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Index

Advertising: contribution to export shares of US MNEs, 139; impact on MNE competitiveness, 140

Africa, 51, 88, 103, 119 Agricultural industries, 110, 148--9 Aharoni, Y., 168 aircraft industry, 45 Albania, increasingly open to FDI in

1980s, 103 Alberta, 93; see also Canada, Sub­

national American Telephone and Telegraph

Co. (AT&T), 156 Anti-dumping laws, 95, 98; see also

Countervail Anti-trust policies, 7, 69; US policy

011, 49; see also Sovereignty at bay

Apple Corporation, 108 Argentina, 118 Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN), 119-20 Australia: historic domination of by

UK and US, 150--1; media controls in, 14, 162; restrictions by sector, 146-9; restrictions on FDI in broadcasting, 155; for compari.f(J1/ see ClInada

Austria, restrictions by sector, 146-1 Automation, see Flexible

manufacturing systems Automobile industry: MNE

strategies in, 31, 45; inter-firm relations in, 113; relation to scale, 115-16; simultaneous engineering in, 113

Balance of payments: relation to outwud foreign direct

200

investment, 68; Third World problems with, 109

Banking sector: bilateral reciprocity in, 164; restrictions on IFDI, 14, 145-50, 152, 154

Basques, 86; see also Decentralization Beggar-thy-neighbour policy, 23 Belgium, as major outward investor,

68; IFDI restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151, 153

Bergsten, C. Fred and Graham, Edward M., 152

Blomstrom, Magnus, 4, 12-13, 18 Board of Investment (BOI): central

investment agency of Thailand, 172-3; promotional techniques of, 176-7

Brazil, 118, 126; automobile industry of, 119; impact of Law of Similars on FDI, 106; reaction to US MNCs, 22

Bridgestone, 96 Broadcasting industry: national

security implications of, 154; restrictions on IFDI in, 14, 145--50, 154; Canadian restrictions in, 154-5

California, 60; see also US Canada, 150, 170; decentralisation of

political power in, 8, 92-4; impact of economic nationalists on FDI, 96; industrial policy in, 98; Investment Canada as national investment agency of, 15,96, 172-3, 175-6; investment image of, 175; media controls in, 14, 162; restrictions on IFDI, 96, 142, 146-9, 151; see also Broadcasting, Investment Canada

Index 201

Canada-US Free Trade Agreement, 1, 15,90,93, 142, 165; inclusion of FDI measures within, 51

Capital: mobility of, I, 12; outflow of, 123; controls on, 65; costs of, 105, 112; transfer through MNE,124

Capital market system, integration of, 105; in developing countries 123; Iiberalisation of, linkage of developing countries and MNEs through, 9; structural change in, 105

Caribbean, 113, 120 Cartelisation, 79 Central Europe, 103; response to

Western and Japanese MNEs, 106; see also Eastern Europe

Chandler, A., 34 Chemical industry, impact of post­

Fordist production strategies on plant size of, 116

China, 88 Commerce Department (US), 96 Comparative advantage, 2, 130; of

countries, 50, 112, 140-4; changing international determinants of, 110; of firm, 140; immobile factors in, 12; literature of, 129-30; market resources and unskilled labour as factors in, 45; relative to competitiveness of firms, 12; role of state in fostering, 35; relation to obsolescing bargain model, 50; of US by technological classes, 136; see also US; Japan; Post-Fordism; Location

Competitiveness, 50, 71, 85; the agenda of 8; determinants of, 139; impact of information technology on, 53; US reaction to, 139; policy implications of, 164; discussion of by Kaplinsky, 110-12; see also Japan, Sweden, US, Porter

Computer industry, 31, lIS Congress (US): anti-Japanese thrust

of, 96; protectionist nature of,

95-6; Super 301 provisions, 96; versus US state government encouragement of IFDI, 95

Consumer, tastes of, 86-7 Contract manufacturing, 2 Costa Rica, 15, 170, 172-3, 176-7,

181-4 Costa Rican Investment Program

(CINDE): investment promotion techniques of, 172-3, 176-7; cost structure of, 181-4

