Reflecting on

Learning & Practice

Learning & Reflection

There are three topics to be presented, they are:

A. Reflection for reasoning

B. Reflection in & on action for professional practice

C. Reflection for learning from experience

Reflection : Definitions

Reflection is the search for general principles or rules based on evidence gathered largely from memory.

It is the search for possible answers, new questions, & evidence that supports the possible answers.

(Glatthorn & Baron, 1991)

Reflectivity : A definition

Reflectivity is the act of becoming awareaware of a specific perception, meaning or behaviour of our ownour own or of habits we have of seeing, thinking or acting.

(Mezirow, 1981)

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

There are several taxonomies of thinking skills.

The taxonomy of Bloom et al. (1956) consists of seven levels of learning.

Each level of learning exhibits some thinking skills to tackle learning tasks.

Bloom’s TaxonomyKnowledge the remembering of learned material

Comprehension the grasping of meaning

Application using learned material in new situations

Analysis understanding the relationships between parts & the organizational structure

Synthesis putting parts together to form a new whole

Evaluation judging value

Thinking S

killsT

hinking Skills

KnowledgeFor the lowest level knowledgeacquisition, the following thinking skillsare dominant: Define Recognize Recall Identify Label Understand Examine Collect

Thinking S

killsT

hinking Skills

Comprehension

Thinking skills for comprehension

are: Translate Interpret Explain Describe Summarize Extrapolate

Thinking S

killsT

hinking Skills

Analysis Connect Relate Differentiate Classify Arrange Check Group Distinguish Organize Categorize Detect Compare Infer

Thinking S

killsT

hinking Skills

Synthesis Produce Propose Design Plan Combine Formulate Compose Hypothesize Construct

Thinking S

killsT

hinking Skills

Evaluation Appraise Judge Criticize Decide

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

Actually, all the thinking skills are applicable to reflective thinking for reasoning.

Then, what else is so special about reflection for reasoning? Are there no specific skills for it?

Probably you need to answer the following questions first.

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

These questions require simple yes / no answers only : (from King & Kitchener, 1994)

Do you agree that there can be legitimate differences of opinion about an issue?

Do you agree that you should think beyond an authority’s view?

Is there a difference between an interpretation and an opinion?

Do you often use evidence to justify a point of view?

Do you appreciate multiple perspectives on an issue?

Do you agree that the nature of knowledge is uncertainty?

Do you think that not all points of view are equally valid?

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eflection for Reasoning

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

Will different perspectives lead to different legitimate interpretations of evidence?

Is there a difference between facts and interpretations?

Do you agree that even opinions should be based on evidence?

Do you agree that even though you choose one alternative you will not deny the legitimacy of other alternatives?

Do you agree that some principles can be generalizable beyond the immediate situation?

Do you agree that you need to defend your viewpoint on the basis of evidence?

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

The answers to the above questions should all be yes.

The questions direct you to the attribute of disposition and an epistemological understanding about knowledge.

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

A. R

eflection for Reasoning

Briefly speaking, knowledge is uncertain and there are different interpretations based even on the same facts.

Reflective thinkers should choose among competing evidence-based interpretations but still be holding an open attitude that alternative perspectives on an issue are or can be legitimate.

These sayings probably give you more confusion than concrete ways of directing your life or actions related to an issue.

However, the essence of reflective thinking is tolerance of ambiguity. And for reflective judgement resulting from reflective reasoning is to construct your own point of view and defend it on the basis of evidence or argument as being better.

Non-Reflective Thinking

The followings give you a contrast about the dispositions and understanding of knowledge characterized by non-reflective thinkers.

• View from just one evaluative perspective

• View primarily either positive or negative side

Non-Reflective Thinking

• Not interested to balance out positive & negative features in order to get an accurate overview of the object

• Defend / consolidate positive or negative evaluation

• Blind spot—follow from interests the thinker is not aware of & does not want to be aware of

• Self-deception

B. Reflection In & On Action ForProfessional Practice

The next slide shows a few questions to start up the topic on reflection for practice.

Do You Agree?

1. Professionals’ work is to apply standardized knowledge to well-defined problems?

2. Professionals only have to learn about the content of their expertise & the technical skills of it?

3. Professionals’ knowledge is objective & value-free?

If your answers are all yes, then you are close to the viewpoint of technical rationality which shows the following understanding about professional practice:

• Situations are well-defined

• Professionals’ work is of problem-solving

• Action is implementation of knowing (what has been learned in training)

• Professional knowledge=

theories & techniques of basic & applied science

Situations & Problems of Professional Practice

However, in reality, professionals’ work is

ambiguous indeterminate uncertain unique, and full of value conflicts.

