalities. Heterogeneity was evident not only
amongst the colonisers but also the Maori race.
Therefore, how has social cohesion continued after almost 70 years of war? The
potential answer may be identified through a discussion about institutions. The
concept of institutions must be outlined to understand relevance, types of
institutions, and how they play an integral part in the success of a developing
economy.
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Institutions
Institutions are the humanly devised constraints that structure political,
economicand social interactions (North, 1991: 97)
North, (1991) argues that institutions reduce the transaction cost of economic
and social exchange of agents, therefore ensuring the collective economic and
social gains of society.
Institutions create cohesion within an economically competitive environment.
Institutions, untangle the unpredictability of changing consumer choices,
changing production methods, and the social games surrounding these
environments (North, 1991).
North (2003) mentions formal rules, (the rules we abide by) the informal norms
(the culture which governs how we abide by rules) and the enforcers (the
referees that impose rule consistency). Therefore, how do you defined
institutional rules in relation to religion and sport?
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Organisation CBehaviourInstitutionalOutcomes B
Rules of theGame A
Informal Institutions: Religion and Sports
Soysa & Jutting, OECD, (2007) uses, Helmke & Levitsky (2003) definition for
informal institutions as:
Informal institutions are: a behavioural regularity based on socially-
shared rules, usually unwritten, that are created, communicated, and
enforced outside of officially-sanctioned channels (Soysa & Jutting ,
OECD, 2007: 3)
Helmke and Levitsky, (2004) describe the interaction of informal institutions as
complementary or accommodating when formal institutions are ineffective in
fulfilling the needs of the public, or substitutive and competing when citizens are
not satisfied.
Parlevliet, OECD, (2007: 44) defines Informal Institutions using the following model.
Institutions as Rules (A): These are the formal rules through law and order,
coupled with customs, traditions and social norms (Parlevliet, OECD, 2007).
Figure 1: Different Concepts of Institutions
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Institutions as Rules and Organisations (A+C) These particular Institutions follow
a common goal such as, education, law & order, trade regulation and so forth.
Boesen, OECD (2007) expands on this ideology, and incorporates rule based
governance which is enforced by the state and ideal for large advanced
economies.
Institutions as Rules and Behavioural Practices (A + B): These types of
Institutions promote the social and cultural needs of society. They help define the
overall culture of society and can be argued the connection between institutional
quality and geographic development.
Therefore, religion and sports fits within this section of the model. Religion and
sports develops the social and cultural image of a portion of the population
through informal rules. For example, the ideology of why the world exists and
how society should act according to religious beliefs, or the potential innate
human competitive compulsion through sport, can only be fully explored within
these environments.
In additions, Boesen, OECD (2007) ideology of relation-based governance
moulds into this type of informal model; where private and local information is
shared and effective in emerging economies such as New Zealand during the
time of investigation.
Furthermore, Williams (2009), framework captures the strength of formal and
informal institution interaction. The informal institution data captures culture
based on trust, respect, individual self-determination, and obedience.
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These potential personality traits are used to measure population interaction with
market production and entrepreneurship. The study investigates the early 1990s
and mid 2000s, where New Zealand scores high on reliance of informal
institutions (Williams, 2009). Therefore, were informal institutions like religion
and sport paramount within NZ during the time of investigation?
Alberto & La Ferrara, (2000) descriptive statistics illustrate that churches and
sports clubs were a significant parameter within the regression. However, these
two groups were not investigated in detail or discussed, if combined could
potentially contribute to cohesion and ultimately growth.
Finally, North (2003) identifies some potential shortfalls of Neo-classical theory
where rational economic agents make decisions based on income, budget
constraint and consumer or production choice. However, what sense will
economic agents makeof the information collected, and how will they act based
on this new information? North (2003) argues that these answers delve into
cognitive science.
Therefore, neurological science will be briefly discussed to understand the
potential sub-conscious actions of those engaged in religious and sport activity.
Incidentally, this will create an argument why these two samples of the NZ
population were potentially significant to study.
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Religion and New Zealand
Barro & McCleary, (2003) studied religious beliefs that could impact the social
motivations of economic growth. The study collects cross-country panel data on
church attendance and religious beliefs.
The key findings highlight that religious beliefs and church attendance has a
negative effect on economic growth. Barro & McCleary, (2003) highlight micro
economic theory, where more church attendance reduces economic activity,
therefore, connects agents substitution effects between leisure time (religion)
and income. Consequently, they discovered that church attendance increased
religious beliefs.
In addition, Mangeloja, (2003) identifies the positive and negative economic
outcomes of religion. Mentioned already, religion can increase the level of trust,
resulting in an open economy for foreign investment. Religion can encourage
thrift, therefore, increase the savings rate, healthier lives, less sinful lives,
abiding the formal rules therefore, potential economic growth.
Incidentally the potential negative results of religion were restriction on capital
accumulation, profit-making, credit markets, and church investments rather than
commercial developments.
Barro & McCleary, (2003) discuss how increases in religion supply increases
competition. Stenhouse, (1998) concur with this notion and was an apparent
phenomenon between the late 1800s and early to mid-1900s.
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OBrien, Sanders & Tennant, (2008) discuss religious institution development
such as, the Anglican Church in 1814, Wesleyans 1823, the Roman Catholic in
1838. Therefore, during the time under investigation (1893-1946), the number of
churches and attendance levels were very large. OBrien et al, (2008) note that
through the development of church infrastructure coupled with legislations, their
wider social cultural and sporting associations began to grow.
In addition, Troughton (2006) discussed the growth of Sunday schools as a
means of increasing religious education for 5-14 year olds. The peak of Sunday
school participation was between, 1896-1911 which ranged between, 65% and
69%. Beattie (2004) mention that scientific rationalism was challenging religious
beliefs during this period. However, religion was also used as an alternative to
scientific rationality.
Furthermore, charities developed via the 1856 Religious, Charitable and
Educational Trust Act, followed by the 1885, Hospitals and Charitable Institutions
Act, enabled separate institutions to be established to receive public subsidies,
which were primarily religious organisations (OBrien, et el, 2008).
