Relations Between Teacher and Classroom Activity Variables

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JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 16,253-282(1995)

Relations Between Teacher and

Classroom Activity Variables and the

Classroom Behaviors of

Prekindergarten Children in

Chapter 1 Funded Programs

MARTHA B BRONSON

Boston College

TERRENCE IVNAN

Harvard University

PATRICIAS SEPPANEN

RMC Research Corporation

This study of 586 children in 54 Chapter 1 funded classrooms in five geographical

areas wos part of o national observational study of early childhood programs. The

study examined relations between eight teacher and classroom activity variables and

14 child variables. Correlational analyses indicated significant relations between

program and teacher variables and childrens experiences in the classroom. More

program ond teacher variables were associated with childrens mastery than social

experiences. Results indicated some benefits ond trade offs when more teacher and

classroom time wos spent on teaching and on cognitively focused activities.

A growing body of research has demonstrated that children from low-income or

high-risk environments benefit from participation in high-quality early childhood

programs and that these benefits translate into reduced risk of school failure and

economic benefits to society in terms of lower school expenditures for special

education, savings in the criminal justice system, and greater economic indepen-

dence through employment and earnings (Balasubramaniam & Tumbull, 1988;

Bamett & Escobar, 1987; Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, &

Weikart, 1984; Lazar, Darlington, Murray, Royce, & Snipper, 1982; McKey et

al., 1985; Weikart, 1989). Research has also suggested that differences in pro-

gram philosophy and curriculum have differential effects on childrens behavior

Support for this study was provided by the U.S. Department of Education, Offke of Policy and

Planning under Contract No. EALC890980.

Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Martha B. Bronson, School of

Education, Boston College, 201B Champion Hall, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167-3813.

253


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254 BRONSON, TIVNAN, AND SEPPANEN

and development (Clark-Stewart, 1980; Prescott, 1973; Snow, 1983; Weikart,

198 l), but relatively little is known about how specific aspects of programs affect

children. Researchers have lamented their inability to connect specific program

elements with outcomes (Barnett, Frede, Mobasher, & Mohr, 1987; Powell,

1987; Sigel, 1990) and to disentangle the effects of curriculum content, specific

activities, and teaching techniques (Miller, Bugbee, & Hybertson, 1985). This

study examines relations between a set of observed teacher and classroom activ-

ity variables, and child characteristics, including observed social and mastery

behaviors in the classroom. Teacher and classroom activity variables with direct

policy implications were selected for analysis.

The study was part of the Observational Study of Early Childhood Programs,

a national study of programs for disadvantaged children which had two related

components: (a) a descriptive study of 119 early childhood classroom environ-

ments, including Head Start programs, school-sponsored programs, and day-care

centers (Layzer, Goodson, & Moss, 1993) and (b) a substudy of approximately

750 children enrolled in 55 prekindergarten classrooms funded all or in part

through Chapter 1 of the Hawkins-Stafford Elementary and Secondary School

Improvement Amendments of 1988 (Seppanen, Godin, Metzger, Bronson, &

Cichon, 1993). The overall intent of the national study was to provide

observation-based empirical data on programs for young children.

This study was part of the Chapter 1 substudy. Chapter 1 of Title 1 of the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 19652 is one of the oldest, most

well-established federal education laws intended to provide supplemental in-

struction to low-achieving students in schools with low-income students. A

small, but growing segment of the student population at the prekindergarten level

is served through Chapter 1 funded programs. The increasing role of Chapter 1 in

early childhood education has raised a number of issues for state and local

education officials. Among these has been how best to create programs with

characteristics that promote basic and advanced skills for young children at

risk for school failure.

To remedy the lack of connectedness between the long-term effectiveness of

programs and specific program variables, there is growing interest in trying to

determine how these effects occur by examining childrens experiences in these

programs (Clarke-Stewart & Fein, 1983; Powell, 1987, Takanishi, 1979). A

major goal of the Chapter 1 substudy was to provide empirical information about

relations between Chapter 1 funded prekindergarten environments and childrens

cognitive and social-emotional development, as revealed in a variety of

observation-based measures. This study focuses on describing the relations be-

U.S. Department of Education, Off& of Policy and Planning, Contract Number EALC890980.

ZReauthorized by Congress as part of the Hawkins-Stafford Elementary and Secondary School

Improvement Amendments of 1988.


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OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF CHAPTER 1 PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS

255

tween specific child-level and classroom-level observation data gathered in the

Chapter 1 component of the Observational Study of Early Childhood Programs.