Issues of Professional Practice

Therefore, professionals work in indeterminate zones of practice do problem-setting professional knowledge = repertoire of examples &

exemplars + ability to apply them repertoire-building of knowledge: description & analy

sis of images, cases, precedents & exemplars engage in reflective practice (Schon, 1983)

B. Reflection In & On Action For Professional Practice

For professional practice, reflection in and on action is regarded as more appropriate.

Again, to make a better understanding about Schon’s reflection in and on action, a contrast between non-reflective practitioners and reflective practitioners is shown below.

The contrast is summarized from Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998).

Non-Reflective Practitioners

Problems are isolated to act upon

Problems are quickly put into a category for solution generation

A solution is self-perceivedself-perceived as acceptable

Generated from within the confinesconfines of the situation

Quickly weighQuickly weigh the pros & cons of obvious alternatives.obvious alternatives.

Then select the so-judged “best” alternative.

No testingNo testing, just go with it.

If not A, then B or C.

At leastAt least an A, B, and a C.

After the problem has been solved:

Not to be worried about.

Deficiencies in Decision-Making

Over-confidence bias Ineffective / inefficient use inefficient use of available

information (information overload) Make errors in estimating risk &

uncertaintyuncertainty Have difficulty in selecting among

alternativealternative courses of action

Reflective Practitioners

• Within a dynamic, ongoing interactioninteraction with the situationsituation and the peoplepeople involved.

• Involve others in defining.

• InteractivelyInteractively, involve others within the situation

• Look beyondbeyond the context

• Mental rehearsal process

• Think out all the alternatives

• Think about the impact

• Redefine the problem if necessary

• Go back

• Not to go back to the alternatives

• But go back to the situationgo back to the situation

• Check if the problem has been rightly defineddefined

After the problem has been solved:

• ReliveRelive the situation

• Guess if:– You would have made another decisionanother decision– You would have said something elsesomething else– You would have done something differentsomething different

• Reflect & record as a sampler.

Spend more time sizing upsizing up the situation

than

comparing alternative courses of action.

(Klein, 1998)

C. Learning From Experience

• All genuine educationAll genuine education comes about

through experiencethrough experience does not mean that all

experiences are genuinely or equally

educative. (Dewey, 1938)

We all learn from experiences, but we also let experiences slip away without learning or learning inappropriately from them.

C. Learning From Experience

• Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformationtransformation of experience. (Kolb, 1984)

• Experience has to be arrested, examined, analyzed, considered & negated in order to shift itshift it to knowledge. (Aitchison & Graham, 1989)

Experience & ReflectionExperience & Reflection

Henry (1989) distinguishes several Henry (1989) distinguishes several experience- reflection-leaning paths:experience- reflection-leaning paths:

► Experience Experience reflection reflection

► Experience Experience reflection reflection act act

► Experience Experience reflection, analyze reflection, analyze act, act, action, test-out, synthesizeaction, test-out, synthesize

Experience & ReflectionExperience & Reflection

►theory theory experience experience

reflect (generalize, decide) reflect (generalize, decide) understand understand

reflect (diverge) reflect (diverge) conceptualize conceptualize decidedecide

act act goal goal generalize generalize new insight new insight

C. Learning From Experience

As can be seen, learning from experience goes through several complimentary tasks that include cognitive, conative, and affective dimensions.

Kolb (1983) has constructed a model of experiential learning that comprises a full cycle of learning from experience. The following slides present only the part on reflective observation.

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory Concrete Experience

Active ReflectiveExperimentation Observation

Abstract Conceptualization

Reflective Observation

Aims:Aims:

• shapeshape one’s own experience rather than observing & accepting experience as they happen

Reflective Observation

Major StepsMajor Steps:

• Observe & select

• Conceive & interpret

• Perceive attitudes & values

• Develop concepts & theories

Reflective Observation

Steps:• Step back from situations & involvement of the w

orld• Discover new meanings in a situation through ne

w ways of moving & acting• Carefully observe & impartially describe ideas &

situations• A concern with what is true or how things happe

n• Select experiences to focus (by concern & intere

st vs. to delete, distort, or overgeneralize)

Reflective Observation

• Interpret experiences: Organize & recode the messages of the experience

(connect things, pull things together into a meaningful way, see such things in terms of relations, causality, and shape & meaning to human life)

• Reflect on prior experience in relation to new ideas & information

Reflective Observation

• Intuit the meaning of situations & ideas & their implications

• Look from different perspectives & appreciate different points of view

• Give observations personal meaning

Reflective Observation

• By these processes of selecting, interpreting, generalizing create and recreate a complex set of beliefs, knowledge of the experience abstract conceptualization