REFLECTIONS ON LOCAL KNOWLEDGE ANDSUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT

By

Nnabugwu O. ULUOCHADepartment of Geography and Planning

University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos.

Paper Presented at the 41st Annual Conference of theNigerian Geographical Association (NGA), Held at University of Uyo,

Uyo, Nigeria, May 31st - June sth, 1998.

AbstractEnvironmental problems in the country are now becoming more

daring than ever before. Various policies and institutions have been put inplace to tackle such problems like erosion, pollution, desertification,flooding, landslide, deforestation, and so on. However, one notable missinglink in the current efforts geared towards ameliorating the environmentalproblems besetting the nation is the failure of policy makers andimplementors to integrate established local knowledge and practices ofenvironmental resources/risk management, in dealing with life threateningenvironmental problems. Such a failure has meant formulating and ex-ecuting environmental policies that are rather alien and hence, non-workable. With pratical examples, copiously drawn from a typical ruralcommunity in Igboland, the paper highlights the inevitable place oftraditional values and local knowledge in the proper understanding, as-sessment and management of environmental resources/risk. The paperalso briefly highlights some of the potential benefits of using localknowledge in handling environmental issues and concerns. A call is thusmade for the generous use of local knowledge in the formulation andimplementation of environmental protection policies, failure of which suchpolicies may not be efficacious. Finally, the paper advocates the creation ----of a national Local Knowledge System (LKS) for the monitoring,evaluation, allocation and management of environmental resources.

1.0 Introduction

That man is increasingly becoming too hostile to the physical environment is a

basic truth that is as clear as the crystal. In his rather unquenchable quest for greater

economic prosperity, man plans and executes various programmes, at times to the very

detriment of the well-being of the environment. Air and water pollution, soil and coastal

erosion, desertification, landslide, and so on are all signs ofa sick environment, occasioned

by man's careless and unscrupulous use of environmental resources.

However, like a new dawn, the need for a well-orchestrated environmental

protection exercise is gradually but steadily unfolding. Environmental protection policies

are being formulated and implemented, all in a conscious bid to checkmate man's inhumanity

to the environment. Most of these policies, good as they may be, seem rather exotic since

they were crafted without putting into consideration our indigenous values, perception

2

and knowledge of the environment and environmental management. No wonder, such poli ies

have not really been able to accomplish the results for which they were enunciated. It is

inevitably expedient to craft environmental protection policies that adequately take into

consideration some relevant aspects of our cultural ethos.

The crux of this paper therefore, is to highlight, using some examples, the potential

role of local knowledge as well, as certain traditional beliefs and practice in preserving and

conserving the natural environment. The experience shared here is drawn largely from a

typical locale in Igboland.

2.0 Let Us Reason Together

Wherever man goes the environment never remains the same. Increasing human

concentration in a place, changing economic activities, and changes in human taste, beliefs,

.- attitmte-s-amt-trehaviours, all affecttheenvironment one way or the other. But any threat to

the environment is a threat to man's very existence. The environment has to exist for man to

exist. This therefore partly underlines "the need for a strategy of sustainable development

which involves the.articulation.of environmental and other elements of human needs and

rights with the economic growth and development objectives" (Izeogu, et al., 1992).

In realisation of the unsavoury effects of environmental degradation on man, efforts

are currently being intensified at global as well as national levels to discourage man from

fouling his own nest -- the environment. However, such efforts seem to follow a top-down

approach. Hence, in most cases only top government officials are involved in talks and

programmes aimed at crafting strategies for a better use of environmental resources. Again

due to the top-down approach in use environmental protection laws are mostly operative in

the urban areas, just as environmental conservation efforts are mostly concentrated in the

urban areas too. The top-down approach to environmental matters is obviously faulty, at

least given the' Nigerian situation. Thus one is strongly compelled to believe that for a

meaningful environmental conservation to be achieved in this country for sustainable

development, a down-top approach should be embraced.

Environmental management policies and efforts should seriously consider our rural

3

communities. In fact, the rural sector should be the starting point of any environmental

protection programmes. This should be so in view of the fact that about 70% of our national

population live in rural areas. Also the rural people interact more closely and frequently with

the environment than their urban counterparts. Moreover, there is yet a high level of illiteracy

among our rural population; but it is commonly known that there is a strong direct correlation

between literacy level and environmental preservation. Importantly, there is need to under-

stand and incorporate local or traditional environmental knowledge and practice in the for-

mulation and implementation of national environmental protection laws and policies.