Consequently, religious institutions would have been driven, by the increase in
competition for membership to apply for such grants and subsidies.
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Religion and Neuroscience
Sasaki, Kim, Mojaverian, Kelly, Park & Janusonis, (2013) references (Van Tol et
al, 1992) that certain DRD4 (dopamine) gene, can contribute to risk-taking
behaviour. Chen, Burton, Greenberger & Dmitrieva, (1999) comment how
dopamine is one of the most important neurotransmitters in the brain. Although,
the DRD4 is still not really understood, recent research has uncovered potential
links with personality traits. Sasaki et al, (2013) investigates; pro-social
behaviour which describes the imposition of beliefs through sociable behaviour.
The 2 types of DRD4 variation act differently, for example, 4-repeat alleles, tend
to exhibit higher levels of dopamine, therefore are prone to pro-social behaviour
without intervention, whereas the 2- or 7 repeat alleles, participate as a result of
pressure to do so. Nevertheless, DRD4 coupled with an external environment to
act pro-social, increases the probability of this type of behavioural pattern
(Sasaki, et el, 2013).
Therefore, our genetic coding can help explain why some people act differently
under certain environments than others. Consequently, regarding religion,
hormones can trigger a heighted reaction to the religious teachings. Incidentally,
this forces the member to engage in the wider community in search of followers.
In addition, an argument can be proclaimed that this behaviour exhibits
similarities to a utility maximising agent, and a fundamental capitalist trait.
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In support of the argument that genetics can potentially contribute to pro-social
behaviour, Chen et al, (1999) study investigates 2,320 people from 39 different
populations to establish how DRD4 has migrated. Within this study macro
migration is also investigated through the study of archaeology and historical
linguistics over the past 1000-30000 years. In addition, micro-migration
investigated more recent years with particular reference to survival strategies.
Their findings indicate migratory societies tend to have the DRD4 gene. This
could be accounted for by natural selection, the environment where conditions of
survival require exploration of new environments. Consequently, risk-taking,
hyperactivity, and novelty-seeking personality traits may emerge as a
consequence of exploring new environment. Caucasian and Polynesian races
were amongst those sampled (Chen et al, 1999).
Therefore, during that period, New Zealand was strongly populated by migratory
people. Incidentally, this may have increased the probability of pro-social
behaviour. Furthermore, during this period pro-social behaviour would have been
necessary to develop an undeveloped country.
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Sports
OBrienet al, (2008) comprehensive study of New Zealands Non-profit sector,
highlights the Wellington Cricket Club (1842) and Wellington Horse Racing Club
of (1842), which were predominately frequented by wealthy individuals, as the
first registered sporting clubs.
Horse racing would become the first sporting event where totalizer taxation is
exhibited within a portion of the period under investigation. In addition, land
ownership and development of land has been identified as a growth strategy.
Therefore, horse racing may have also served a purpose of creating farming
competition, therefore, improving the production of farms.
Rugby began to grow from 1892 where the majority of participants came from
the working class. Maori participation in sport was evident, via the 1888-89
Rugby New Zealand native tour (Nauright, 1999). OBrienet al, (2008) mentions
that fixtures of sport through competition membership and rules began to
emerge. The Maori community were also participating through tribal
competitions. Consequently, amusement taxation was created in 1919 as a
result of the demand for amusement, which was also attributed to sport
spectatorship (Yearbook 1919).
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John Nauright (1999) quotes Crawford (1999) discussion by the Otago Rugby
Union;
If employers of labor wish to keep good servants, it is their duty to
provide means of recreation after the toils of the day are over (Crawford :
1999:9 )
This quote describes employers drive to increase sports and recreation
participation as a means of encouraging productivity amongst employees.
However, it can also be argued that sport helped maintained social cohesion in
tandem with traditional law and order.
Sport became a focus for government intervention with the development of the
1909 English Board of Education, which insisted that physical education was
taught within schools. The results identified that by 1916 out of 2,255 schools
1,606 schools taught 135,000 students physical education (Yearbook 1916).
According to Grannt & Pope (2007) the demand for sport was then required
sport training after school hours.
Consequently, by 1926, an estimated 110,000 (7.9% of the population were
actively involved in a sport which was dominated by rugby participation
(Yearbook 1926). Recent figures indicate that 68% of the adult population do at
least 2.5 hours of sport a week (NZCT, 2012).
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Therefore, rugby values were being established and potentially socially
accepted, which can be expressed by the following:
The game was routinely and explicitly held up as a symbol of desirable
social order with its stress on captaincy, team spirit, not letting the side
down and fair play (Crawford : 1999:9 )
The sporting agenda was taken forward by government via the 1937 Physical
Welfare and Recreation Act. The act would mandate grants given to voluntary
organisations promoting, physical training, sport and recreation. OBrien et al,
(2008) & Grannt & Pope (2007) discuss the 1937 Act, which triggered the
Thomas report of 1942. The result made physical education compulsory up to
year 11 by 1946. The Department of Education established School Councils,
Physical Education Officers & School of Physical Education to train specialist
teachers.
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Sporting Neuroscience
Pepping & Timmermans (2012) note that oxytocin encourages positive prosocial
behaviour and that there has been little published research about the potential
correlation between oxytocin and sport.
Pepping & Timmermans (2012) mentions Parkinson (1996) who emphasises the
impact on the individual of observing emotional reactions in others, in that it can
have an impact on the observers emotional state.Therefore spectators of sport
could potentially feel the same emotions as participants.
Pepping & Timmermans (2012) studies, illustrate three sets of emotional state
which are often associated with engaging in sporting activity;
Empathy is used to understand the actions of your team players or opposition.
Pepping & Timmermans (2012) mention Barraza & Zak (2009) studies which
identified that viewing empathy can increase natural oxytocin levels.
Trust, Generosity, and Altruism, is studied to understand the impact of oxytocin.
Mimic behaviour is evident in sport, particularly team sport, which the research
identified increased team cohesion where natural levels of oxytocin would be
released. These emotions were tested with a placebo and oxytocin effect, which
identified that oxytocin, increased these emotions positively.