METHOD

Participants

The sample consisted of 586 children in 54 classrooms3 distributed over 16

school districts in five states (Florida, Texas, California, Michigan, and New

Jersey). The sample of classrooms was considered to be representative of the

range of quality in Chapter 1 funded prekindergarten programs in urban and

suburban settings.

Demographic characteristics of the sample of children4 are listed in Table 1.

Slightly more than half of the children were girls. Eighty-five percent were from

racial or ethnic minority groups, but teachers reported that English was the

primary language spoken at home by over three fourths of the mothers (or

primary care givers). Seventy-eight percent of the sample were eligible for free or

reduced lunch.

Thirty-five percent of the mothers of sample children and 27 of the fathers

had at least some college experience. Approximately 22 of the mothers and

fathers had completed less than 12th grade. About 30 of the mothers were

under 19 years of age when they gave birth to their first child. Only about half of

the parents were currently married.

Teachers reported that approximately 14 of the families of sample children

needed assistance due to substance abuse, economic problems, or behavioral,

emotional, or mental problems. Teachers also indicated that 12 of the sample

children needed assistance for a behavioral, emotional, or mental problem and

that 9 had resided with someone other than their natural mother for more than 1

month since school had started. Only small percentages of sample children were

reported by teachers to have physical, emotional, or mental conditions that

required frequent medical attention and treatment or that limited and prevented

regular school attendance (6 ) or participation in all school activities (5 ).

Classrooms

Staff in the Chapter 1 funded prekindergarten classrooms were relatively highly

educated. All teachers had at least a 4-year college degree and 42 had a

masters degree or higher. Forty-five percent of the assistants and aides had some

3The total number of children in the Chapter 1 substudy was 783 in 55 classrooms, but not all of

these children had complete sets of test scores and classroom observations.

4These characteristics are not necessarily representative of all Chapter I preschool children for

two reasons: (a) the Chapter 1 substudy did not randomly sample Chapter 1 prekindergarten programs

and (h) children were eligible for participation in the Chapter 1 substudy if they were simply enrolled

in a class funded all or in part with Chapter 1 funds.


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256

BRONSON, TIVNAN, AND SEPPANEN

TABLE 1

Demographic Characteristics of Chapter 1 Samplea

Background Characteristics

Gender

Female

Ethnicity

African-American

Hispanic

White

Other

Primary language Spoken at Home

Mostly English

Mostly Spanish

Mixed English and Spanish

Other

Eligibility for Free or Reduced-Price

Lunch

Eligible

Data not available

Education of Father

Grade 11 or less

Grade 12 or GED

At least some college

Unknown

Education of Mother

Grade 11 or less

Grade 12 or GED

At least some college

Unknown

Mothers Age at Birth of First Child

13-15

16-18

19-21

22 or older

Marital Status

Married

Evidence Family Needed Help Due

to Substance Abuse, Economic

Problems, Emotional, or Mental

Problems

of Sample

52

48

31

15

7

77

8

10

5

78

14

22

44

27

7

22

41

35

1

5

24

34

35

50

14

Evidence Child Needed Help Due to

Behavioral, Emotional, or Mental

Problem

12

(continued)


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OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF CHAPTER

1

PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS

257

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Background Characteristics

of Sample

Child Resides Apart

From Mother

(> 1 Month)

9

Evidence of Conditions That

Limit/Prevent

Regular school attandance

6

Participation in all classroom activities 5

Usual childhood activities

4

Evidence of Conditions That Require

Frequent medical attention or treatment

6

Regular medicine or drugs 2

Use of special equipment

1

aParent and teacher questionnaires and review of student

records.

college, 18 had a bachelors degree, and only 8 had less than a high-school

diploma. Seventy-one percent of the teachers held a state early childhood certifi-

cate or license and 87 held a state elementary education certificate or license.

Eighteen percent of the assistants and aides held a state early childhood education

certificate or license and 6 held an elementary license.

Teachers had taught in early childhood for an average of 9.6 years, assistants

and aides had 7.8 years of experience, and both had taught about two thirds of

this time at their current programs. Both staff groups had an additional few years

of grade-school teaching experience; teachers averaged 3.4 years and assistants

and aides averaged 2.8 years.

The average enrollment across all classrooms was 19.1 (SD = 4.3) but the

average attendance was 16.0 SD = 3.2). Almost all classrooms had two staff

members (one teacher and one assistant or aide) so the observed child:staff ratio

children per class on any given day was 9.3 SD = 2.7), which is within the

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) guidelines

for 4-year-olds (10: 1 for a group of 20).