From all indications, knowledge of-local institution and cultural practice is a very

crucial success factor in environmental management. Tradition is considered the bedrock of

society on which any kind of development is built. Thus, as Erediauwa (1997) has warned

concerning Nigeria, "for as long as our culture and traditional values are thrown over-board~

under the guise of modernity, so long will the country be 'moving forward in a circle' no

matter the good intentions of government. .." For this reason, ifbetter environmental protec-

tion is to be achieved there is an uncompromising need for a community-based, people-

centered natural resource management programme which focuses on land use planning and

property right. To this end, local people should be allowed to participate in managing local

natural resources by recognising and accepting their legal, institutional and attitudinal chariges---

(Luning, 1995).

The need to tenaciously embrace age-long traditional knowledge and values in the•• _ _ ("...J

onerous search for lasting solutions to environmental problems was strongly underscored by

Vice President AI Gore of USA in a recent article published in the November 1997 edition of

the Time magazine. In the words of Al Gore, "Our challenge is to find new ways to address

[environmental] problems by reaching back to our oldest values of community and respon-

sibility -- by inspiring a greater respect for the land and the resources we share -- even as

economies and societies advance and develop around the world." ( Emphasis mine).

Neglecting the rural areas as well as their traditional values and knowledge in envi-

ronmental management could have a very damaging backwash effect. The physical

environment viewed from a macro level, is one huge, whole system comprising several4

components. A threat to the environment anywhere is a potential threat to the environment

everywhere. It has in fact been pointed out that "Environmental troubles have a way of

traveling from one neighbourhood to the next" (Linden, 1997).

Thus, if he war against environmental degradation is to be fought and won, the rural

communities should be considered alongside their urban counterparts. Moreover, while we

hurriedly hail a.nd hug every new theories and techniques of environmental management,

ancient wisdom must not be relegated to the background or discarded entirely. It should be

instructive to note here that occasionally, adopting a foreign technology in preference to

indigenous technology could be counterproductive; the foreign technology may after all end

up not being as efficacious as expected due to certain factors like unfavourable local envi-

ronment. As Simonett (1983) has observed, the solutions for which a new technology needs

to be adopted and implemented are, in general, dependent upon local conditions and must b~

compatible with the cultural environment of the recipient region. Mearung therefore that If

the cultural environment of the recipient community is radically different from that of the

source of technology, the successful transfer of the new technology may be in jeopardy.

In view of the foregoing therefore, we hasten to postulate the thesis that our local~~-

communities have a rich belief system and cultural framework that equally support environ-

mental protection, and as such, that such local knowledge should be taken into consideration

while tinkering out environmental protection policies for the larger society, failure of which

such policies will remain largely ineffective and inefficient.

3.0 Some Traditional Ways of Managing Environmental Resources

To think that our traditional society is not environment conscious is to make a costly

mistake. Again to consider traditional methods of protecting environmental resources as

being ineffective is tantamount to unfair judgement. Right from the beginning, our local

communities have consciously or unconsciously felt the need to safeguard the various aspects

of the environment in which they lived. Hence, from one local community to another certain

traditional beliefs and practice which encourage environmental preservation, abound. It is

interesting to note that some of such beliefs and practice were not deliberately put in place5

I •---- .•.----........:

for the express purpose of protecting the environment; rather they are the products of super-

stition, traditional religion, and local sayings (proverbs, idioms, pithy remarks, folklore,

etc.). This section is therefore aimed at beaming a searchlight on certain traditional measures

adopted by the people in a typical Igbo rural community to manage environmental resources

such as water, soil, flora and fauna.

3.1 Tradition and Water Resources Protection

It is a truism, even as it is commonly said, that water is life. Traditionally, the Igbo

man adopts various measures to protect his water resources. For instance, over-fishing

especially in smaller streams and rivers, is a practice that is greatly frowned at. It is widely

believed localiy that there is an inseparable relationship between water and fish. Hence it is

feared that if the fish population in a any stream should be highly decimated the stream may

d!):'up in anll(~y.~n~e-- a situation that would obviously affect the local community. Water is

often considered as an object or a type of purity which need not be defiled. Thus, tradition in

Igboland forbids a woman in her menses from going to a stream or river to have her bath. In

the same vein, washing of clothing materials and fermenting offood crops such as cassava,

are practices that are not allowed in certain waters, especially those streams that are known

to yield drinkabtewarer. -

Periodically, the dredging of streams and rivers is organised and executed on a com-

munal basis. This exercise ensures the longevity of the water bodies, as it prevents siltation

and eutrophication, while enhancing the flow of such water bodies.