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Envy and gloating, are other behavioural patterns of sport. A placebo and
oxytocin was administered which identified an increase in envy and gloating as a
result of a positive outcome.
It must be noted the neuroscience literature used for religion and sports only
touches on the topic and is no means a critical analysis of the literature. The
proclaimed genetics were potentially exhibited by the overall population due to
the native and colonisers were historically from migratory societies. In addition,
NZ is geographically based in the South West pacific and is a rugged
environment; therefore, constant exploration and obvious war was necessary for
survival.
Therefore, this area of academic research is pertinent to form an argument that
these hormones are created as a result of genetics and heighted due to social
and geographical environments. As a consequence, potentially, individual pro-
social behaviour may have been increased resulting in social cohesion
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Analysing Institutional Development
Soysa & Jutting, OECD, 2007) compile a framework which identifies the complex
interactions between institutions and development.
A:explains the external factors, such as early intertribal and colonial wars in NZ,
the great depression and 1stand 2ndWorld Wars.
B1: explains the formal institutions which create policy to promote growth, such
as, the, Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1937 Physical Welfare and
Recreation Act, and Totalizer and Amusement Taxation.
A. External Factors:Culture, Identity, regarding History, Geography
E.AgencyPolitics
GovernmentCivil societyIndividuals,
etc
B1. Formal InstitutionsConstitutions, Property
Rights, Political Institutionsetc.
Good,Property rights, ConflictResolution, Social Trust,
etc
Bad,Ineffective property rights,
Conflict , Social distrust, etc
D. Development Outcome
C.Institutional Outcome
Enforced by the State
B2. Informal InstitutionsSocial Norms, Attitudes,Traditions Morals, etc.
Self-enforced
Good, Growth,Poverty reduction,Better livin etc..
Bad, War, Stagnation,Poverty, Famine, etc.
X
Figure 2: Analysing Institutions and Development (Soysa & Jutting , OECD, 2007: 34)
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B2: explains religious attendance or sport participation within the defined
informal institution environment. Therefore, pro-social and competitive
behaviour can be enjoyed either through participation or through spectatorship.
C: explains the development of institutions as a result of the relationship
between the informal and formal institution. The outcome of this interaction is the
development of religious initiatives such as, charities and Sunday schools or
sports taxation.
D: explains the development outcome as a result of formal and informal
development. An example is, the increased church attendance, or an increase in
the number of people participating in sport.
E: explains the formal institutional establishments, such as difference
governmental departments created to support economic and social
development.
This framework will form a template to input the research collected to identify
that religion and sport contributed to social cohesion.
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Chapter 2
3. Methodology and Method
This study has taken a triangulation research position due to the difficult time
frame and two sectors under investigation. Multiple sources of information will
illustrate greater understanding of the two sectors and their potential contribution
to social cohesion and growth.
Quantitative descriptive statistics will illustrate the changes, over the period, in
government expenditure within the two sectors. Therefore, hard evidence can be
compiled from financial figures to identify the possible promotion of religion and
sports. Consequently, the results may increase the scope and scale of these two
groups.
Time series regression will be used to identify potential relationships between
religion, sport and social cohesion (Gujarati & Porter 2010). This is a method to
identify the relationship between government spending on religion and sports
through the policies implemented. In addition, the changes in living standards
can be investigated to understand their impact on the urban population s
demand for religion and sport.
Therefore, this demonstrates the rationale for choosing these two methods to
investigate the research question. The statistical evidence reduces the margin
for flawed interpretation. This methodology also allows for the exploration of the
potential cause and impact of government intervention on pro-social behaviour.
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However time series has some potential restrictions. Hay & Mc Cleary (1980)
suggest that time-series is better suited to identify structural changes rather than
incremental change. The social impact due to the economic changes cannot
always be quantified.
Consequently, qualitative research via newspaper articles and interviews will be
used. Through a simple method extrapolated by textual analysis, the social
impact of religion and sports can be analysed for deeper understanding. Travers,
(2001) propounds the richness of research that can be identified through the
study of documents. However Fairclough (2003) identifies the challenges of
analysing documents and speech.
Social agents are not free agents they are socially constrained, but nor
are their actions totally socially determined (Fairclough 2003: 22)
Therefore, Fairclough (2003) highlights the grouping of themes to provide a more
accurate social picture of the text. These are described as follows: text used to
target a particular audience, language used, and the social environment the text
has been written for.
Mineshima (2009) illustrates the use of themes within text to organise the
meaning of text in a coherent format. The text would be organised into topical
themes that create meaning such as behavioural, cognitive and verbal
expressions. A similar process will be used to identify pro-social behaviour
within newspapers and interviews which are pertinent to these two sectors.
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Method
Descriptive statistics will be used to highlight spending allocated to
religion, and sports through legislation that contributed to social cohesion.
Followed by, elasticity regressions for each sector to identify demand.
Each regression will be supported by the descriptive statistics and
qualitative research collected.
Finally, the research will be compiled into an institutional development
framework to fully understand environment.
Quantitative Data collection:
The New Zealand Yearbook: 1893-2012 has been used to collect annual data
from 1893-1947. Descriptive statistics pertinent to the research question has
been extrapolated. All data is collected annually.
Qualitative Sampling Rationale:
Newspaper articles from 3 major cities such as, Auckland, Otago, or Canterbury,
will be collected. Saturday papers will be collected or a significant date, such as,
World Wars and Great Depression. Within this research a church minister
preaching pro-social behaviour, and sport participant discussing pro-social
behaviour has been captured.
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Descriptive statistics on government intervention that is significant to religion and
sports will be illustrated and supported by relevant additional material. In
addition, social cohesion will be analysed to understand if this phenomenon was
evident and perhaps contributed to growth.
Following this process religion attendance will be further investigated and
regressed against controls for the urban male earner. The purpose of this
analysis is to understand the elasticity of church attendance relating to significant
living standards. In addition, sport participation will be investigated, and a
fictitious regression will be performed to understand the elasticity of sport
participation relating to significant living standards. The controlled parameters
are annual urban wage rate, annual urban cost of living, urban wealth and
overtime wages. Therefore, an argument can be evidenced that perhaps pro-
social behaviour was evident within the two groups of the population as literature
suggest.