The majority (71 ) of the Chapter 1 funded classrooms were half-day pro-

grams, with the rest providing an extended day (with lunch and a rest period) of 4

to 6 hr.

Measures

A number of instruments were used to collect both child-level and classroom-

level data. Because the overall study was observation based, the measures were

selected after extensive review of available classroom-level (Goodson, 1990) and

child-level (Seppanen & Love, 1990) observation instruments. In addition to


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258


observational measures, a standardized cognitive test was selected and informa-

tion was collected on child and family background characteristics.

Child and Family Background Characteri stics.

Background information was

collected from three sources: a parent questionnaire, a teacher questionnaire, and

examination of student records. A number of children in the sample had charac-

teristics associated with risk for school failure. Other studies have suggested that

although the effect of any one background variable may be negligible, the cu-

mulative effect of a number of them may affect childrens performance on the

child-level measures (Hauser-Cram, Pierson, Walker, & Tivnan, 1991; Sam-

eroff, 1975; Sameroff, Seifer, & Zax, 1987). Schorr and Schorr (1988) found that

it takes more than a single risk factor to elicit an adverse outcome (p. 25).

To analyze the cumulative effects of child and family background risks on the

child-level variables, a risk composite variable was used that was composed of

nine child and family background variables. It was not possible to collect data on

some of the more potent risk variables examined by Schorr and Schorr (1988;

such as low birth weight, substance abuse, or child abuse), but nine available

variables conceptually associated with risk were included. The variables in-

cluded in the composite were: (a) English not spoken in the home, (b) limitation

of school activities, (c) special education requirements, (d) teacher rated behav-

ioral or emotional problems, (e) family problems, (f) living away from mother,

(g) mothers age, and (h & i) parents education. The criterion for each risk

variable component was based on analysis of the Fall 1990 family background

data and on analyses of the distributions of background data collected during

Spring 1991. Children were given one risk point if an aspect of their background

met the established risk criterion for that variable. Each child received a compos-

ite risk score that could vary from 0 to 9.

Chi ld Level Measures. The design of the Chapter 1 study called for individu-

al assessment of children in the fall and spring of the prekindergarten year. In a

fall pretest and spring posttest, child characteristics were measured with a stan-

dardized cognitive index, the Preschool Inventory (PSI) (Caldwell, 1976), and a

teacher rating scale, the Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS; Bronson, Good-

son, Layzer, & Love, 1990). In the spring, behavioral observations in the class-

room environment were done using the Bronson Social and Task Skills Profile

(BSTSP), 1991 revision (Bronson, 1991). This study examines data from the

spring data collection. Table 2 lists the child-level variables included in the

analyses.

The PSI is a brief, 32-item assessment of cognitive achievement designed to

be administered individually to children in the age range of 3 to 6 years old in

either English or Spanish. It was developed originally to provide Head Start with

a practical measure of preschool achievement. Correlations between PSI test

scores and the Stanford Binet Intelligence test ranged (in the five age groups)


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PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS 259

TABLE 2

Child-Level Variables Included in the Analysis of Data From the Chapter 1 Study

Variable Categories and Variables

Standardized Cognitive Indicator

(PSI)

Score in the fall

Score in the spring

Teacher Rating (CBRS)

Mean competence rating in the fall

Mean competence rating in the spring

Classroom Behavior Observations

(BSTSP)

Mastery variables

Time in mastery activities (proportion of all observation time spent in a task with

a goal)

Use of organizing and planning strategies (rate of use of organizing and planning

strategies during tasks with goals)

Tasks completed successfully (proportion of tasks tried that are finished success-

fully)

Time distracted in mastery (proportion of mastery time spent distracted)

Social variables

Time in social activities (proportion of all observation time spent in social

interaction)

Time in organized social interaction (proportion of social time spent at the

organized and cooperative level)

Use of organizing strategies with peers (rate of use of strategies which organize

interactions with peers during time in social activities)

Use of accomodating strategies with peers (rate of use of social accomodating

strategies, like sharing and taking turns, with peers during time in social

activities)

Success in influencing peers (proportion of attempts to influence peers that were

successful)

Use of verbal means to influence peers (proportion of attempts to influence peers

that were verbal)

Self-management variables

Time uninvolved (proportion of all observation time not involved in any focused

activity)

Resists rules or teachers (rate of resisting rules or teachers during all observation

time)

from .39 to .65, with .44 being the correlation for the entire standardization

sample. Split-half reliability, estimated with the Spearman-Brown formula, was

reported as .95 on an earlier version of the PSI. The measure was selected

because it had been used in numerous national early childhood studies in recent

years. It yields an overall summary score that was included in the analyses for

this study.