Countervail duties, 95, 98; see also Anti-dumping laws

Country risk analysis, use of by MNEs,39

Cox, Robert: on formation of managerial class, 32; on law of uneven development, 31; on internationalisation of production and exchange in 1970s,31

Cross-border production, costs of, 72 Culture, 2, 88; Canadian media

controls to promote, 162; differences among Triad-based MNEs, 8; entrepreneurial nature of as 'ownership' advantage for MNE, 36; impact on MNE 77, 85; impact of globalisation on, 99; use in Quebec, 92; as reason for different national approaches to IFDI and OFDI, 77, 152

Cyprus, 118 Czechoslovakia, 97; see also Eastern

Europe

Debt: crisis, 5, II, 122; Third World problems with, 109; impact of NIDL industrial strategies on, 109; Mexico defaults on, 21; sel? also Least developing countries, Lall

Debt-equity swaps: to encourage MNE entry into developing countries, 110; see also Least developing countries

Decentralisation: of economic power in US, 94-7; impact of political

202 Index

Decentralisation (cont.) system on MNEs, 99; of political power in Canada, 8, 92-4; as leading to countervailing duties and anti­dumping laws, 98; see also Rugman, Canada

Denmark, restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151

Dependency literature, perspective on MNCs, 26, 31, 33, 122

Developing countries, see also Least devcloping countries

Dividend remissions, 7, 65, 69, Double taxation, impact of, 7 Dunning, John, 3, 6,-8, 16-17, 103;

on locational advantages, 39; on Ownership-Locution­Internalisation (OLI) paradigm, 34-5; definition of the MNE, 36

East Germany, 97 Eastern Europe, I, 70, 78, 100, 103,

115-16; IFDI in, 8; impact of revolutions on FDI, 97-8; impact of West European FDI on, 97; see also Central Europe

EC 1992, 15, 7a-I, 142, 155; restrictions in power generation sector, 158; role of MNEs in, 90; sC!e also European Community

Eclectic theory, see Ownership­Location-Internalisation, Dunning

Economic Development Board (EDB): national investment agency of Singapore, 15; promotion techniques of, 172-3, 176-7; see also Singapore

Economic nationalism, 8; Canadian case of, 96; US case of, 97; see also Protectionism, Sovereignty

Eden, Lorraine, 3, 5-6, , 91, 98-9 Electronics industry: impact of size

on, 116; MNE pursuit of global integration in, 109

Environmental regulations, 72, 79 Esprit, 44 Europe, 35, 98--9

European Commission, 164 European Community (EC), 8, 39,

78, 150; anti-dumping actions of, 87; competition for inward direct investment within, 60; competitive advantages of MNEs based in, 84-5, 140, 145, 163; difference of EC MNEs from US or Japanese counterparts, 84; Porter's 'diamond' in, 85; protectionism of, 87; see also EC 1992

European Investment Bank, 66 Exchange rates, 13; effect on trade

and investment flows, 105; influence on US trade shares, 136

Exon-Florio Amendment (US), 4, 144,161

Export-oriented FDI, 10; in manufacturing by MNEs, 119; production of in Third World, 120; ,vee also New International Division of Labour

Export processing zones: to attract MNE production, 110; see also Caribbean

Export shares: of Japan, US, Sweden and the MNEs based in them, 132-4; as a measure of competitiveness, 131; comparative advantage of US and US-based MNEs across three technology classes, 135-9; impact of investment promotion on, 180; tcchnological intensities in, 135; see also Comparative advantage

Extra-territoriality, 7, 69; use of by US, 49

Far East, 78 Financial services, sectoral

reciprocity in, 153 Finland, 150; restrictions by sector,

146-9, 151 Firm: changing nature of, III, 117;

competitive advantage of, 12--13; expansion of 32; indirect

Index 203

costs to, 117; implications of international competitiveness and post-Ford ism on, 112; relation to plant scale, 117; specific advantages of, 36; theory of, 104; see also Ownership advllntages