The research will be compiled into the Institutions Development Framework to
understand any links between the two sectors that social cohesion was
promoted.
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Chapter 3
4. Analysis
How did Religion and Sport impact New Zealand?
Figure 3: Religion and Sport Expenditure
Figure 3 highlights potential religious initiatives promoted through the Hospital
and Charitable Institutions budget via the 1885 Hospitals and Charitable
Institutions Act. Potential religious based subsidised institutions were established
to support government intervention with improvement of public health, education
and social development (OBrien, et el, 2008).
During the 1900s charitable aid was predominately used for providing care for
the aging, in terms of hospital support either within the hospital or based at home
(Year book 1916). Therefore, an argument can be made that maintenance
provided to the elderly, enabled their children to continue with employment and
wealth generation.
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In addition, the support was also used for unemployment relief over the years
(Year book, 1935). Therefore, this describes pro-social behaviour which, it can
be argued, contributed to social cohesion.
ROMAN CATHOLIC REGISTERED PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1919 TO 1921
Year.Number ofSchools.
Roll at End of Year. Average YearlyAttendance.
Teachers.
Male. Female. Total.
.
Total.
1919 152 7,731 9,438 17,169 15,116 503
1920 159 8,322 9,868 18,190 15,973 525
1921 168 9,096 10,551 19,647 17,117 56
Table 1: Religious School Development (Yearbook, 1921)
The above table illustrates religious advancements into the educational public
policy spectrum which increases with population growth. The Education
Amendment Act 1921-22, ensured that all schools were established according to
national standards (Year book, 1923). Through the Physical Welfare and
Recreation Act 1937, voluntary leadership roles were created to support the
physical welfare officers, with the aim of promoting sport (Year book, 1945).
Therefore, a strong argument can be made that institutions with a faith affiliation
had significant influence on elements of the population. Whereby religious
institutions could promote religious and sporting activities concurrently,
Using figure 3, sporting initiatives were promoted through the Education and
Public Instruction budget, earlier by the 1909 English Board of Education and
later the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 (OBrien, et el, 2008) and
(Grannt & Pope 2007).
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Figure 4: Sport Participation Demand
In 1912 a physical education system was established to ensure physical
exercise was included in the syllabus of public school education. This initiative
also entailed the inspection of the physical health of primary school students
(Year book, 1916). Therefore, in 1916 135,000 students were taught physical
education which in turn increased demand for sport outside of the school
curriculum (Yearbook 1916) & to (Grannt & Pope 2007).
Consequently, the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 increased the
demand for sporting activities.
Physical welfare officers were used to implement national policy who also used
church youth sports clubs. In addition, a New Zealand sports council was
established who worked with provincial district sports councils.
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Figure 4, highlights the growing number of people exposed to sport. In addition,
figure 4 also, identifies the level of educational attainment that is highlighted in
the literature as a significant growth strategy.
Newspaper Article: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion
That all sports bodies in the county should be urged to carry on theirprogrammes as usual was an important recommendation carried at thefirst meeting of the Ellesmere District Committee set up under thePhysical Welfare and Recreation Act(Ellesmere,P2,1939 Issue71: 1-4)
This clearly demonstrates the passion for sport participation within the Ellesmere
District even during WW2. In addition, the promotion of the Physical Welfare and
Recreation Act (PWRA) 1937 and the strength all bodies engaged in sport under
the PWRA 1937.
The data shows that sport increased through schools via huge capital
investments and legislation. Consequently, it could be tentatively argued that
particular genes linked to prosocial behaviour may have been neurologically
encouraged. Therefore, creating a link between constant sport participation,
increased pro-social behaviour and social cohesion.
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Population Cohesion and Growth Analysis
Figure 5: Population Cohesion
Alberto & La Ferrara, (2000) argued participation in heterogeneous communities,
are needed for trust and relationship building within mixed communities
illustrated by figure 5. Furthermore, figure 5 highlights interracial relationships
and cohabitation, which can be linked to social cohesion (Yearbook, 1893-
1946).
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Figure 6: Total Trade
Newspaper Article: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion
New Zealanders have taken a great and noble part in the war, and it is tobe hoped they will take a great and noble part in working for social,industrial and political progress(NZ, Herald,Sup, P1,1918 Issue 17009:
7-9)
It could be argued that NZsparticipation in the war developed a sense of cross-
cultural identity. Soysa & Juttings OECD, (2007) institutional development
framework argued that exogenous shocks such as war can galvanise cultural
norms.
Figure 6, illustrates a trend in total trade which is a measurement of export and
imports. The trend moves up and then down during WW1, but significantly
increases in the two years following the end of WW1.
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Newspaper Article: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion
The idea that all dark skins are of a race innately lower, in the sense ofbeing unfit for progress and civilisation, is an idea born of imperialinsolence, an inhuman religion and a narrow conception of humanprogress(NZ, Herald,P4,1945 Issue 25298: 6-9)
This illustrates a shift in the ideology within New Zealands imperial history.
Participation of non-British nationals during the 1st and 2nd WW, against the
British enemies possibly served to shift British imperial views. It is possible that
as a result of this cultural shift, trade openness could have improved during the
years that followed.
Mangeloja, (2003) and Easterly & Levins (2003) highlight trade openness as a
factor contributing to growth. Therefore, a potential earlier argument has some
evidence that social openness must start domestically before real international
trade can be realised.
In addition, this article highlights the social effects of WW2, which again can be
argued created a significant push for domestic social cohesion. This notion is
further evidenced by figure 6 which illustrates a correlating trend. If domestic
production increased as a result of war, then one can assume that society
amalgamated to increase production capacity, which again could link to the need
for prosocial behaviour. Further analysis of the data would be required to provide
evidence of this possible correlation.
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Figure 7: Urban Male Living Standards
Figure 7 illustrates pertinent correlations with urban male living standards and
the shocks of the two world wars. Estimated urban male overtime and average
wage rate had jumped during both world wars but more significantly during
WW2.
