Reforestation Thesis Proposal

8/10/2019 Reforestation Thesis Proposal

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Proposal

for a Thesis in the field of Environmental Management

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Master of Liberal Arts Degree

Harvard University

Extension School

January 7, 2008


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I.

Tentative Title

Global Warming and the Desertification Crisis: Reversing Desertification in Sub-

Saharan Africa by Reforestation and Tree Planting

II.

The Research Problem

Though discovered more than 100 years ago, global warming has never been as

important an issue as it is today. The world community has now recognized the far-reaching effects of global warming. It is not simply an environmental nuisance, but a

serious economic, social, and geopolitical problem. The terrible impact of global

warming on developing nations, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), has not

received the attention it deserves. The combination of rapid population growth, global

warming, and desertification is a serious regional issue with consequences that will

endure long after the present generation.

There are two main factors contributing to global warming in SSA: the increase of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and deforestation. These factors also contribute to

the acceleration of desertification. Though more attention is given to global climate

change, desertification is of greater concern in tropical nations, with SSA in particular.

George Woodwell, an ecosystem botanist, has argued that twice as much carbon dioxide

may be released into the atmosphere through deforestation and agricultural activities than

through the burning of fossil fuel (Weart, 2003). It is widely recognized that the

industrialized nations of the world are largely responsible for anthropogenic carbon


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dioxide emissions through the burning of fossil fuel, whereas developing nations are

responsible for deforestation. Urban sprawl and destructive logging are the two major

culprits behind this problem in SSA. Rural dwellers also contribute to loss of vegetation

and trees through overgrazing, slash-and-burn and uncontrolled use of wood for fuel.

These phenomena accelerate global warming and desertification in the Sub-Saharan

Africa region.

Desertification is devastating to the economic and social development of SSA

nations. It is particularly problematic because of the rapidly dwindling freshwater supply

throughout Africa, especially in the Sahel savanna area of the continent. A recent studyhas warned that Africa faces more droughts and could have 25 percent less water by the

end of this century (CBBC Newsaround, 2006). This study also suggests that many of

Africas rivers and lakes could run dry because of changes in rainfall patterns. Under this

scenario, SSA faces complete social and economic catastrophes such as forced migrations

and regional conflicts over water resource management.

While advanced nations can seek to adapt to global warming, SSA nations lack

the capabilities for adaptation, given weak institutions, developmental limitations and the

sheer enormity of the problem. The question is how can the people of Sub-Saharan Africa

adapt to global warming and begin to reverse desertification? This is a crisis that

necessitates immediate action.

The governments of SSA, by-and-large, cannot be relied upon to deal with the

problem of global warming. Also, the world community has yet to establish any tangible

framework to address the issue of deforestation in spite of a series of international treaties

and declarations passed by the UN General Assembly on global climate change and the


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environment. Nevertheless, it is imperative that the people of SSA find effective ways to

deal with the problem of global warming and desertification. An action plan that

incorporates a bottom-up approach needs to be adopted. This will be a sustainable

approach that involves participation and full commitment of all the stakeholders. The

people at the grassroots level need to take responsibility to adapt to global warming and

reverse desertification through reforestation and tree planting. Reduction of greenhouse

gases, especially CO 2, is crucial to alleviating global warming because trees remove CO 2

from the atmosphere.

The intent of this research is to show that the community-based social marketing(CBSM) method can be made to direct reforestation and tree planting in SSA. The

research will be conducted using a Case Research Study method (Yin, 2003). This

method is preferred because it is flexible and can be easily adjusted for new data

collection methods and evidence analyses.

Four sources of evidence will be introduced in the process: documentation,

archival records, interviews and physical artifacts. The research will scrutinize

reforestation efforts underway in SSA and some other parts of the world. Interviews and

surveys will be conducted of important stakeholders, using the focus group method

(Krueger, 2000), and the survey method (Fink, 2006). The data obtained and evidence

gathered will be used to recommend a plausible CBSM afforestation and tree planting

method suitable for Sub-Saharan Africa and capable of reversing desertification. Several

cases, from SSA and other regions, will be analyzed to show how they would work with

and without a social marketing technique.