Flexiblc manufacturing systems, 10, 35, 53, 110--11, 116; Japanese types, 33; see also Post-Ford ism

Focused factories, as factor in locational choice of MNE, 44

Food industry, 98; US companies in, 131

Ford, 118 Fordism, 110; production politics of,

113; transition to flost-Fordism, 114; strategies of, 10-11; 1945-73 period of, 10; see also Post­Fordism

Foreign debt, 105 Foreign exchange controls, 37; see

also Internalisation Foreign Investment Review Agency

(FIRA), 96; see also Investment Canada

Foreign minority investment, as alternative to FDI, 38

Forest industry, 98 France, 84, ISO, 163; as major

outward investor, 68; national champions in, 105; reaction to US MNEs, 22; restrictions by sector, 146--9, 151

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GA'IT), 114; agreement for investment, 163; code on IFDI, 14; extension to cover MNEs, 50; investment issues in, 50,163; role ofMNEs in, 39; see also Multilateral approaches

Germany, 84, ISO, 154; compared to US on FDI restrictions, 150; as major outward investor, 68; impact of post-Ford ism on, 112; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151

Globalisation, 16, 32, 88, 91, 104, 130; convergence,

synchronisation and interpenetration as components of, 47; cultural factors, 99; definition of, 86, 89; impact on FDI in Eastern Europe, 97; homogenisation of tastes through MNEs, 86; impact on borders of the nation-state, 99; impact on MNE's home country identity. 8; interpenetration as f"cel 01, 47; impact on post-1980 government policies, 69, 73; impact on borders of the nation-state, 99; impact of competitiveness on, 130; information technology as aiding, 87-8; as leading to homogeneous products, 85; in IPE literature, 46; meaning of, 86; impact on MNE strategy, 86-7; of production, \08; relation to sovereignty at bay metaphor, 89; relation to sovereignty, 87, 90-1, 99; strategies of Japanese-based MNEs, 98; role of political fragmentation in, 86; see also Apple, Rugman

Goldberg, Paul M. and Kindlebcrger, Charles P., 163

Goodnow, James D., 169 Graham, Edward and Krugman,

Paul 143 Greece, restrictions by sector, 146-9,

lSI Group of Seven (G-7), 120

Hawaii, Japanese FOI in, 96 Hierarchy, 32; in vertical or

horizontally integrated firms, 37, 42

Human resources: contribution to US-based MNEs' competitiveness, 139; ethnocentricity of home country managers, 92; see also Location, Labour

Hungary, 97; see also Eastern Europe

204 Index

Hymer, Stephen, 27, 34,41,52; concept of MNE integrated with Fordism, 32; developer of law of uneven development, 31, 37; developer of International Division of Labour (IDL), 32

Ideology, as shared by MNCs, 32 Import quotas, 79 Import substitution industrialisation,

II, 116, 118-19; role of MNEs in 1950s and 1960s, 38

India, 67, 115-16; reaction to US MNCs, 22; experience as relevant for Eastern Europe, 97

Indonesia, 15, 170, 172-3, 176-7; see also Investment Coordinating Board

Industrial Development Authority (IDA): as national investment agency of Ireland, 169, 172-3, 176; see also Ireland

Infant industry protection, 14 Information technology, 35, 60, 70,

122; adoption by MNEs of, 33; as aiding globalisation and MNEs, 87-8; determinant of MNE location, 45; impact on product life cycle model, 45; impact on competitiveness of Triad economies, 53; in managerial structure of MNEs, 42; role in homogenising tastes, 42; revolution in, 45; role of in changing international division of labour, 53

Insurance industry, 145-50; bilateral reciprocity in, 153, 164

Interdependence,S; role of MNCs in, 26, 47; see also Globalisation

Internalisation: treatment in MNE literature, 11-12, 124; theory of, 37; exogenous market imperfections as motivation for, 37; implications for markets of developing countries, 124; as part of OLI paradigm, 34; literature in late 1970s and early 1980s on, 37; MNEs as

internalisers of market imperfections, 37

International Business Machine (IBM), I, 106

International business studies (IBS): composition and location of FDI in, 34; crossover with IPE studies, 34; definition of the MNE in, 36; effects of FDI on host country in, 34; literature of, 5-6, 26, 33, 53-4, 101; international value adding activities of MNEs in, 34; US as home country role in, 34; ; role of OLI, value chain and strategic management theories in, 45