Traditionally, certain streams, rivers or lakes found in a community are recognised

as objects of worship, hence they are considered sacred. Due to the expected tangible and

intangible bene~ts accruable to its worshippers, such a water body is often jealously guided

against any form of destruction.

3.2 Land (Soil) Conservation

He who desecrates the land, the land will chase after him, is a popular Igbo proverb.

Land is one commodity the traditional Igbo man places a very high premium on. His belief6

that ifhe should destroy the land he would have no other place to live in, inspires him to take

care of the land. Consequently, to ensure ·the continuous availability of fertile land for

farming purposes he practises land (bush) fallow. Thus, even before the advent of modern or --

scientific agricultural practices, a typical rural farmer in Igboland had already known the

need to allow the land to observe a period ofrest. Through the practise ofland fallow he

prevents soil impoverishment and erosion.

For the traditional care he has for his land and crop, many a rural farmer in Igboland

still objects to the use of fertilisers in farming. Reasons? He believes that (i) crops grown

with fertilisers are never as nutritious as those cultivated without fertilisers; (ii) fertiliser-

grown crops, according to him, get rotten so easily, hence they don't store for long; (iii) the

gods may feel offended that he (the local farmer) now trusted in fertilisers rather than in

them, for soil fertility and bumper harvest. That the remote farmer is rather averse to the use

offertilisers may seem to be a predisposition. propelled by assumptive or superstitious beliefs,

yet in a sense, his refusal to use fertilisers translates to an act of environmental protection.

Many types offertilisers are known to take long to disintegrate in the soil, in fact, some don't

even disintegrate at all. When grains of organic fertilisers remain in the soil for too long

there is a high probability of them being washed into rivers, streams or lakes, or they may

seep into the soil in some cases reaching the underground water, thereby polluting the

underground reservoirs.

One of the greatest offences of construction companies today is the digging and

abandoning of borough pits. Such pits when acted upon by forces of nature often trigger off

environmental disasters such as landslide and gully erosion. However, the local Igboman is

wiser in his construction of pits. Usually, when pits are dug to excavate red earth for con-

struction works, such pits are later on converted to refuse dumping grounds. His eagerness

to fill up the pit is often borne out of the fear not to lose any life. He is afraid that his

domestic animal may fall into it and eventually dies. Moreover, there is this esoteric belief

that a pit dug and left empty is hungry, and thus is yearning for a human body to be dumped

into it. Well, whether or not this local man is justified in his fears about the empty pit is not

important at this time, the interesting thing rather is to know that such fears compel him to

'7

take adequate care of the pit, which is an act of environmental protection.

3.3 Protecting Vegetal Resources

Certain cultural practices of the Igbo promote the protection and preservation of

local vegetal resources. The ancient act of designating certain woods as evil forests, is one

of such practices. The concept of evil forests may have a religious undertone, but the fact is

that it helps to preserve some aspects of the plant community. Usually, people are forbidden

from tampering with any forest designated as 'evil' ( in fact, ordinarily, people are afraid of

entering into such forests). Hence certain so-called evil forests in Igboland still remain in

their pristine state, this should be interesting to forest conservationists especially in view of

the fact that it is difficult today to find virgin forests. Since the cutting of trees and harvest-

ing of firewood is outlawed in evil forests, such forests have withstood man's uncanny inter-

ference and are thus rich repositories of certain rare species of flora.

The loca people equally preserve the life of certain plants by attaching religious

values to them. Some of such plants are used in the construction of shrines, while some form

revered objects of direct worship. In any case, any plant used for religious purposes is

usually considered sacred and as such is never allowed to be tampered with. Certain rare

plant species which would have otherwise gone into extinction are mostly found in local

shrines today.

Equally, the practice of domesticating some plants is a local culture that enhances

environmental protection. The act of domestication establishes and strengthens man's fiiendly

relationship with his environment. Through domestication, the population of certain plants

is increased; the domesticated plants are usually of value to man, hence he would do everything

possible to ensure the continued availability of such plants.

Similarly,by attaching medicinal value to certain plant species the traditional Igboman

sets the stage for the preservation of such plants. Despite the breakthroughs achieved by

modem medical science and technology, an interior Igbo still strongly believes in the efficacy

of his local herbs more than in modem medicine. Thus, his ardent believe in the medicinal

prowess of some plants compels him to take every possible bold step to preserve the plants.