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Reforestation and tree planting can be made more effective by using the

community-based social marketing (CBSM) method. Unlike the traditional information-

based campaign, or a purely government planned and implemented program, the core

theme of CBSM strategy is to maintain and enhance natural and human resources

(McKenzie-Mohr, 1999). This will tap into the value of grassroots participation as an

essential ingredient in achieving successful and sustainable development. The objective is

to foster the concept of a community afforestation program that emphasizes collective

actions by local communities. CBSM method is a developmental and operational

strategy, which, when applied effectively, will improve productive capacity and promotea sustained socioeconomic welfare of the population.

Community-based social marketing concepts have been successfully utilized to

advance reforestation in many regions of the world. The CBSM method was used to

direct The Community Forestry Project in northeast Thailand (Hafner, 1995) and The

Redwood River Clean Water Project in Minnesota (Beran, 2003). Although CBSM has

never been used to promote reforestation in SSA, this method has been successfully

implemented in several other projects in the region. For example, CBSM method was

employed in promoting condoms for prevention of HIV and STDs in Soweto, South

Africa as part of the Adolescence Reproductive Health campaign (Meekers, 2002). The

method was also applied in The Use of Insecticide-Treated Nets efforts for malaria

control in Tanzania (Nathan, 2004).

The implication of this research is to develop a better understanding of human

behavior and to develop a method of change that can be successfully implemented in the

local culture. There are constraints posed by illiteracy, widespread corruption, and


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poverty. Rumors, suspicion, and skepticism also thrive in developing countries. It is often

difficult for researchers to address these constraints in their work. Nonetheless, well-

planned CBSM reforestation programs have been implemented successfully in other

regions of the world with characteristics similar to those of SSA. The case comparisons

should help find an effective way to proceed in SSA. Additional information on the

problem and applicability of the CBSM approach is described further in the

Background section.

III.Definition and Terms

Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or

expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial

opportunities. (Source: International Panel of Climate Change)

Adaptive Capacity: The ability of a system to adjust to climate change

(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take

advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences. (Source: International

Panel of Climate Change)

Climate Change: Any change in climate over time, whether due to natural

variability or as a result of human activity. (Source: International Panel of Climate

Change)

Climate Impact: Consequences of climate change on natural and human systems.

Depending on the consideration of adaptation, one can distinguish between potential

impacts and residual impacts. (Source: International Panel of Climate Change)


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Community-Based Social Marketing (CBSM): This is a social science research

method based upon the premises that behavior change is most effectively achieved

through initiatives delivered at the grassroots/community level with focus on removing

barriers to an activity and simultaneously enhancing the activitys benefits (McKenzie-

Mohr, 1999).

Deforestation: The removal of vegetation, largely caused by human activities

such as sprawling, logging and agricultural activities.

Desertification: The process of creating desert (intentionally or non-

intentionally) where there was not one before.Elements of Downward Spirals: a syndrome of closely related social, economic,

and ecological phenomena, which when taken together work to engender a self-

perpetuating cycle of environmental decline (Weiskel, 1992).

Emir: Islamic ruler; in some Islamic countries, an independent ruler, commander,

or governor. Emir is a title of traditional rulers in predominantly Muslim cities and towns

in northern Nigeria.

Environmental Refugees: The people that migrate because they can no longer

secure livelihood due to drought, soil erosion, desertification, deforestation and other

environmental problems (Myers, 2005).

Focus Group: A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of

people are asked about their attitude towards a product, service, concept, advertisement,

idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants

are free to talk with other group members. (Source: Reference.com).


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Global Warming: Natural and anthropogenic increase in average global

temperature (of the atmosphere near the earths surface).

Greenhouse Gases (GHG): gas emissions, which include water vapor, carbon

dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and other gases that contribute to the greenhouse

effect by absorbing infrared radiation produced by solar warming of the Earth's surface.