International division of labour theory: firm expansion in, 32; class connict in, 32; in IFDI, 70; views of Marxist and dependency scholars in, 32; see also Hymer, New International Division of Labour

International Financial Corporation, Foreign Investment Advisory Service of, 66

International Monetary Fund (1M F), 38, 104

International political economy (IPE) literature, 2, 5-6, 17, 25, 48, 53-4, 91; role of MNE in, 26; as a critical view of MNE, 33-4; lack of MNE coverage in, 39; 'liberal', 'national' and Marxist perspectives in, 27; obsolescing bargain model in, 30; views of some Asian countries' use of FDI, 52; manufacture and resource industries in, 33; role of product life cycle model in, 48

International production, theory of, 122

International relations literature, 9, 17, \06; role of MNE in, 101; role of IPE within, 102

International value chain, 26, 4<l-1; in American strategic management literature, 40; oligopolistic

Index 205

tendencies of MNEs in, 52; role of location in, 40

Invest in Britain Bureau (IDB): as national investment agency of UK, 172-3, 177, lSI; investment promotion techniques of, 175-7; see also UK

Investment Canada: as national investment agency of Canada, 96, 172-3, 175--6; investment promotion programme in, lSI; see also Canada

Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM): as national investment agency of Indonesia, 172-3; investment promotion techniques of, 176-7; see also Indonesia

Investment promotion: cost effectiveness and innuence of, 179-S1; countries' image within, 170; image-building as technique of, 171, 176-:/; investment generation as technique of, 172--3, 175, 177; investment services as technique of, 173; mix of techniques, 174; taxonomy' of techniques, 16S-70; impact on investors, lSI; personal and impersonal techniques of, lSI; strategies in industrial marketing, 17S; see also Marketing

Inward foreign direct investment (IFDI), 7, 11, 59-60; post-1980 change in national government approaches to, 70; policies affecting MNEs, 65; impact of environmental macro­management and technological capacity on, 66; minority stakes by MNEs in, 50; as complementary to OFDI, 72; shift in perceptions of governments, 67; bilateral reciprocity in, 164; US policy towards, 142, 144; national treatment in, 143; Canadian controls of, 142; restrictions by

states of, 61, 64, 79, 123; policy implications of, 163-5 in developing countries, 5; GAIT code on, 14; controls through bilateral and sectoral reciprocity, 15; government attraction of, 15; state agency policies on, 15; investment promotion techniques to attract, 15; summary of sectoral controls, 14, 144-52; see also Investment promotion, National security, Non-equity investments

Ireland, S6, 170; Industrial Development Authority (IDA) as national investment agency of, 15, 169, 172-3; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151; Industrial Development Authority's use of direct selling technique, 177; investment promotion programme in, lSI

Italy: impact of post-Ford ism on, 112; Third Italy, 112; role of innovative small Italy, 84; restrictions on IFDI by sector, 146-9,151

Jamaica, 15, liS, 170, 172-3, 176-7 Jamaica National Investment

Promotion (JNIP), 15, 172-3; investment promotion techniques of, 176-7

Japan, 8, 12, 19,35,67,70,77, S7, 100, 120, 126, 131, 133, 140, 142--3, 150; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151; export shares of MNEs based in, 132; country advantage of, 130; firm advantage of, 130; MNEs' share world exports, 133-4; growth in MNEs based in, 133; MNEs based in, 9, 13; compare to UK approach on MNE, 74; corporate strategy in, 9S; coherent policy towards IFDI, 68; national economic planning,