However, the wage rate illustrates a steady increase over time regardless of
economic shocks. Therefore, this trend could have also been a result of
educational attainment which is evidenced by figure 4, which illustrates a steady
increase in primary to university education. Education attainment was identified
by Hall and Jones (1999) and Easterly & Levin (2003) as a contributing
correlation for growth.
In addition, the cost of living shows correlations with the wars highlighting
potential effects of inflation due to increased production. Urban wealth is
measured by the difference of deposits and withdraws illustrating a saving rate
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trend. Therefore, correlations can be argued that the world war increased
production, which again could link with a need for social cohesion and
cooperation.
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Urban Church Attendance Analysis
Figure 8: Estimated Church Attendance
Churches in early creation of government were given land as endowments.
(Yearbook, 1893) Therefore, an argument can be pertained that churches had
political influence. Figure 8 has been fabricated from 1930 onwards but would
illustrate a trend of church attendance based on averages from 1930. Church
attendance, therefore pro-social behaviour, would have been promoted through
Sunday schools, church youth clubs, church based private schools and actual
churches. Therefore, the graph highlights a fairly valid trend.
Church Attendance Preaching: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion
The aborigines of any country will tell you a story of an expected
deliverer, in whose coming the tribal debauchment, shall be obliterated,with whose coming the night, of savage ignorance shall be dead, and themorning birth of civilized power be theirs(Press, P2, 1893 Issue 8375: 10-13)
This illustrates pro-social behaviour in two forms, informing the colonisers that
colonisation is good, and promoting economic growth will create a civilised
strong country. In addition, Helmke and Levitsky, (2004) argue that informal
institutions can support developing cultural norms.
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Therefore, due to predicted trends illustrated by figure 8, churches arguably
helped with the development of social cohesion.
Figure 9: Church Heterogeneity: (1916 Yearbook)
News Paper Article: Pro-Social Theme promoting cohesion
We shall reach mutual respect and co-operation when one denominationsees itself as one hand nailed by its traditions, to the cross and otherdenominations as another had; likewise nailed to the Cross, but eachones a vital part of that One Body, whose' Head is crowned with thorns
(Waiapu Church, P2,1944,Issue 11: 30-33)
This passage was used to describe the growing competition between church
institutions. Heterogeneity of churches is evidenced by the literature of Barro &
McCleary, (2003) whose work also indicates the increase in competition between
religious institutions. It highlights social cohesion by informing readers that
churches follow a common goal.
News Paper Article: Theme showing link between politics and religion
He thinks the time is now ripe for a new interpretation of his life andmessage which shall be broad enough both to socialise the preaching ofthe Church and to spiritualise the policy of the Labour unions. (Press,P16, 1914 Issue 15035: 19-21)
0%5%
10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%
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This article highlights the growing interest of securing the religious vote and the
religious institutions political strength. This is evidenced by early religious
ministers within in New Zealand parliament (Yearbook 1918)
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Urban Church Attendance Regression (1893-1930)
Urban male contributions to the household were significantly greater than
females for this period. Therefore, the living standard paramenters are used
based on figures collected for urban men.
The purpose of this regression is to identify the elasticity of church attendance at
10-18% due to changes in the urban males living standards. Therefore, if church
attendance continued, then it could be argued, that pro-social behaviour was
evident amongst this sample of the population. However, due to data restriction
after 1930, the regression cannot account for changes after this period.
Growth t-valuep
ValueCoefficient
Transformation10% Increase in
XUrban Church Attendance Mean (Y) 12.2487%
Coefficient
Urban Annual Wage Rate 2.51517 7.99 0.0000 12.36% in Y 10.9 % n Y
Urban Cost of Living -1.40312 -4.19 0.0002 -0.24% in Y -5.7 %in Y
Urban Annual Wealth -0.572923 -10.9 0.0000 - 44% in Y -2.4 % in YUrban Overtime Wages 0.0154508 2.17 0.0372 1.01% in Y% 0.06 % in Y
no. of observations 38
no. of parameters 4
Table 2: Church Demand Regression
Interpretation of Results (View appendix for formula)
All parameters are significant illustrated by the t-value and p-value. The
coefficient transformation column illustrates the following effect on church
attendance elasticity. Over the period wages can account for an estimated 12%
increase in attendance. However, if wages increased by 10%, and fixing other
parameters, attendance would have increased by 10.9%
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In addition, the cost of living over this period had a marginal effect on attendance
However, if this cost increased at 10%, fixing other parameters at current effects,
attendance would only reduce by 2.4%. The estimated wealth had a large effect
on attendance. This can be illustrated by the large fall in wealth during the great
depression (Figure 7). However, fixing other variables and increasing the wealth
(savings rate) by 10% would only reduce attendance by 2.4%. Furthermore,
overtime earnings during this period seemed to have a small effect on
attendance.
Due to the multicollinearity nature of the controlled parameters, an increase 0f
10% of one would most likely change another. However, to what effect cannot be
fully predicted with this model. An estimate could be argued that an overall
increase of 10% based on the signs of the coefficients (wage rate + overtime)
(cost of living + wealth) a 2.86% increase may have resulted. This is a small
effect based on significant issues pertaining to the living standards of this sample
of the population.
Therefore, church attendance must have been a significant activity regardless of
living standards. This phenomenon then contributes to the idea that DRD4 may
have been evident amongst the New Zealand population. Incidentally, the
economic shocks potentially increased normal levels of DRD4.
In conclusion, research illustrates the growing impact of religious institutions; for
example, Sunday schools, religious schools and church youth clubs. Therefore,
this supports the argument that pro-social behaviour must have been apparent
and contributed to social cohesion.
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Urban Sporting Analysis
Horse Racing Sector
Figure 10: Horse Racing Sector
Horse racing clearly has a long history in New Zealand evidenced by figure 10.
Data relates to exports supports the reliance on agriculture (Yearbook 1945).
Therefore, a sport to promote this sector must have been beneficial for farmers
as well as government.