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The CBRS is a 32-item behavioral rating scale designed to assess categories

similar to the BSTSP. An earlier version of the CBRS was created by RMC

Research Corporation for use in a Head Start evaluation (Meleen, Love, &

Nauta, 1988). The CBRS is designed to evaluate a childs task behavior and

social behavior with peers and adults. The 32 behaviors are rated on a 5-point

scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (usually/always) to indicate how frequently

they occur. It was used in the Giant-Step evaluation (Abt Associates, 1988) in

which items on task orientation and strategies were more strongly correlated with

the PSI than were the adult and peer interaction items. There was a fall-spring

correlation of .67 for ratings of 364 Giant-Step children by their teachers. Inter-

nal consistency (Cronbachs alpha) was .96 overall for the Giant-Step sample. A

mean rating for all the items was computed to create the summary score used in

these analyses.

The BSTSP is an observation measure that was adapted from an earlier

version of the instrument (Bronson, 1985) for use in the Chapter 1 substudy.

The BSTSP uses structured categories to record a childs performance in plan-

ning and organizing mastery activities (puzzles, matching and sorting tasks,

number and letter tasks, etc.) and carrying them out successfully, in interacting

cooperatively and successfully with others, and controlling and directing oneself

appropriately in the school setting.

Social and mastery task behaviors are recorded in structured categories by an

observer who had been trained to a criterion of 90 interobserver agreement in

every category. A modified time sampling method is used in which half of the

observations are begun at the beginning of a social interaction and half are begun

at the beginning of a memory task. Whenever possible, observations are carried

out when children have some choice and control over the selection and direction

of their activities. In this study, observations were carried out in the natural

setting of the classroom with each child being observed for four to six lo-min

periods over 1 to 2 weeks. Technical information from the use of the BSTSP in

several studies is available (Bronson, 1985, 1994).

Because the focus of this study was on documenting relations between

classroom-level variables and the childs classroom experience, data from 12

BSTSP child-behavior variables were included in the analyses. Variables in three

areas (mastery, social, and self-management) were selected on the basis of their

usefulness in other studies (Bronson, 1994; Bronson, Pierson, & Tivnan, 1984;

Hauser-Cram, Bronson, & Upshur, 1993; Pierson et al., 1983). These are listed

in Table 2 and described more fully in Appendix A.

Classroom Level Measures. A number of instruments measuring the class-

room environment, classroom activities, and teacher interactions with children

were included in the descriptive component of the Observational Study of Early

?See Seppanen, Bronson, and Metzger (1992) for a description of the adaptation procedures.


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261

Childhood Programs, which studied 119 early childhood classrooms (Abt Asso-

ciates, 1991). Seven of these instruments were used in the Chapter 1 substudy

(Seppanen et al., 1993). This article includes data from variables selected from

two of the instruments, chosen on the basis of their relevance to specific educa-

tional practices. Table 3 lists the eight classroom-level variables selected for

inclusion in the study.

In the Abt Associates Adult-Focused Observation (Abt Associates, 1991), an

observer records the behavior of the classroom teacher in structured categories on

a time-sampled basis. Observers were trained to a criterion of 85 interobserver

agreement in each category. Recorded information includes the type of involve-

ment with children (teaching, management, etc.), the number of children with

whom he or she is involved, specific verbalizations, the content of teaching, and

techniques for communicating. The instrument was developed for the Observa-

tional Study of Early Childhood Programs and no psychometric analyses have

yet been done. Two variables from this instrument were included in the analyses

(see Table 3).

The Preschool ClasSroom Snapshot (adapted by Abt Associates, 1991, from

Stallings, 1975) provides a means for recording, in 24 categories, the types of

activities and groupings that are in evidence in a classroom at a given moment.