206 Index

Japan (cont.) 39, 66; as major outward investor, 68; characteristics of most successful home MNEs, 85; concentration of FOI in US, 96; impact of post-Fordism on, 112; role of home MNEs, 84; corporate strategy in, 98; impact of changing production strategies, 116; strategy to reduce endemic market failure, 74; advantage of North American and European MNEs over Japanese MNEs, 99; success of home MNEs, 98; globalisation strategy of, 99; usc of non-tariff barriers by. 115; competitiveness philosophy of, 74; openness to IOFf compared to UK, 164; location of home­based MNEs, 134; see also Comparative advantage

Joint ventures, as part of MNE, 49 Jurisdiction, place of, 23 Just-in-time production, 10, 35, 112

Kaplinsky, Raphael, 3,10-11, 16-17 Kenya, 106 Kindleberger, Charles P., 34, 160 Knowledge: know-how, 12, 72, 127;

know-why capabilities, 12, 125, 127; advantages of MNEs, 36

Kobrin, Stephen, obsolescing bargaining model, 30-1

Korea, incorporation of FDI in national economic planning, 66, 126

Kudrle, Robert, 4, 14-15, 17-18

Laband, David, 160 Labour: as focus of MNE world-wide

sourcing, 53, 113; as part of obsolescing bargain, 51; as determinant of MNE location, 109

Lall, Sanjaya, 3, 11--12, 16--17, 104, 103, 106

Land and natural resources, 14; restrictions on, 145-50; sector restrictions in, 159-61

Latin America, 103, 120, 126 Law of uneven development, 31-2;

FOI process in, 52; Hymer's concern with, 26; in IPE literatl\l'e, 5; new style MNEs in, 52; technology gap between North and South, 52; strategic alliances among MNEs in Triadic economies, 52; oligopolistic behaviour of MNEs in, 32; role of knowledge-intensive production plants in, 52

Lead factories, as factor in locational choice of MNE, 44

Lean production, 33 Least developing countries, II, 104,

109, 114--15, 123, 125, 142, 160, 168; indebtedness of, 9; MNEs in, 9; control of FOI in, 9, 103, 106, 119; traditional comparative advantages of, II; market failure in, II; implications of proximity to Triad members, 17; ownership of raw materials, 20; role in IPE literature, 33; reasons for inviting IFDI, 5, 105, 117; impact of internalised markets in, 124; in obsolescing bargain, 52; minority investments of MNEs in, 52; sub-contracting to, 35; MNE location for world production, 109; changing nature of MNE involvement in, 120; strategies of TRIAD-based MNEs in, II; reasons for inviting MNEs, 105; role of FDI in manufacturing sector, 110; role in international division of labour, 109; impact of post­Fordism on, 112, 114; comparative advantage of, 113; operation among, 118

Lenway, Stefanic Ann and Murta, Thomas P., 91

Index 207

Liberal perspective, MNCs as integrating force, 27

Liberalisation: the lateral pursuit of, 163; FDI regulations in Australia, Canada, Japan, 150; role of sub-national units of government, 164; multilateral pursuit of, 163; bilateral pursuit of, 163; of MNE activity, 123; nationalistic and ideological concerns, 123; of economic and political systems, 73; of FDI regulations, 12; in key industry sectors, 17

Lipsey, Robert, 4, 12-13, 18 Locate in Scotland (LIS), 15, 172-3,

176; investment promotion techniques of, 177; see also Scotland

Location, choice for MNEs, 40, 42, 120, 141, 168; information technology as factor in, 45; strategies for, 40, 44-5; role of FDI in, 34; resource-seeking strategic investments, 20, 43; strategies for MNEs, 43; as part of OLI paradigm, 34; location of parent in, 33; MNE relations with home countries, 33; changing political determinants of, 114-15; changing economic determinants of, 112-14; impact of competition on, 110; MNE strategies for final markets, I 13; impact of transport-to-value ratio on, 113; factors in MNE decisions, 110; in developing countries, 119; advantages of, 39; MNE access to factors of production, 39; advantages of, 53; strategies of MNEs, 46; impact of competition on, 110; political impact on, 110; the determinants of by MNEs, 10; politics of, II; in developing countries, 119; see also Least developing countries