International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): An international organization

established by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations

Environmental Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic

information relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potential impacts andoptions for adaptation and mitigation. (Source: International Panel of Climate Change)

Sahel: A vegetation zone intermediate between desert and savannah conditions

where rainfall is irregular and unpredictable. The vegetation is a transitional scrubland.

The name is most commonly applied to the area south of the Sahara (the Sahel),

including parts of Mauritania, Chad, Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Niger. The area

frequently suffers from drought and famine. (Source: Reference.com)

Savanna: A savanna or savannah is a tropical or subtropical woodland

ecosystem. Savannas are characterized by grassland with trees being sufficiently small or

widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.

Selective Logging: Traditional logging of a specific tree, whereby other species

are left standing as long as those species do not interfere with the logging operation

(Botkin, 2003).

Slash-and-burn: Slash-and-burn refers to the cutting and burning of forests or

woodlands to create fields for agriculture or pasture for livestock, or for a variety of other


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purposes. It is sometimes part of shifting cultivation agriculture, and of transhumance

livestock herding (Reference.com, 2007).

Sprawl: Sprawl or urban sprawl is the spreading out of a city and its suburbs

over rural land at the fringe of an urban area (Wikipedia, 2007).

Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA): Regions south of North Africa, below 23 degrees

latitude.

Sustainable Development: This is development that meets the needs of the

present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

own needs (The Brundtland Commission, 2007).Tropical Moist Forest : This is a forest where average temperature is high and

relatively constant and where rainfall is also high and frequent throughout the year. This

includes lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests, which receive high amounts of rainfall

(more than 2000 mm, or 80 inches, annually) throughout the year. These forests occur in

a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America,

the Congo basin of central Africa, Indonesia and New Guinea. (Source: Reference.com)

Village Community: The village community consists of a group of people,

possibly linked by blood, using land, sometimes held communally, for cultivation and

pasturage. (Source: Reference.com)


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IV.

Research Background

The Loss of World Forests

The world's forests cover about 30 percent of the total land area or approximately

3,500 million hectares. Almost 60 percent of the forests, mostly tropical, are located in

developing countries. It has been estimated that about 180 million hectares of those

forests were lost between 1980 and 1995 as a result of human activities (Center for

International Forestry Research [CIFOR], 2007). According to the United Nations

Environmental Program, almost half of the earths forests, which were present worldwide before the industrial age, have disappeared. The report suggested that approximately 16-

20 million hectares of tropical forest are being destroyed every year (United Nations

Environmental Program [UNEP], 2006). In Africa alone, more than 5 million hectares of

forest is being lost annually and at about 1 percent, with the SSA region containing the

highest annual rate of deforestation. It was also established that nearly 75 percent of the

original tropical moist forest (TMF) in West Africa has already vanished (Sharma, 1994).

As shown on Table 1 below, SSA accounts for only about 17 percent of worlds forest

area, but it is losing its forests four times faster than the global rate. The high rate of

deforestation is alarming.

Table 1: Extracted from the State of Worlds Forests (Rogers, 2004)

REGION Population1999(millions)

Forest Area(1000 k m2)

F orest AreaPer capita(km2)

F orest As %OfTotal Land

Ann ual RateOf Deforestation(%)

WORLD 5,978 38,609 0.006 29.7 0.2SUB-SAHARAAFRICA

643 6,436 0.01 27.3 0.8


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Regions of Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is comprised of areas south of North Africa, below 23

degrees latitude. While generally subdivided into the political regions of West Africa,

East Africa, Central Africa, and southern Africa, SSA belongs to separate forest zones as

indicated in the Fig.1 below.

Fig.1: Sub-Saharan Africa: Major Regions and Forest Zones (Sharma, 1994)


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Deforestation and Global Warming

Removal or loss of vegetation has been directly linked to higher surface

temperature, increased evaporation, and reduced rainfall. The sequestration of carbon

dioxide diminishes as forests are disappearing. The subsequent increase of carbon dioxide

in the atmosphere is the basis for escalation of global warming. A loss of about 13

million hectares of forest is attributed to 1.6 billion tons annual emission of carbon-

dioxide (Eccleston, 2007). It is estimated that about 400 million tons of carbon enters the

atmosphere every year because of traditional deforestation. Selective logging is

contributing to the additional release of carbon dioxide. By accelerating erosion and fires,selective logging also has devastating impacts on bionetwork of many plants and animals.