Although racing days have been fairly static between 250-300 a year, totalizer
investments and taxation have not. Figure 10 clearly shows an increase in the
level of investment over time and there is a link between this investment and the
increase in demand for this sport. It is difficult to establish reversal causality in
this case.
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There is a similar trend illustrated by totalizer investments and tax accumulation.
Tax was paid as a result of investments via the Stamp Duties Act which
fluctuated over the period between 10-5% (Yearbook, 1945). This could have
potentially driven up demand through an increase in potential winnings for
participants and spectators.
Sport Participation Interview: promoting prosocial behaviour
The gelding has been in training for about three years and in the face ofthe uncertainty surrounding him; most other people would have probablysold him. However, remarks Mr McDonald, I stuck to him because I
never give up on a horse, before I know he has been thoroughly well forhis work!(NZ, Herald,P7,1918 Issue 17009: 4-8)
This passage explicitly informs readers from a participator perspective the
perseverance of sporting endeavour. Therefore, this type of pro-social
behaviour is clearly apparent. The neuroscience highlights the effects of
witnessing emotions on pro-social behaviour. Therefore, heightened emotions of
spectators may have contributed to the increase in horse racing spectatorship.
Figure 11: Spectator Sporting Demand
Increases in spectator demand can be partly illustrated by the introduction of an
amusement tax. Amusement taxation, through the Amusement-tax act of 1917,
was also placed on sporting venues (Yearbook, 1945).
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News Paper Article: Theme for spectator demand
This year's Southland side, which holds the Ranfurly Shield, will playAuckland at Eden Park tomorrow afternoon and judging by thetremendous interest, which the match has created during the past few
weeks there should be another very large attendance at headquarters(NZ, Herald,P13,1939 Issue 23446: 4-7)
The passage indicates the development of the New Zealand domestic rugby
game. Therefore, domestic sporting competition was growing, Auckland is based
in the middle of the North Island and Southland in the far south of New Zealand.
Evidence of the growth in sport participation and spectatorship is located in the
sporting sections of newspapers (appendix, 10). Therefore, stronger
assumptions can be claimed that sporting venues contributed a large portion of
amusement taxation.
Figure 12: Sport Heterogeneity (Yearbook 1926)
The 1926 census shows the increase in participation in various sporting
activities. There were almost 110, 000 people registered in sports clubs from a
population of 1,429,000, which is an estimated 7.9%. As demand for opportunity
to participate in sport increased it can be argued that this also increased the
demand for sport spectatorship, and consequently amusement taxation
accumulation.
0%
10%
20%
30%
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In addition, Crawford (1999) propounds how the game of rugby became the
socially accepted values, such as, leadership, team spirit and reliability. These
values are arguably pro-social behavioural traits.
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Second Regression: Estimated Urban Sports Attendance (1917-1947)
Sport participation actual figures cannot be obtained for any period over the
series apart from 1926. However, a factitious regression will be performed based
on the literature identifying early participation of sport as early as 1842.
Government intervention through the English Board of Education 1909 increased
sport participation in schools to 135,000 by 1916. Furthermore, the PWRA 1937,
increased sport participation through national and regional bodies, and support
by the third sector such as, church youth clubs. Therefore, a figure of 7.9% of
total population minus estimated urban population will be used to identify the
potential elasticity of sport participation.
Growth t-valueT
Value Coefficient
10% Increase inXUrban Sport Participation
Mean (Y)11.1373 % Transformation
Coefficient
Growth Rate
Urban Annual Wage Rate 2.45002 7.99 0.000 11.6 % in Y 10.6 % n YUrban Cost of Living 0.584480 0.950 0.3510 21 % in Y 2.4 % n Y
Urban Annual Wealth -0.572923 -10.9 0.0000 - 44 % in Y - 2.4 %in Y
Urban Overtime Wages -0.296582 -3.57 0.0015 -26 % in Y% -1.3 -%in Y
no. of observations 30
no. of parameters 5
Table 3: Sport Participation Demand Regression
Interpretation of Results
Not all parameters are significant illustrated by the t-value and p-value with
regards to cost of living. This may result from inflated overtime earnings during
the period of the first and second world wars. Therefore, the cost of living may
not have made a significant impact on living standards because of actual
earnings. However, cost of living is not a significant parameter in comparison to
the others.
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The coefficient transformation column illustrates the following effect on sport
participation elasticity. Over the period wages can account for an estimated 11.6
% increase in attendance. However, if wages increased by 10%, and fixing other
parameters, attendance would have increased by 10.6%
In addition, the cost of living over this period had a significant effect on
participation, but the parameter is not very significant. Nevertheless, if this cost
increased at 10%, fixing other parameters at current effects, participation would
potentially have increased by 2.4%.
The estimated wealth would have had a significant effect on attendance. Also
fixing other variables and increasing the wealth (savings rate) by 10% would
have potentially reduced participation by 2.4%. Overtime had a fairly significant
impact on participation during WW2. If overtime increased at 10%, fixing other
parameters at current effects, participation would potentially decrease by 2.4%.
Due to the multicollinearity nature of the controlled parameters, an increase of
10% of one parameter would most likely change another. However, to what
effect cannot be fully predicted with this model. Nevertheless, an estimate could
be argued that an overall increase of 10% based on the signs of the coefficients
(wage rate + cost of living) (wealth + overtime) a 9.3% increase may have
resulted. This is a small effect based on significant issues pertaining to the living
standards especially due to significant economic shocks.
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On the basis of this factious but nevertheless compelling analysis, pro-social
behaviour may have been evident within this sample of the population in terms of
DRD4. The sporting environment increased through legislation, school
curriculum and general growth in sport participation may have increased normal
DRD4 levels.
In summary of both regressions the following argument can be propounded in
aid of the research question. If attendance increased by 2.86% and participation
by 9.3% regardless of economic shocks or changes in living standards. Then
perhaps these populations valued their involvement due to active pro-social
behaviour.
Therefore, either pro-social behaviour was already pre-disposed or resulted from
the economic shocks? Unfortunately, the research presented in this thesis was
not intended to answer this question. The argument is to understand if pro-
social behaviour was evident within these two samples of the population, and
given the evidence displayed, this is arguably possible.
