As reported by Earl Christopher M. Segales

Sept 12, 2009

Definitions of religion

Two Dimensions:1.Functional (what is the purpose for the

individual and society?) ‘a system of beliefs and practices by means of

which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life’

Tends to be too inclusive2.Substantive (what are it contents?)

‘refers to the existence of supernatural beings that have a governing effect on life’

Tends to be too exclusive

RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVEEmile Durkheim

Religion: a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, which are set apart.

Distinguished between the sacred and the profane Totemism: the simplest & most basic form of

religion Totems had churingas (drawings) representing a clan’s

emblem. Society is the real object of religious veneration Society is epitomized in the form of the totem.

Religion reinforces the collective conscience (shared values and moral beliefs)

In collective worship, members express and understand the moral bonds which unite them.

RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVEBronislaw Malinowski• Religion reinforces social norms and values. It

promotes social solidarity.• It serves as a ‘cushion’ to crises of life (anxiety and

tension)• Rituals reduce the feeling of uneasiness by providing

confidence and a sense of control.• Religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with

situations of emotional stress that threaten the stability of society.

e.g. Death the bereaved person is comforted by relatives

RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVETalcott Parsons

Human action is directed and controlled by norms provided by the social system.

Since religion is embedded in this system, it provides guidelines for conduct which are expressed in a variety of norms. E.g. 10 Commandments and Laws

Two categories of human problems:1. Fortuitous events are inevitable and unpredictable.

Religion enables people to restoring the normal pattern of life.

2. The feeling of uncertainty towards the future is evident. Religion becomes a ‘tonic for self-confidence’.

RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVEWhat does religion do?1.It maintains social stability by relieving

tension and frustration that could disrupt social order.

2.It makes sense of all experiences no matter how meaningless or contradictory they appear.

3.It provides a range of answers to life issues.4.It strengthens the unity among its believers.

RELIGION—A MARXIST PERSPECTIVEReligion is an illusion which eases the pain

produced by exploitation and oppression. It justifies the subordination of the subject class and the domination of the ruling class.

“Opium of the people” stupefies and disillusions the people into false notions:

1. It promises a paradise of eternal bliss because there is Heaven.

2. It allows poverty to become tolerable because of afterlife’s reward.

3. A supernatural intervention is possible.4. It justifies the social order between the rich and

the poor.

RELIGION—A MARXIST PERSPECTIVEReligion is an instrument of oppression. It

acts as mechanism of social control which maintains system of exploitation. It prevents social change.

Religion distorts reality. It allows false consciousness to pervade among the workers.

Historical evidence: Hinduism caste system; Divine Right (mandate of heaven) monarchy

In a truly socialist society, individuals revolve around themselves, and religion disappears.

RELIGION—A neo-MARXIST PERSPECTIVEWhile Christianity originated as a way of coping

with exploitation among oppressed groups, it could become a source of resistance to the oppressors and thus a force of change.

Religion still exists in the context of an oppressed society.

Religion has some relative autonomy as a separate entity. It may be the only available channel to bring about a social revolution.

E.g. EDSA revolution as supported by the Catholic Church; Liberation Theology in Latin America

Gender, feminism and religionGender Inequality in ReligionMain premise: Religion is a product of

patriarchy rather than capitalism.Acc. to Karen Armstrong, early history shows

the women played a central role in the spiritual conquest.

E.g. the idea of Mother Goddess or Mother Earth

Turning point: foreign invasions Before=polytheism; After=monotheism Before=roster of gods & goddesses;

After=Yahweh/Allah/Jehovah

Gender, feminism and religionAcc. to Jean Holm, women have a subordinate

role in religion than men. Some examples:

In Japanese folk religions, women organize public rituals while men perform these.

In Chinese beliefs, Yin=women=passive=submission; Yang=men=active=aggression

In Buddhism, women=nuns; men=priests priest are more senior to nuns

In Hinduism, women cannot enter shrines or perform rituals when they are menstruating or pregnant because these are regarded as pollutants to the sacredness of the activities/objects,

Gender, feminism and religionAcc. to Simone de Beauvoir,

Religion gives women false beliefs that they will be compensated for their sufferings on earth by equality in heaven.

Religion can be used by oppressors (men) to control the oppressed ones (women).

Acc. to Nawal El Saadawi, In the Arab world, patriarchal dominance leads to

prostitution, slavery, and abortion.Acc. to Islam, men are permitted to marry several

wives (but women can’t have many husbands), and men could divorce their spouses instantaneously.

Religion and social changeFor Functionalists, Marxists, & Feminists,

religion is a conservative force : it prevents changes and maintains the status quo. It will also maintain traditional customs and beliefs.