Observers were trained to a criterion of 85 percent interobserver agreement in

each of these categories. Multiple snapshots were recorded in classrooms at

TABLE 3

Classroom-Level Variables included in the Analysis of Data From the Chapter 1

Study

Instruments and Variable Categories

Variables From Abt Associates

Adult-Focused Observationa

Proportion of time teacher spends teaching

Proportion of teaching focused on cognitive concepts

Variables From Preschool Classroom

Snapshotb

Proportion of goal-directed activities (a composite of math and language, science and

natural world, sewing, woodworking, cooking, block construction, table games and

puzzles, looking at books)

Proportion of math and language activities

Proportion of activities involving block construction

Proportion of sand and water play

Proportion of dramatic and fantasy play

Average child : staff ratio in observed snapshot instances

avariables derived from the Abt Associates Adult-Focused Observation instrument

are based on brief time samples of adult behaviors. bvariables derived from the

Preschool Classroom Snapshot are proportions of snapshot instances in which the

event occurred.


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regular time intervals and aggregated to produce activity and grouping scores.

Versions of the instrument were used in the National Day-Care Study (Stallings &

Porter, 1980) and by the New York City Board of Education (BOE) to describe

environments in BOE preschool and kindergarten programs (Jarvis, 1989). No

additional technical information is available. Six variables from this instrument

were included in the analyses for this study (see Table 3).

The classroom-level instruments, and their use in the descriptive part of the

Observational Study of Early Childhood Programs, are described in detail in

Layzer, Goodson, Layzer, and Levin (1991) and in Layzer et al. (1993).

Rationale for Classroom Level Variable Selection

The two instruments previously described included many more classroom vari-

ables (see Layzer, Goodson, & Moss, 1993) than the subset selected for inclu-

sion in this study (Table 3). The two teacher variables from the Abt Associates

Adult-Focused Instrument were selected because they showed ways teachers

spend time in classrooms that seemed likely to be related to childrens experi-

ences and cognitive or social outcomes. The five classroom activity variables

from the Preschool Classroom Snapshot were selected to reflect the variety of

activities typically found in classrooms for young children. The sixth variable

from the snapshot instrument, child:staff ratio, was selected because variations in

ratio have been associated with observed behavior differences in children in

previous studies (Prescott, 1973; Ruopp, Travers, Glantz, & Coelen, 1979; Van-

dell & Powers, 1983). All eight variables provide information on specific educa-

tional practices that could be influenced by public policy.

Data Collection Procedures

This study focuses on data from the child-level and classroom-level measures

obtained during Spring 1991.

Collection of ChiM Level Data. The data collection team at each site con-

sisted of child assessors who were trained to complete either the cognitive mea-

sures or the BSTSP, data collectors who were trained to complete the full battery

of classroom-level measures, and a field coordinator. The BSTSP observations

were completed by child assessors who spent approximately 2 weeks in each

class on days in which PSI administrations or classroom-level observations were

not scheduled. During each data collection period, teachers completed the CBRS

rating forms.

The quality of data collected was monitored by both the field coordinator and

the data-analysis team. Observer reliability for the BSTSP was monitored twice

in the field to be certain that the observers maintained the standard of 90

interobserver agreement in each category achieved during training.

Collection of Classroom Level Data. The classroom-level data collection was

completed over a period of approximately 1 week per class. Each data collector


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263

completed the full battery of classroom-level observations for a particular class-

room and also interviewed classroom staff.

The quality of classroom-level observation and interview data was monitored

primarily by the field coordinator at each of the sites. The initial training of the

observers was reinforced subsequently in weekly review meetings among field

coordinators and data collectors. Field coordinators collected field reliability data

for the time-sample observation measure (Abt Associates Adult Focused Obser-

vation) by observing and coding with every observer at least once during the data

collection period.

RESULTS

Observed Variable Scores

Chil l Level Vari ables. Table 4 lists the means and standard deviations of the

child-level variables. The PSI mean score was 20.3 (SD = 4.9) and the CBRS

mean score was 3.8 (SD = .68).

The BSTSP classroom observation mastery variables showed children in-

volved in mastery tasks during approximately 38 of their overall observation

time and distracted during these tasks about 4 of the time.6 While working on

tasks, children used organizing and planning strategies (gathering appropriate

materials, grouping materials according to a criterion, sequencing activities ap-

propriately) at a mean rate of 1.6 per min. They completed tasks successfully

almost 83 of the time.