It has been suggested that an additional 25 percent or about 100 million tons of carbon

dioxide are released into the atmosphere each year from the decomposition of plant

material that the loggers leave behind (Jha, 2005).

The last 30 years were found to be very disastrous in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

due to the consequences of soil degradation, drought, and desertification (Weiskel, 1992).

The maps (Fig. 2) below elucidate the deforestation phenomenon typical of SSA. This

rapid decimation of forests is highly unsustainable.


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Fig. 2 : Deforestation in Cote-dIvoire (UNEP/GRID, 2007)

Impacts of Deforestation and Desertification on SSA

Global warming and desertification are factors of environmental degradation and

poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Desertification is linked to the decrease of

agricultural production and chronic food insecurity, i.e., the food production can no

longer support the increase in population. In addition to the problems described below,

cyclical and cumulative processes caused by desertification have led to the Elements of

Downward Spirals in SSA nations.


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Loss of Watershed

Desertification is causing the loss of watershed in water catchments and riparian

areas throughout the SSA region. This contributes to the drying-up and pollution of

freshwater systems. Deforestation is also detrimental to a stable hydrological system.

Rich topsoil is eroded along with nutrients by persistent desertification, due to the

disappearance of ground cover that mitigates runoff. There is a strong connection

between the disappearing forestland and drying up of inland water bodies throughout the

region. Recent studies suggested that up to 135 million people in developing nations are

threatened by severe desertification while 550 million people are subjected to chronicwater shortages (Batten, 2007).

Loss of ecosystem

While tropical forests are only about 12 percent of all forests worldwide, they are

home to 50 percent of the global plants and animal species. At the current rate of

deforestation, it is predicted that tropical forests will no longer exist as a functional

ecosystem in the next 100 years (The Nature Conservancy, 2007). Global warming and

the destruction of natural habitats will lead to significant declines and extinctions of the

worlds 8,750 bird species over the next century, according to a study conducted by

biologists at the University of California, San Diego and Princeton University (Science

Daily, 2007). Since SSA is home to the second largest tropical forests, continuing

desertification threatens not only humans, but also the existence of all natural habitats in

the region.


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protected forest is preferable for municipal water. Forests are also found to efficiently

cycle nutrients and chemicals while decreasing the sediment exported downstream. They

also reduce pollutants such as phosphorous and heavy metals entering bodies of water.

Since most rural dwellers of SSA depend on firewood for fuel, reforestation can

provide more readily available wood. It will improve biodiversity conservation. It will

improve capacity-building for women and girls in rural areas, who are traditionally

responsible for gathering firewood and collecting water from the streams. Tree planting

will also provide economic opportunities, such as wood pulp for paper production and

timber logging.

The Need for Bottom-up Approach

The problem of global warming and desertification is an all-encompassing

developmental issue that affects the most vulnerable people of Sub-Saharan Africa

(SSA). Local people and rural dwellers are the core target of community afforestation. It

is therefore necessary to seek substantive, popular participation. It is argued that lasting

improvement cannot be achieved without strategies that preserve and boost human

resources (Hafner, 1995). The affected stakeholders must be part of the ultimate solution.

Through the use of community-based social marketing (CBSM) approach, it has been

demonstrated that productive and sustainable community reforestation activities, based

on participatory strategies, can be successfully implemented (Cernea, 1990). By

introducing community afforestation, the people of SSA would in essence take control of

their destiny.


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Community-based Social Marketing (CBSM) Method

Community-based social marketing is based upon research in the social sciences,

which demonstrates that behavioral change can be effectively achieved through initiatives

delivered at the community level. This method involves four steps: 1) Identify barriers

and benefits to an activity. 2) Develop a strategy that utilizes tools that have been

previously shown to be effective in changing behavior. 3) Pilot the strategy. 4) Evaluate

the strategy once it has been implemented across a community (McKenzie-Mohr, 1999).