Luxembourg, restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151

Machine tools, 115 Malaysia, 106, 116, 170; world

product mandate, 109; investment agency of, 15, 172-3

Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA), 15, 172-3, 176; investment promotion techniques of, 177

Managerial structure, types available to MNEs, 33,41

Market failure: types of, 6, 61, 71, 76, 79, 122, 125-6; in LDCs, 11; domestic case of, 12; intrinsic variety, 80-1; treatment in MNE literature, 123; types of, 62; market access strategic investments, 43

Marketing, 79, 117; techniques of attracting IFDI by states, 15; personal promotion of IFDI, 16; transfer of through MNE, 124; techniques for attracting IFDI, 168; see also Investment promotion

Maryland, 60; see also US Matchusita, 161 MCA,161 Mergers and acquisitions, 17,90 Mexico, 19, 120, 165; experience as

relevant for Eastern Europe, 97; world product mandate of, 109; attitude to IFDI, 142; proximity to US for MNE production, II, 17; reaction to US MNCs, 22

Miniature replicas, as factor in locational choice of MNE, 44

Mining industry, 31, 104, 110 MNE literature, 127; role of

competitiveness and comparative advantage in, 129; emphasis on beneficial impact of MNE in, 124

Moran, Theodore, 30 Multilateral approaches,S, 72; see

a/~'o GATT, OECD, UN Myanmar, increasingly open to FDI

in 1980s, 103

Nation-state, definition of, 25

208 Index

National security, 161-2; impact on IFDI, 5; reason for in key sectors, 17-18; implications for broadcasting industry, 154, 156; US considerations of, 144; restrictions by sector, 151; US considerations of, 144; regulation of FDI by sector, 152; restriction in transportation sector, 158-9; arrangement for sensitive production by foreign-owned firms, 162; on cultural grounds, 165; nationalisation, 103

National treatment in US, 49; see also Sovereignty at bay

Nationalisation: impact on MNE strategy, 38, 103

Nationalist and neo-mercantalist perspectives, MNEs as threats, 50

Netherlands, The, 144; as major outward investor, 68; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151

New International Division of Labour (NIDL), 10-11, 110; in IPE literature, 5; theory of, 32; Fordism in, 32; IPE and lBS literature convergence on, 52; impact on MNE locational advantages in, 53; development of since 1970s, 32, 111-12; knowledge-intensive production methods of MNEs in, 33; production logic of, 114; in post-Fordist manufacturing, 113; industrial strategies of, 109-10; in Third World, 115; manufacturing as expression of mass production paradigm, III; export processing zones, labour forces, tax incentives, regulations of, 32; knowledge­intensive production methods of MNEs in, 33; see also Post­Fordism, Kaplinsky

New Jersey, 60; see a/.w US New Zealand, restrictions by sector,

146-9, 151, 153

Newly Industrialising Countries (NICs), 10,53, 125, 127, 123, 140, 53; export-led growth of, 113-14

Nigeria, 'national champions' of, 105 Nissan,96 Non-equity investments, 17, 35, 38,

50, 53; MNEs as adopters of, 38 Non-tariff barriers, 11, 114 North Africa, 120 North America, 87, 98, free trade in,

I, 15 Norway, restrictions by sector, 146-

9, 151

Obsolescing bargain: as model, 26-8, 30-1, 34; in IPE literature, 5; relating to competitiveness, 50; role of developing countries in, 51-3

Ohmae, Kenichi, 85, 91 Oman, Charles, 39, 51 Ontario, 93; see also Sub-national Orderly market arrangements, 115 Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD), 4, 6-7; 53, 144, 155; multilateral codes of conduct for MNE, 21; restrictions on FDI in, 14; market failures in member countries of, 7; three categories of restriction on IFOI, 145

Ostry, Sylvia, 39 Outposts: as factor in locational

choice of Triad MNEs, 44; as output limitations, 79

Overseas foreign direct investment (OFOI), 59-60, 64, 70; impact of double taxation, dividend repatriation and extra­territoriality on, 7; Japan as major investor, 68-9; policies affecting MNEs, 1950-80,65; as complementary to IFDI, 72; as preference to domestic investment, 69; balance of payments consequences of, 68; impact on technological