.
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New Zealands Religion and Sporting Development
Soysa & Jutting, OECD, (2007) Institutions and Development framework will be
used to structure all sources of information relating to religion and sport in New
Zealand. The framework had already been discussed in accordance to the
different sections.
Therefore, combining the exogenous and endogenous factors which contributed
to the development of religion and sports in New Zealand, all sources of
information can be amalgamated. As a consequence of this process, a picture
can be created to understand the developments of these sectors and their
contributions to social cohesion.
A: WW1 the great depression and WW2 had a significant impact in terms of
social and economic development. Total trade, was impacted which increased
the living standards of New Zealanders. The pro-social themes support that New
Zealanders were becoming galvanised as a nation improving social cohesion.
B1: Religion was developed by the 1885 Hospitals and Charitable Institutions
Act, and the Education Amendment Act via the Hospitals and Charitable
Institutions budget. Sport was developed by the 1909 English Board of
Education and Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 via the Education and
Public Instruction budget.
B2:Religious descriptive statistics and pro-social themes support that religious
institutions were supporters of social cohesion. Sport descriptive statistics,
literature and pro-social themes support sport contributed to the development of
New Zealand values which contribute to social cohesion.
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C:Religion initiatives developed through religious schools, Sunday schools, and
charities providing, the elderly, unemployed, and youth support. Sport initiatives
developed through public schools, religious schools, church youth clubs,
physical welfare officers, voluntary officers, and regional and national sports
councils.
D:Religious institutions helped provide health and social education and support,
sport education and participation; therefore social cohesion. Sporting institutions
helped provide education and participation of physical sports, and develop an
economically taxable sector. However, the growth in sport participation and
education contributed to the development of New Zealand values, (leadership,
team spirit, and reliability) therefore, social cohesion.
E: Religious institutions during early government creation were given land as
endowments followed by the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions budget
Furthermore; pro-social themes highlight the potential influence religious
institutions had on political parties. Sporting government departments were
created, such as national and regional sports councils, via the Education and
Public Instruction budget.
In conclusion of this section, identifies links between religion and sporting
initiatives. Religious institutions through religious schools and church youth clubs
also promoted sports. Also, sport education and participation contributed to New
Zealand values that are arguably religious in nature.
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Most importantly, both populations arguably continued to partake in pro-social
behaviour regardless of changes in living standards. The above Information is
illustrated by the following diagram.
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Religion and Sporting Development Framework
A: External Factors: Early Maori Wars: 1stWW, Depression, 2ndWW, Population Heterogeneity, Immigration.These shocks have identified significant changes in the total trade, living standards and Social Cohesion.
E:Earlyendowments to
religious institutions.Religious growth
through the Hospitalsand Charitable Aid
Budget and theEducation Budget.
National and
Regional SportsCouncils established
through theEducation Budget
B1Formal: 1885 HospitalsCharitable Institutions Act.Education Amendment bill, 1909English Board of Education,
Welfare and Recreational Act 1937.
Good: Increases in theThird Sector and Sporting
Participation and
Spectatorship
C. Growth of Charities, Sunday Schools, ChurchYouth Clubs, Public Schools, Religious Schools,
Physical Welfare Officers & Voluntary Officers
Enforced by the State
B2: Informal: Church Attendance & SportParticipation qualitative themes highlight pro-
social behaviour. Cultural values were developedthat is Social Cohesive in nature.
Self-enforced
Social cohesion between both populations maintained regardless of economic shocks on urban male
living standards.
Pro-socialbehaviour
growth
D.Religious institutions improve and increase health, social and sporting education and participation support.Sporting institutions improve sporting participation and spectatorship therefore, creating a healthy productive
population and taxable sector. A connection between religion and sporting institutions and promotion of SocialCohesion.
Figure 13: Religion and Sport Development
Good: Increases ideologicalshift of Social Cohesion
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Chapter 4
5. Conclusion
The analysis has illustrated some important findings which have significance to the
understanding of the impact of engagement in religious and sporting activities which
connects to the literature. Government expenditure has followed a similar trajectory
to that which the literature suggests is essential for growth, i.e. health, social and
educational development.
Government legislation and investment enabled religious institutions to contribute
significantly to the health and social development of the population. Health was
improved through early initiatives to support the elderly and also those unemployed.
This public service was supported by legislation that allowed religious institutions to
create charities eligible for government subsidy. These religious founded institutions
enabled further developments within public health and social initiatives. Further
investigation into the development of this sector identifies the growth of religious
schools and church youth clubs. Both of these institutions were eligible for public
funds that would necessarily increase and improve access to and engagement in
physical activities.
A regression was utilised to understand the elasticity of church attendance relating to
living standards. The results identified all living standard parameters were significant.
Wages identified a significant positive impact and wealth a significant negative
impact on church attendance. However, an overall 10% increase of all parameters
would marginally increase attendance.
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Education attainment was evident by figure 4 which shows a steady increase from
primary schooling through to university education. Education policy also increased
the level of participation in sporting activities through the institution of physical
education in the curriculum. The literature identifies that increased physical
education stimulated the demand for after school sport activities. Consequently,
sport participation by 1926 was estimated to be almost 8% of the total population.
The demand for sport spectatorship was measured by examining the amusement tax
trend. Spectator demand for sport therefore increases exponentially with
improvements in the living standards of urban male earning. Urban male earning had
significant jumps particularly during the 2ndWorld War.
Although fictitious, a regression was utilised to evaluate if an estimated 8% of the
urban population continued to participate in sport, how would the changes in living
standards impact on sport participation. The results identified all living standard
parameters were significant apart from the cost of living. Wages identified a
significant positive impact whereas, wealth and overtime a significant negative
impact on sport participation. However, an overall 10% increase in all parameters
would marginally increase attendance.
These two forms of historically defined informal institutions, enabled the exploration
of two fundamental capitalist ideologies pro-social and competitive behaviour. Pro-
social behaviour enables the exploration of societys factors of production. In
addition, interactive competition across cultural and social economic divides
develops innovation and galvanises cohesion.