Unlike conventional methods of forest management, community afforestation

emphasizes substantive grassroots participation beyond the tasks of tree planting. Theeffectiveness of this concept is entrenched in the participation of members of organized

groups with developed leadership, norms, and procedures for self-management. This

process involves voluntary participation, shared common interests, and a willingness to

associate and assume responsibility. The most important aspects of community

reforestation are the creation of a basis for collective action, development of local

institutions, and the promotion of values that will encourage participation (Cernea, 1990).

The community-based social marketing strategies will focus on enhancing

perceived benefits and reducing perceived barriers. Experiences have shown that action

occurs when benefits are greater than costs. Additionally, stakeholders for community

afforestation are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local leaders, while the

government is expected to provide a conducive environment for the project to succeed.

Iwasaki Campaign, Hope for Sahel: Tree Planting Project, TPP

The Iwasaki Campaign (1999-2000), a tree planting project, was part of the Green

Cross Burkina Faso and Green Cross Japan. The program was planned to reverse


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desertification in the sahelian country of Burkina Faso, West Africa (Green Cross

International [GCI], 2000). Jointly instituted by two NGOs, the Green Cross International

and Green Cross Burkina Faso, it was aimed at regeneration -- to turn Sahelian soils of

the country green again. Nearly 10,000 saplings were planted in the provinces of

Yatenga, Katiogo and Comoe. The project resulted in valuable quantitative and

qualitative achievements. However, three problems were encountered during the project.

The first problem was the difficulties in transporting young trees (nurseries) from

where they were produced to the planting sites, due to poor road network systems. The

second problem was the rapid wearing out of work-tools that could not be maintainedlocally by the users. The last problem was the delay in arrival of the rainy season, since

the trees were planted in anticipation of future rains. To eliminate these problems, the

CBSM theme will make people the target of the reforestation efforts, rather than relying

solely on technology. Adopting and trusting the judgment of locals will minimize long-

distance transportation of nurseries and the effects of a delayed rainy season. This is

because the local people understand their respective terrain and know well the native

trees suitable for reforestation. Education and training will also be an important part of

the CBSM reforestation efforts, so that the tools and equipment used can be easily

maintained by the locals.

Village Reforestation in Thailand

The Village Reforestation project in Thailand is one successful community

forestry project implemented with the aid of CBSM technique (Hafner, 1995). The

project is focused on selected rural communities in two provinces, Khon Kaen and

Mahasarakham. Like the situations in SSA, desertification had already decimated a large


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portion of the land in these communities; the remaining forest was less than 5 percent of

the total provincial land area before the inception of reforestation. The projects were

initiated with the support of grassroots organizations known as Community-Based

Integrated Rural Development Centers (CBIRD).

Using the CBSM method, the project was directed in four interrelated phases. The

first phase, Organization and Implementation , was focused on developing community

support and commitment for the task of organizing and establishing a village woodlot.

The second phase, Sustaining Activity, stressed reinforcing local participation and the

transfer of agro-forestry technology. This process encouraged optimum use of the landand provided short-term supplementary income. The third phase, Sustainable Woodlot

Cooperatives , organized revolving funds to enable the locals manage economic benefits

from woodlot harvests, and distribute those resources among small farmers for village

development activities. The final phase, Sustainable Village Reforestation, was directed

toward improving self-sufficiency through creating local seedling nurseries, diversifying

woodlot plantings, and extending tree planting throughout the community.

With slight modifications, the above reforestation method can be used to promote

reforestation in SSA. For example, the village community system in rural Sub-Saharan

Africa provides opportunity for organizing cooperatives because the village heads are

traditional chief executives who are capable of directing their subjects in these endeavors.

The people in SSA venerate, and are obedient to the traditional rulers. However, there is a

need for education and incentives to sustain the activities. Cash crops like cocoa trees,

mahogany and citrus trees like orange, mango, cashew, etc. flourish in SSA. Focusing on

useful trees like these will serve dual purposes. It will provide a source of jobs and


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income for the locals, which is a potential economy base for establishing cooperatives. It

will also serve the intended purpose of reversing desertification.