Fundamentalism: involves the reassertion of traditional moral and religious values against changes.E.g. Islam Iranian revolution ; Liberation theology Latin America

Here, society affects religions. There social factors or events which trigger transformation in religion.

Max Weber—The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of CapitalismFor him, religion affects society.

Social Action Theory: human action is directed by meanings and motives.

Worldview: the image of the world held by members.Religion as a worldview affects social action.

Ascetic Calvinist Protestantism propelled capitalism. Elect: those chosen by God to go to heaven even

before birth.It is difficult to ascertain whether you are an elect or

not.

Max Weber—The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of CapitalismThe ethic was ASCETIC encouraging abstinence

from life’s pleasure, and rigorous discipline. It produced individuals who worked hard in their careers.

Making money was a concrete indication of success in one’s calling.

Protestants attacked time-wasting, laziness, idle gossiping and excessive sleep. Such acts impede productivity.

The spirit of capitalism involves a set of ideas, ethics, and values. The essence of capitalism is the pursuit of profit and forever renewed profit.

Max Weber—The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of CapitalismMAIN POINT:

Proper Ethics (Frugality + Efficiency + Self-Discipline) More Productivity Higher Profit Better Societal Reputation Admiration and Respect from others Exemplary Behavior Achieved Status and Constructed Notion of being an ELECT HEAVEN

Such ethics were at the core of capitalist mentality.

Religion and social changeMerideth B. McGuire: Four Factors determining the religion’s potential

for social change:1. BELIEFS. Religions which emphasize strong adherence

to moral codes are more likely to produce members who are critical of society.

2. CULTURE. Is religion vital to the lives of a society?3. SOCIAL LOCATION. Does religion affect social

structure?4. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION. Religions with a strong

sense of authority have more chances of affecting events.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSChurchRefers to a large religious organization.

Individuals do not necessarily have to demonstrate their faith all the time.

Closely related to the state. The church stabilizes and determines the political order. Ideologically conservative and supports the status quo.

Its members are not expected to withdraw from society. It affirms and accepts life.

The notion of the church derives its force from the growth of Christianity and historic forms of Catholic, Orthodox, and Coptic churches.

It is an essentially historical phenomena which might find itself hard to exist in modern societies.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSDenominationsThey share several but not all of the supposed

features of the church. What does it entail?1. It does not have universal appeal to society2. It does not identify with the state and approves

the separation of church and state.3. It does not claim a monopoly of religious truth.4. It is usually conservative.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSSectsCharacteristics are diametrically opposed to

those of churches. How is a sect different?1. Smaller and more strongly organized2. Connected with the lower strata3. Rejects the values of the world. 4. It s members may be expected to withdraw

from society.5. There is no hierarchy, rather a charismatic

leader is in charge.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSSectsProducts of the ‘upheavals of the reformation’Tend to be type of subcultureExercise a stronger control over the individuals’ livesThe members are expected to know the tenets and

practice the rituals, otherwise, they may be excluded.

E.g. People’s Temple started by Rev. Jones in Cali.Members ought sign confessions of their crimes they

had not committed. Then, subject to public humiliationVery radical in nature

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSCultsHighly individualistic expression, varying with

personal experiences and interpretations.Cult: a closely-knit group organized around

some common themes and interests but lacking any sharply defined and exclusive belief system.

No conception of heresyLack of fixed doctrine: a matter of

interpretative belief

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSRoy Wallis—The Elementary forms of the

Religious Life Three kinds of religious movement:World-rejecting

Can be found in sects. There is a definite conception of God.

Actively seeks change Expects God’s intervention to save the world. Limited contact with outside world E.g. Unification Church of Rev. Sun Myung Moon

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSWorld-accommodating

Usually offshoots of a major church or denomination.

Neither accepts nor rejects the world as it is, rather lives in it.

More concerned with religious rather than worldly questions.

Seek to restore the purity of religion which has been lost

E.g. Pentecostalists believe that the Holy Spirit is lost in other Christian religions.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSWorld-affirming

May have no collective ritual of worshipIt may lack any developed theology of ethics.Little social control. It accepts the world for what

it is.Salvation is seen as a personal achievement and

as a solution to personal problems. It offers followers the potential to achieve this

salvation.E.g. Transcendental Meditation meditate

20mins. Twice a day for ‘unbounded awareness’

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSMiddle-ground

Some organizations might have a combination of these qualities.

These result to the ‘middle-ground’ statusE.g. Healthy Happy Holy Organization and

Divine Light Mission. allow members to have an alternative lifestyle.

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSNew Age typePeople withdrew from the traditional

religious orgs and have begun to look inside themselves in search of the spiritual.