Under the structured observation conditions that maximized time in mastery

or social interactions, approximately 50 of the childrens time over all observa-

tions was spent in social interactions, with 38 of this time (19 of total

observation time) spent in social interactions with roles, rules, cooperative inter-

action, or true conversation (organized interaction). Involvement in social and

mastery activities could occur at the same time (a child could be working on a

puzzle and talking to a peer), so the time in social activities does not indicate that

the child was engaged exclusively in social interaction or a mastery task. During

interactions with peers, children used organizing strategies (Lets play store,

You be the mother) at the rate of approximately .6 instances per min (or about

once every 2 min) and accommodating strategies (You can share mine, We

could take turns using it) at the rate of about .15 times per min (about once

every 7 min). Children were successful in their attempts to influence peers 82

of the time and used verbal means to influence them 81 of the time.

Variables reflecting lack of adequate self-management (time uninvolved and

resisting rules or the teacher) were relatively low in frequency. Children in this

6Time allocated to either mastery or social behaviors is partially an artifact of the data collection

procedures that require that half the observations begin in a social interaction and half begin in a

mastery task. Therefore, time allocations do not necessarily reflect how a childs behavior is distrib-

uted in time during the ordinary course of a classroom day.


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TABLE 4

Means and Standard Deviations of the Child-Level Variables=

Child-Level Variable

M

SD

PSI

Spring score

CBRS (Teacher Rating)

Spring summary score

BSTSP (Classroom Observations)

Mastery variables

Proportion time in mastery activities

Rate organizing and planning strategies

Proportion tasks completed successfully

Proportion time distracted in mastery


Social variables

Proportion time in social activities

Proportion social time at organized level

Rate uses organizing strategies

Rate uses accomodating strategies

Proportion success in influencing peers

Proportion use of verbal means to influence

20.3 4.9

3.8 .68

37.6 13.5

1.6 1.0

82.7 22.2

4.0 5.9

49.8

16.4

38.3

29.1

.58 .54

.15

.20

81.5

13.6

81 .O

13.7


Self-management variables

Proportion time uninvolved

Rate resists rules or teacher

1.7 3.0

.05

.I3

aN = 586 children.

sample were uninvolved less than 2 of the time and resisted rules or the teacher

at the rate of .05 instances per min.

Classroom Level Var iables.

Table 5 shows the mean classroom scores on

each of the eight classroom-level variables selected for this study.

Information from the Abt Associated Adult-Focused Instrument indicated that

39 of all teacher-child interactions were focused specifically on teaching (indi-

viduals or groups) and 44 of the teaching interactions involved teaching cogni-

tive concepts (language, reading, math, science). Mean percentages of activities

from the Preschool Classroom Snapshot records indicated that children were

involved in goal-directed activities 34 of the time. On average, 7 of all

observed activities involved math and language, 4 involved block construction

Goal-directed activities

included math and language activities, science and natural world activ-

ities, block construction, sewing, cooking, woodworking, table games and puzzles, and looking at

books or pictures.


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265

TABLE 5

Means and Standard Deviations of Classroom-Level Variables8

Classroom-Level Variables

M SD

Variables From Abt Associates

Adult-Focused Observationb

Time teaching

Teaching focused on cognitive concepts

Variables From Preschool Classroom

Snapshotc

Goal-directed activities

Math and language activities

Block construction activities

Sand and water play activities

Dramatic and fantasy play activities

Average child : staff ratio

39 16

44 17

34

7

4

4

10

9

13

a

5

5

5

3

aN = 54 classrooms. bProportions based on time samples. CPro-

portions based on presence or absence of event in total number of class-

room snapshots.

4

involved sand and water play, and 10 involved dramatic or fantasy play.

The average enrollment across all the sample classrooms was approximately 19

(SD = 4.3), but the average attendance was only 16 so the observed child:staff

ratio was about nine children per adult in the classroom.

Table 6 gives the intercorrelations among the eight classroom-level variables.

Over all classrooms, teacher time spent in teaching was positively related to

teaching focused on cognitive concepts (r = .40, p < .Ol) and to the proportion

of snapshot instances in which goal-directed activities were observed (r = .36,

p


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TABLE 6

Correlations Among the Classroom-Level Variablesa

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6

Time teaching

Teaching cognitive .40**

concepts

Goal-directed

.36** .33*

activities

Math and language

.27

.40** .63***

activities

Block construction

.I3

-.02

.I7 -.13

Sand and water -.12 -.Ol -.38**

-.30* -.I1

activities

Dramatic and -.07 -.I3

-.I4 -.45***

.26 .23

fantasy activities

Child

:

staff ratio .Ol -.20

.07

.24

-.08 -.33* -.15

aN = 54.

p

Relations Between Teacher and Classroom Activity Variables

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