The Green Belt Movement, GBM

Dr. Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement (GBM) during her active

participation in the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK) in the mid 1970s. At

its onset, GBM was a grassroots organization focused on womens empowerment and

capacity building. GBM was launched to involve women in tree planting to conserve the

environment, and improve their quality of life. The program has since grown and helped

women throughout Kenya. Almost 30 million trees have been planted on farms, schoolgrounds, and church compounds throughout Kenya and some other East African

countries (BBC Online, 2004). However, GBM has not been widely adopted in SSA

because the necessary incentives are lacking.

There are three limitations identified in GBMs approach. First, by narrowly

focusing on capacity building for women, the program failed to include a broader range

of stakeholders. Secondly, the program was not given adequate exposure beyond Kenya

and some neighboring East African countries. Thirdly, Dr. Maathai has been actively

involved in politics and human right activism. As the current Kenyan Minister for the

Environment, Dr. Maathais involvement in partisan politics could undermine popular

acceptance and avert the opposing political parties from embracing her environmental

programs. The GBM can be improved upon by using the CBSM method to direct the

program. The UNEP Billion Tree Campaign launched at the November 2006 climate

change meeting by Dr. Maathai (UNEP, 2006) can also be advanced with the CBSM


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method. As community afforestation, it will be given adequate exposure throughout SSA

and be directed as an independent non-governmental organization (NGO) program.

Adapting CBSM to Sub-Saharan Culture

Community based social marketing can be adapted for reforestation and tree

planting in Sub-Sahara Africa. As illustrated in the above projects, there are several

techniques of CBSM that can be used to harness the tradition and culture of SSA people

to promote community afforestation. First, by using community village system , the local

people can be organized for broad-based participation. Local chiefs, community headsand paramount rulers are capable of exerting influence on their respective subjects to gain

and sustain community supports for social initiatives. Secondly, by engaging and

incorporating local involvement , native trees that are adaptable to local soil and climatic

conditions will be identified and used in the program. The indigenous people know and

understand their local environment. Thirdly, using cash crops and native plants will add

value to the program by providing economic opportunities and environmental sustenance.

Fourth, in order to ensure region-wide and sustained involvement, education, training

and adequate exposure about community afforestation will be made available to the

people of SSA. Finally, the CBSM method will be made independent of partisan politics .

This is necessary in order to gain the broad-based participation, and support of all the

relevant stakeholders.

There are always impediments researchers cannot anticipate, but these can be

overcome by understanding the people, culture and environment where the social

marketing technique is being applied. For example, under the Global Polio Eradication


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Initiatives, the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund made

efforts to eradicate polio in Nigeria. But they were initially met with stiff resistance in the

northern part of the country. This was due to rumors that the vaccines were tainted with

HIV/AIDs viruses as part of deliberate efforts by the West to decimate the Muslim

population (Samba, 2004). The misunderstanding and confusion were overcome through

intervention of the emirs, political representatives, and the local medical professionals

who reassured the populace of the safety and benefits of polio vaccination. The program

has since regained momentum in Nigeria.

The impact of global warming and desertification has been disastrous on theregion of SSA. This research centers on how the people of the region can adapt to global

warming and reverse desertification through reforestation and tree planting. My

hypothesis proposes the use of CBSM to promote the reforestation. Using the case study

method, this research will examine projects like the ones discussed in this proposal and

explore how they can be improved upon for community afforestation in SSA. The

application of the case study method is described in the following Research Methods

section.


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V.

Research Methods

In order to adapt to global warming, reverse the desertification and water crisis,

the people of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) need to take action at the grassroots level. The

purpose of this research is to show how community-based social marketing (CBSM) can

be used to promote reforestation and tree planting. The case study method (Yin, 2003)

will be used to test the hypothesis because it is a comprehensive research strategy,

comprising of method, logic design, data collection techniques, and specific approaches

to data analysis.Five components of research design will be followed. The first is a study

question, which asks how the people of SSA can begin to reverse desertification? Second,

a study proposition is the clear mandate of the exact behavior to be promoted. This is the

use of community-based social marketing to promote reforestation and tree planting.