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Therefore these two combined institutions, created a culture necessary to explore
and exploit New Zealandsgeographical resources.
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6. Recommendations
This research has identified two potentially significant groups within the early
population of New Zealand. However, the true nature of growth for this period
cannot be solely attributed to these groups. The research only illustrates that
these two groups had an impact in combination with other variables.
Through the undertaking of the research an interest measurement has been
identified. On a macroeconomic scale, could the hormones that create pro-social
and competitive behaviour be aggregated on a national level. For example, if
studies identified that church attendance or sport participation of 100
organisations increased pro-social and competitive behaviour by 30%.
Therefore, could a measurement of population density regarding pro-social and
competitive behaviour be attached to models of economic growth. This could
form the basis of further research to strengthen these preliminary findings.
In advanced capitalist societies, this could be quantified without the neurological
aspect. Quantifying these two samples of the population across nations may help
to understand if they are significant groups. Information relating to dysfunctional
or developing countries, and the ratio of religion and sporting participation could
be captured.
This study has illustrated that the study of institutions and particularly informal
institutions is difficult to quantify in economic terms, due to the number of
possible contributing variables. This is particularly evident for the time period
studied, due to the motivational impact of the world war on the population.
.
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7. Figures
Theoretical Concepts
Figure 1:Different Concepts of Institutions Page: 13
Figure 2:Analysing Institutions and Development Page: 25
Figure 13:Religion and Sports Development Page: 51
Economic Time series Graphs
Figure 3:Religion and Sport Expenditure Page: 46
Figure 6:Total Trade Page: 36
Demographic Time series Graphs
Figure 5:Population Cohesion Page: 35
Figure 7:Urban Male Living Standards Page: 38
Religion and Sports Time series Graphs
Figure 4:Sport Participation Demand Page: 33
Figure 8:Estimated Church Attendance Page: 40
Figure 8:Horse Racing Sector Page: 43
Figure 8:Spectator Sporting Demand Page: 44
Figure 8:Sport Heterogeneity Page: 45
:
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8. Tables
Table 1:Religious School Development Page: 32
Church Attendance Regression
Table 2:Church Demand Regression Page: 40
Sports Participation Regression
Table 5:Sports Participation Demand Page: 46
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9. References.
Journals
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Alberto, A., La Ferrara, E. (2000)Participation in Heterogeneous Communities.Quarterly Journal of Economics. 115(3): 847-904
Barro, J, R., McCleary, M, R. (2003) Religion and Economic Growth across
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Beattie, J. (2004) Rethinking Science, Religion and Nature in EnvironmentalHistory: Drought in Early Twentieth-Century New Zealand
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Easterly, W., Levin, R. (2003)Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments
Influence Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics. 50: 3-39
Glaseser, L, E., LaPorta, R., Lopez-De-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A. (2004) DoInstitutions Cause Growth? Journal of Economic Growth. 9: 271-303
Greasley, D., Oxley, L. (2010) Knowledge, natural resource abundance andeconomic development: Lessons from New Zealand 1861-1939. Explorations inEconomic History. 47: 443-459
Hall, E, R., Jones, I, C. (1999)Why do some Countries produce so much moreOutput Per Worker than Others?. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 114(1) 83-
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Helmke, G., Vevitsky, S. (2004) Institutions and Comparative Politics: AResearch Agenda. American Political Science Association. 2(4): 725-740
North, C, D. (1991)Institutions. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 5(1): 97-112
Sasaki, J, Y., Kim, H, S., Mojaverian, T., Kelly, L, D., Park, Y., Janusonis, S.(2013) Religion priming differentially increases prosocial behaviour amoungvariants of dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene. Journal of Social cognitive andeffective neuroscience. 8(2): 209-215
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Sokoloff, L, K., Stanley, L, E. (2000) Institutions, Factor Endowments, andPaths of Development in the New World. Journal of Economic Perspectives.14(3): 217-232
Stenhouse, J. (1998) Churches, State and New Zealand Wars: 1869-1872.
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Troughton, G. (2006) Religion, Churches and Childhood in New Zealand,c.1900-1940. New Zealand Journal of History. 40(1): 39-55
Williams, C. (2009) Informal Institutions rule: Institutional Arrangements andEconomic Performance. Journal of Public Choice. 139(3): 371-387
Yanikkaya, H. (2002)Trade Openness and Economic Growth: a cross-countryempirical investigation. Journal of Development Economics. 72: 57-89
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Internet Articles
Gallup, L, J., Mellinger, A., Sachs, D, J. (1999) Geography and Economic
Development. Working Papers. Cntre for International Development at HarvardUniversity
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/var/ezp_site/storage/fckeditor/file/pdfs/centers-programs/centers/cid/publications/faculty/wp/001.pdf
Grannt, B., Pope, C. (2007)Sport and Education: Sports in S secondarySchools for All or for Some?: Chapter 13
http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/3258/Sport%20and%20education.pdf?sequence=1#
Pepping, G-J., Timmermans, J, E. (2012) Oxytocin and the Biopsychology ofPerformance in Team Sport: Scientific World Journal: Published Online: Sep 102012.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3444846/
Mangeloja, E. (2003) Implication of the Economics of Religion to the EmpiricalEconomic Research.
http://128.118.178.162/eps/othr/papers/0310/0310004.pdf
Mineshima, M. (2009) Discourse Analysis of News Text by the Application ofSystemic Functional Grammar.
http://www.niit.ac.jp/lib/contents/kiyo/genko/14/10.pdf
Nauright, J. (Reprint: 1999)Sport, Power, and Society in New Zealand: Historicaland Contemporary Perspectives.
http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/ASSHSSH/ASSHSSH11.pdf
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Government Commissioned Research
Bartsch, S., Dreschsler, D., Jutting, J., De Soysa, I. (2007)Informal Institutions:How Social Norms Help or Hinder Development. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development.
http://www.cmi.no/library/online/OECD.Informal-institutions.pdf#page=46
North, C, D. (2003) The Role of Institutions in Economic Development.DiscussionPaper Series. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva,Switzerl