Salvation: it comes from discovering and perfecting oneself.

To experience the spiritual and transcendental through nature.

E.g. astrology, tarot cards, spirit masters, magic, Feng Shui, witchcraft

RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONSNew Age typeIt is a response to the acknowledged failure of the

scientific and materialist worldview to deliver meaning.

It is a product of modernity. It appeals to affluent members of society.

They have experienced personal development themselves and therefore find it plausible to believe that there is potential to be discovered within.

It is a symptom of extreme relativism because your belief becomes subjective. due to the decline of religion

Modernity gives people a multiplicity of roles. The New Age offers ways of finding an identity.

SecularizationIndustrialization and scientific knowledge led to

this. It is the decline of religion.Acc. to Weber, rationalization would erode religious

influence.Acc. to Marx, a motion of events would lead to its

disappearance.Acc. to Comte, human societies passed to 3 stages:

1. Theological: religious and superstitious beliefs were dominant

2. Metaphysical: philosophy becomes more important3. Positivism: Science would dominate human

thinking. The role of religion in society weakens.

Secularization1. Disengagement: the church withdrawing from wider

society. E.g. obsolescence of excommunication2. Differentiation: separation of religion from state

affairs.3. Social differentiation: the church has now much less

opportunity to get involved in non-religious spheres. This was brought about by rationalization.

4. Societalization: a process in which social life becomes fragmented and ceases to be locally based. People interact at a higher level of community rather than a smaller locality. (due to migration as well)

Religion and GlobalizationPeter Beyer (Three Directions of Religion)Religion take a relatively marginal position in a

global society. Globalization leads to the world becoming dominated by specialized sub-systems.

Global capitalist economy on money matters; global political system (UN) on bureaucratic leadership matters; global science on matters of ‘truth’.

Given these, where can religion position itself?

Religion and GlobalizationPeter BeyerSince everything is global, it leaves little or

no room for identities to develop. Who am I really? What is my position in this global setting?

Religion can become a source of identity. It can provide answers to questions.

Lastly, religion can consolidate different faiths. E.g. environmentalism: genuine concern for Mother Earth

Religion and GlobalizationSamuel HuntingtonThere is clash of civilizations (a cultural

identity). The world is divided into language, history, and traditions.

Religion can fill the between such differences.There is evidence of unsecularization.

E.g. The end of socialism in USSR signaled the start of fundamentalism in Eastern Europe.

Religion is still very much important in the global society.

Religion and GlobalizationKaren Armstrong (Islam & Modernization)There is nothing inherently incompatible with the

West and Muslim worlds. Rather, economic and political factors led to increased tensions.

Islam advocates the sharing of resources, and at the same trend of towards greater equality was evident in some Western societies.

Muslim countries (Egypt, Sudan, Libya) ‘idolized’ Western models of development. Muslim countries were supported by the Western nations.

However, only a small percentage benefitted from such investments. Much of the conflict started from within.

This was aggravated by the entry of the West.

High Modernity, Postmodernity and ReligionAnthony Giddens Features of high modernity (a step higher

than modernity):1. Reflexivity: people are willing to change

beliefs in order to gain to new knowledge and experience

2. Separation of time and space: advent of the Internet and similar technology.

3. Disembedding: social interaction becomes restructured from local context to global arena.

High Modernity, Postmodernity and ReligionAnthony GiddensHigh modernity provides the conditions of

religion’s resurgence. People make more conscious choices about who they are and what they wish to become.

Some problems:1. Modernity=rationality; High Modernity=

increase of doubt. Which one should I choose?2. Existential questions: Why do I exist? Where

do I go when I die?

High Modernity, Postmodernity and ReligionAnthony GiddensAs people try to make sense of their lives in

reflexive way, they are in a moral vacuum. There is no ground or any basis since everything is subjective and open to change.

In response, religion particularly fundamentalism begins to emerge.

High Modernity, Postmodernity and ReligionZygmunt Bauman (Religion and Postmodernity)Postmodernity tears down/deconstructs any claims to

universal truth. Postmodernity is a state of mind.“Postmodernity is a shopping mall overflowing with

goods whose major use is the joy of purchasing them…indefinitely.”

Once the rational basis of life has been torn down, it leads to the renewed emphasis on the ethical and moral.

Morality, as a facet of religion, becomes a matter of personal choice. In postmodernity, people seek a process of self-constitution. Rather than achieving things, they want to be somebody.

Again, religion is most likely to enter the picture as it provides assurance and direction.

Discussion questions:1. Is atheism really the absence of religion, or

perhaps a more radical worldview?2. What is social relevance of religion in your

respective countries?3. In what ways can religion impede or support

development in your respective countries?