Third, the unit analysis involves considering and comparing of case studies.

Reforestation projects that utilized social marketing and other methods in the SSA and

other areas of the world will be examined. Fourth, linking data to proposition is the

pattern matching technique that will be used to relate data collected from various cases

with the proposition. Finally there are the criteria for interpreting study findings. Three or

four reforestation cases will be studied in this research. Two rival propositions, social

marketing reforestation and another method of reforestation (such as a government

sponsored project) will be compared.

A multiple case design will be used to pursue this proposition, because the

evidence obtained by this technique is considered to be more compelling than a single


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case design. Three or four cases will be studied, using theoretical replication logic, where

the contrasting results can be predicted at the onset. This is necessary to show that the

CBSM is the best method to promote reforestation in SSA.

Three steps will be used to uncover the barriers and benefits of my proposition.

The first step is to review relevant documentation and archival records. The second step

is to develop a questionnaire, conduct a pilot survey and identify potential focus groups.

The third step is to conduct final survey and interview to obtain qualitative information

through the focus groups so as to explore in-depth attitudes and behavior of the people of

SSA regarding community afforestation.The case study research method (Yin, 2003) consists of six sources of evidence:

documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation,

and physical artifacts. Four sources of evidence will be used in this research study as

noted in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Sources of Evidence (Yin, 2003)

Source Evidence

Documentation

Review of books, journals, articles from leading scientific

and environmental organizations, records from international

organizations such as IPCC, UNEP, World Bank, African

Development Bank, etc. This will include news articles.

Archival RecordsLocal and area maps, charts, survey data, census records,

environmental studies, and historical data.

Interviews

Interviews and survey will be directed on focus groups such

as NGOs, International organizations, and leading

researchers involved in reforestation and Sub-Saharan

Africas environmental affairs and sustainable development.


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Direct

Observation

Exploration visit to the northern part of Nigeria, as part of

an environmental impact survey; collect and review data to

establish comparison between prior and current condition of

forest area/land, and reforestation projects.

Participant

Observation

Participant-observation evidence does not apply to this

research study.

Physical Artifacts Physical artifacts do not apply to this research study.

Extensive research will be conducted of relevant literature and archival records

during data review stage (potentially leading to identification of candidates for the focus

group). Between three and four focus groups will be sought for interviewing. The variant

of the focus groups will be determined in consultation with my thesis director.

Questionnaires for the focus groups will be developed during the documentary data

review stage. After developing a questionnaire, initial interviews will be tested through

pilot surveys conducted through a web site, Survey Monkey

(http://www.surveymonkey.com). This process may be done several times until the final

version is developed. The focus group interviews will be conducted, using the method

recommended by Kruger and Casey (Krueger, 2000). The focus groups will be an

important means of acquiring feedback regarding community-based social marketing in

SSA.

The Table 3 below shows a flow chart of the surveying and interviewing process.

It shows the various steps that will be taken to develop a survey questionnaire and

follows it through to the completion of data reporting (Fink & Kosecoff, 2005).


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Table 3. Survey & Interview Methods Flow Chart

Develop InitialQuestionnaire

Conduct Pilot Surveysto Test Questionnaire

Revise Surveyand Possibly Test Again

Conduct Survey & Interviewof Focus Groups

Process the Data

Evaluate Results UsingMultivariate Statistical Analysis

Report Results

Develop Recommendations forPolicy Changes or Future

Research

Following the survey and interview stages, all data will be organized and

analyzed. Harvards FAS approval will be sought for the interview procedures. If more

candidates (focus groups) are identified after initial interviews or during the exploration

visit, then new interviews will be conducted, and the data re-organized and re-analyzed.


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After this action is completed, final recommendations and conclusions will be processed,

the hypothesis tested, and the research project will be written.