Index 209

capacity of home country, 68; see also Inward foreign direct investment

Ownership advantages, of MNEs, 34, 36; see also Ownership­Location-Internalisation (OLI)

Ownership-Location-Internalisation (OLl) model, 40, 42; as paradigm for understanding the MNE in IDS,S; obsolescing bargaining theory, 26; focus on conflict between MNCs and states, 28; theory of, 34-5; shift since mid-1980s in, 35; value chain as new concept in, 35; as explanation for vertically and horizontally integrated MNEs, 41; extending to joint ventures and sub-contracting, 38; see also Dunning

Ozawa, Teretumo, 74

Paris Club, 104 Patent laws, 79; in US, 49 Perez, C., III Performance requirements, 65 Petroleum industry, 31 Plant, size of, 116--17 Poland, 97, 115 Political economy, a study of, 26 Political scientists, views on MNCs,

20 Porter, Michael, 35, 90; on 'diamond'

of competitive advantage, 71, 85; four strategies of MNEs, 40

Portugal, restrictions by sector, 146--9, 151

Post, telephone and telecommunications: restrictions on IFDI in, 14; restrictions in sectors, 145-50, 155-7

Post-Fordism, 110,116--18; definition of, III,; as systemofactor and as lean production, 33; impact on service sector MNEs, 53; transition from Fordism, 114; as a path to competitiveness, 112; intra-regional South-South trade in, 119; impact on MNE

operations in Third World, 118; locational implications of production in, 115; see also Fordism

Price: competitiveness of production in, III; protection of, 114; controls, 79

Product: innovation of, III, 118; flexibility, 10, 112; see also Post­Fordism

Product life cycle model, 28; impact of elimination of technological gap, homogenisation of tastes and ease of international communications, 26, 48; in IPE literature,S; as problem-solving theory, 27; utility of in explaining MNEs in 1990s, 49; effect of income differential on, 29; impact of information technology revolution on, 45; obsolete nature of, 48; impact on Triad markets, 48; strategies of in the 1990s, 10, 17; see also Fordism

Production: intra-regional integration of, 119; innovation in, 118

Production costs, 61, 73, 105; definition of, 6

Protectionism, 9; inter-regional type of,60, 131; in US, 87, 99; as relates to Triad, 87; studies of in US, Canada and Europe, 162; see also Congress, Economic nationalism

Provinces, Canadian, 93-4; costs to MNEs of political decentralisation, 94; see also Sub-national

Quebec, 86, 92-3; see also Sub­national, Canada

Reich, Robert, 2, 18,84, 163 Regime theory, roll of MNCs in, 26 Regionalisation: impact on nation-

states, 86

210 Index

Research and development, 105, 117, 126; subsidisation of, 13, 141; 'outposts' as intensive investments for, 44; role of in Triad, 49; intensity of linked with world export shares of US MNEs, 139; impact on MNE competitiveness, 140; high technology, 141

Resource-based manufacturing, 104 Rodime, 120 Romania, 97; see also Eastern Europe Rugman, Alan, 3,8-9,16-17,92;

discussion of Porter, 85; and Alain Verbeke, 98

Scale, dimensions of, 116 Scale economics: changing

determinants of, 115; price competitiveness in, 115

Scotland, 170; Locate in Scotland (LIS) as investment agency of, IS, 172-3, 176; see also Locate in Scotland

Seagate, 120 Semi-conductor industry, 98, 115 Service industry, 104, 110, 122; shares

in, 135 Shoe industry, 109 Singapore, 15, 70, 120, 126-7, 170,

172-3, 176-7; incorporation of POI in national economic planning, 66; world product mandate of, 109; see also Economic Development Board

Single European Market, 150 Skills, transfer through MNE, 124 South Korea, 70, 88; world product

mandate, \09 South Africa, national champions in,

lOS, 119 South America, 88 South-South trade, 119; impact of

MNEs on, II; see also Least developing countries

Sovereignty, 8, 27, 84, 91, 99,123: loss of, 33; modified concept of, 22; effect of Porter:s 'diamond' on, 85; relation to globalisation,