8

It is fashionable in Igbo communities to consider the eating of some plants or crops

as a taboo. The reason for this is not our concern for now; our interest is to point out the role

of taboos in environmental preservation. When the eating of the leaves or fruits of certain

edible plants is forbidden such plants grow freely. It has been known that some plant species

which are almost at the verge of extinction elsewhere grow profusely and abound in areas

where their consumption is considered a taboo. This way, the continued existence of some

plants is ensured.

Land clearing for farming purposes is a common practice in the Igbo country side. In

most cases, after cutting down the bush it is allowed to 'ripe' i.e. get dry before setting it on

fire. However, before firing the bush, conventional wisdom teaches that certain precautionary

measures be taken to avert any possible calamity. For instance, the owner of the farmland

may cut a narrow path round the edges of the farmland to be fired. This is usually done to

avoid the spread of fire to neighbouring farmlands or bushes, some of whicnmay De-in --

fallow at that moment. This is a healthy environmental protection exercise. A man whose

land that is under fallow is prematurely burnt never takes it kindly with his offender.

Traditional laws against indiscriminate grazing, by.domestic animals are extant in

various parts ofIgboland. Free ranging of goats and sheep is a practice that is never allowed

due to its damaging effect to domestic crops. The need to confine animal grazing to certain

designated areas to avoid both over-grazing and destruction of economic crops is well known

to the local people. In the rural areas women are mostly involved in the enforcement of the

law against free range grazing. Usually, the. owner of an offending animal is made to pay a

stipulated fine, failure of which his property would be confiscated.

3.4 Protecting The Animal Community

In various parts of Igboland traditional measures exist by which animals (both on

land and in the waters), are preserved. or instance, the practice of not eating fishes and

other water-based animals from certain streams and rivers, is one of such measures. There is

the local belief, or should we say fear, that eating of animals from -some streams or rivers

could lead to infertility, sickness, or even death. Thus such waters become no-go areas as far

9

as fishing is concerned. The obvious environmental importance of this is the abundance of

fishes of different species in such waters. As a matter offact, certain fish species are found

only in the outlawed streams and rivers.

Apart from fishes, the eating of certain land animals is equally viewed as an abhorrent

practice in some communities. The reasons for shunning the eating of the animals could

vary from religious to historic or even mere superstition. Whatever the reason however, the

important thing is that by not killing and eating those animals they are preserved.

Similarly, game hunting in some forests is outright banned in some local communities.

In this case, it is not that eating of animals from the affected forests is a taboo, instead what

is forbidden is just going directly into such forests to hunt for animals. Irrespective of the

cultural reasons behind this act, the fact remains that it is an unconscious way of protecting

the animal community. Of a truth, the affected forests often turn out to be wildlife sanctuaries.

Related to this practice of not hunting in some forests is the local practice whereby hunting--

is never allowed on certain market days. This varies from one community to another. This.~---practice equally has an inherent tendency to contributing to the preservation of wildlife.

Like it was said of plants, domestication is equally a powerful tool of conserving

some animals--- -- -_._-----

3.5 Environmental Sanitation

Even before the institution of the now popular monthly national environmental sani-

tation exercise, it had been and is still a well established practice in our rural communities to

tidy up their surroundings on a regular basis. Not only that local regulations and penalties

guiding routine environmental cleaning existed, particular institutions were actually constituted

and mandated to oversee and enforce the regulations and penalties as may be appropriate.

The much dreaded sanitary inspection officers operated during and shortly after the

colonial era. Today they are no more in operation. However, prior to the advent of the

Sanitary Inspection officers daily domestic sanitation was a task conscientiously accomplished

by women in our rural society. The women constituted a task force mandated to move from

one compound to another to inspect and ensure the cleanliness of each compound and to

10

bring to book any defaulting compound. But the local people's sense of environmental

cleanliness was not limited to their immediate surrounding alone. Instead, as is still the

practice today, women often embarked on the sweeping of market places as well as major

roads leading to such markets. This is commonly done every market day (which may be

every other 4 days or 8 days). Usually, any latecomer or absentee to the cleaning exercise is

made to pay an appropriate fine.