The quality of research design is judged by use of four social science tests:

construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. The qualitative

evidence in this research will be analyzed by using three of these four tests. First, through

construct validity , the specific type of change to be studied and the changes being

proposed will be clearly specified, i.e., how the people of SSA can reverse desertification

by using CBSM method to promote reforestation and tree planting. Secondly, through

external validity , findings will show whether social marketing reforestations in otherregions can be generalized to work in SSA. Thirdly, the reliability will ensure that errors

and biases are minimized. Every effort will be made to ensure that the conclusion arrived

at can be replicated under similar conditions.

In summary, the research protocol is divided into three main research stages. The

first stage, define and design, is to develop theory, select cases and design data collection

protocol. The second stage, prepare-collect-analyze, is to conduct case studies and write

an individual case study. The third stage, analyze and conclude, is to draw cross-case

conclusions, modify theory, develop policy implications and write cross-case report. Of

course, there are always limitations associated with both the proposed research topic and

the case study research method that will be used. Some of these limitations are discussed

in the following Research Limitations section.

VI.

Research Limitations


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There are several limitations that may affect the scope of this research proposition

and the research method. Some of the limitations of community-based social marketing

(CBSM), as related to the people of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), are narrated in the

Research Background section. The research method itself can also be affected by

limitations of bias, data availability, up-to-date information, access to data and

information, political agenda and remoteness of the subject (Yin, 2003).

A major concern of focus groups is the issue of observer dependency, whereby

the results obtained are influenced by the researcher. This raises questions of validity.

From a personal point of view, I was born and raised in Nigeria, a SSA nation. There are preconceived notions about the people, behavior, and attitudes that may influence my

interpretation of the research findings. I intend to overcome these biases by remaining

focused on the core issue of community afforestation and by working closely with my

research director.

Access to up-to-date information about deforestation problems and efforts of the

global community is vital to the development of any sustainable strategy. A new agenda

to combat global deforestation is being deliberated at the United Nations Environmental

Conference, which is underway in Bali, Indonesia. The outcome of this conference

regarding the desertification problem in SSA, if any, will be of particular interest.

Therefore, I intend to stay attuned to news about the possible outcomes of any new

declaration by the conference. Because of the remoteness of the subject, the information

obtained from the focus groups may not reflect the cultural behavior and attitudes of all

the people of SSA.


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Another possible bias is the focus groups potential political agenda. There may

even be a bias against environmentalists as doomsday alarmists. The focus groups and

survey questions will be carefully selected to minimize these types of limitations. My

analysis will also take into account that the researcher is not an observer, but a participant

(Walvis, 2003).

The duration of my exploratory visit to Nigeria may be affected by a limited

availability of funds and the unpredictable social and political atmosphere in SSA

nations. By staying connected with events and current news in the country, I intend to

plan the expedition with minimal interruption.There are other important implications to be considered in this study. One

implication is whether reforestation can survive the severe dryness, which has already

taken its toll on SSA. Another is whether the rural dwellers would ever allow nurseries to

grow to maturity without plucking the young trees for firewood. Community afforestation

should be an integral part of poverty alleviation and other sustainable development efforts

in SSA, thus dissuading interference from the locals. Future studies can build upon

lessons learned from this research.

The following section is a detailed tentative schedule of the thesis preparation.

The schedule will ensure prompt completion of the proposed thesis and research within a

period of nine months.


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VII.

Tentative Schedule

The proposed schedule follows the thirty-six week (nine-month) timeframe

suggested in Harvard Extension School ALM Thesis Guide.

Initial submission of proposal ...January 23, 2008

Proposal returned for revision....................February 4, 2008

Submission of final proposal ......................February 13, 2008

Proposal accepted by Research Advisor .........February 25, 2008

Thesis Director selected ..................................................................March 12, 2008First draft of thesis completed ..............May 19, 2008

Thesis Director returns first draft ......June 13, 2008

Revised draft of the thesis completed....................July 3, 2008

Thesis Director returns revised draft ......August 1, 2008

Final text submitted to Thesis Director and Research Advisor. September 1, 2008

Final text approved .......September 15, 2008

Bound copy submitted and approved ..................September 29, 2008

Graduation ........................November, 2008


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VIII.

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