Equally, as a means of maintaining ~ clean environment, regular communal clearing

of footpaths leading to streams, markets, farmlands, neighbouring communities and other

places, is often embarked upon by the local people. This exercise often involved the collective

effort and participation of both men and women in the community. Whereas the men embarked

on cutting down obstructing tall grasses, shrubs and twigs, the women engaged in weeding

the paths of grasses. Similarly, apart from undertaking the clearing of important footpaths,

--€emmunal eff-orts-areoccasionally geared towards fighting environmental problems such as

erosion, flooding and landslide. It is interesting to note that in various rural communities an

environmental task force is deliberately put in place to identify environmental problems,

map out strategies for tackling such problems, prepare work schedule, and mobilize the---.local populace to engage in environmental management action.

4.0 The Path Forward

The war against environmental degradation needs to be fought from all possible

angles, and the war should be carried to all fronts -- rural as well as urban areas. And one

possible way of moving forward in this war is to go back to the basics.

The apparent neglect of our traditional knowledge, values and techniques of envi-

ronmental management has created notable gaps and loopholes in our environmental

protection policies and actions. As a matter of exigency, the environmental perception and

values of our rural communities need to be adequately discovered, identified, duly recognised,

properly documented, generously adopted or adapted, and infused into our national

environmental action policies. By so doing, some of the missing links in our environmental

policies would have been supplied.

11

To this end therefore, it is hereby recommended that government agencies such as

the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), and the Nigerian Conservation Foun-

dation (NCF), as well as the Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST) and other

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBOs),

should sponsor research studies and documentary on our indigenous knowledge, values and

practice of environmental management. In the same token, private organisations, environ-

mentalists, the academia, and even the press should equally be involved in the effort to

fathom the largely neglected traditional ways of dealing with environmental problems to

forge a harmonious and lasting relationship between man and environment. The data garnered

through such research effort could be used to establish a national local knowledge system

(LKS), which will arguably serve as a veritable tool for the sound monitoring, evaluation,

allocation and management of environmental resources.

The importance of local krrowledge-irrenviromnental risk management cannot be

overemphasised. Local knowledge provides the much needed historical account of

environmental risks; this information is important in the proper understanding and assessment

of the behaviour, evolutionary trend, nature, extentand impact of any given risk. If it is a risk

that occurs seasonally or in a cyclic manner, the local people are most likely to have an idea

of its symptons, characteristics, frequency of occurence, duration, and so on. This knowledge

normally acts as an early warning signal to the inhabitants of the community where the risk

occurs. Local knowledge also facilitates investigation into a risk, and this greatly saves cost

(in terms of time and money), in environmental risk studies and management.

5.0 Conclusion

The foregoing is only but an attempt to pinpoint the fact that certain cultural values,

norms and practices are effective tools of environmental protection. Unfortunately, we have

thus far ignored our local knowledge of preserving and conserving environmental resources.

Thi has undoubtedly led to the failure of some of our national environmental protection

laws. There is therefore every need to formally recognise and institutionalize some of our

traditional methods of environmental protection. People will be more favourably disposed12

to embracing policies that took their local knowledge, interest and rights into consideration

rather than ones that contain outlandish pronouncements and provisions. Thus, it might not

be far from the truth to say that any environmental protection policies that do not take our

traditional environmental perception and values into account, may live only but for a short

time. This therefore underlines the need to allow for public participation in or local input

into the environmental policy making process. Allow the people themselves to take the

policies rather than imposing the policies on them. When people are involved in making

certain decisions that largely affect them, they are more likely to ensure the success of such

decisions. Those local cultural practices that encourage environmental protection should be

carefully identified and incorporated in theformulation of national or state environmental

protection laws. Our rich traditional values and knowledge of the environment and

environmental resources management are part of our national heritage, we need to harvest

them for our collective well-being.

REFERENCES

Erediauwa, U. A. (1997) "The Role of Traditional Institutions in Nation-Building in aDemocratic Society", THISDAY Newspaper, March 20, p. 24.

Gore, A. (1997) "Respect The Land", TIME Magazine, November, pp. 7-8.

Izeogu, C. V, Aina, T. A. and Salau, A. T. (1992) "Nigeria: The Challenge of SustainableDevelopment", in Aina, T. A. and Salau, A. T. (eds.) The Challenge of SustainableDevelopment in Nigeria, NEST, Ibadan. pp. 1-23.

Linden, E. (1997) "Legions of the Dispossessed", TIME Magazine, November, p. 8.

Luning, H. (1995) "Land Evaluation", ITC Journal, 1.

Simonett, D. S. (1983) "The Development and Principles of Remote Sensing", Manual ofRemote Sensing, 2nd Edition, Vol. ·1.pp. 1-23.

13