87,91; growing importance of for MNE strategy, 92; as an issue in Japan, 9; see also Rugman, Globalisation

Sovereignty at bay, as metaphor, 2, 23, 26, 49, 91; theory and reassessment of, 28-9; as MNEs dominating states, 33; see also Vernon

Sovereigmy at Bay (1971) 4, 18, 91, 10 I, 127, 142; product life cycle, sovereignty at bay, and obsolescing bargain as models discussed in,S; reception of book, 19-20; in IPE literature, 5; see also Vernon

Spain, restrictions by sector, 146-9, lSI, 153

Specialisation: product, 118 Standardisation: in production, 1\0;

world products in, 10, 114; see also Globalisation

Steel industry, 98; impact of plant size on, 116

Strange, Susan, 3, 9, 16-17,25,91 Strategic alliances, 2, 17; use among

MNEs of, 49 Strategic management literature, 5;

the value chain in, 40 Sub-contracting, 49, \09, III Sub-national actors: Canadian

provinces as example of, 8, 93, 96; impact of culture on MNE strategy, 86; see also Provinces, California, Hawaii, Maryland, New Jersey, Tennessee

Subsidies, 37, 125; see also I nternalisation

Super 301 trade law, US case of, 87

Sweden, 12; as major outward investor, 68, 131; MNEs based in, 13; share of exports of MNEs based in, 132-3, 140; competitiveness of, 132-3; growth of MNEs based in, 133; export shares of MNEs based in, 132--3; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151; competitiveness of

Index 211

MNEs based in, 134; exchange rate impact on trade shares and MNEs based in, 140

Switzerland: as major outward investor, 68; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151

Synchronisation, with reference to the Triad, 47; tariff rate differentials, tax differentials, 47; role of 0-7 states in, 47; role of Plaza Accord in 47; see a/so Olobalisation,

Systemofacture, 33, III; see a/so Post-Pordism

Taiwan, 88, 126; incorporation of PDI in national economic planning, 66

Tariff structures, 37; impact on MNE location, 45; impact on MNEs of Triad countries, 45; reductions in, 114; in Triad, 47; as function of location, 3, 9; homogenisation of through information technology, 42

Tax advantage, of OPDI, 69 Taxation, 23, 79; double, 7; rules in

US,49 . Technological: advantages, 36; local

capabilities, 126 Technological change, 122;

accelerating rate of, 104-5 Technology, 13,33,35,67, 161;

attributes of countries as determinant of MNE location, 119; role of MNEs in development of, 125; flexible, 35, 53, 113; role of Japanese firms in, 35; diffusion of, 105; medium- and large-firm collaboration in, 117; high­technology exports by US multinationals, 138-9; transfer of through MNE, 124; as element of US competitiveness, 136; percentage share of US multinationals in three classes of, 137; US share of products, 138; revolution in, 9; change in,

II; transfer of, 12, 17; MNE shares of high-technology exports, 13; impact of exchange rates on high-technology products, 13; development of national policies for, 39; see a/so LaIl, Ownership advantages

Telecommunications sector: MNE strategies in, 45; implications of national security, 157

Television and VCR production, 115 Tennessee: as example of US state

attraction of IFDI, 96; pro-Japanese view of US states, 96

Thailand, IS, 170; increasingly open to IPDf in 1980s, 103; investment agency of, 172-3; DOl investment promotion techniques, 176-7

Third Italy, 118 Third World, see Least developing

countries Toys industry, MNE pursue global

integration in, 109 Trade barriers, as function of

locational advantage, 39 Trade and Competitiveness Act (US),

144 Transaction costs, 6,7,60-1,63,73,

76-7,88, 117 Transfer pricing, 23 Transportation industry: MNE

strategies in aircraft sector, 45; restrictions, 14, 145-50, 158-9; national security implications of ,I 58

Triad, 1,8, 17-18,50, 85, 100; locational strategies of MNEs . based in, I I; product life cycles in, 48-9; role of R&D in, 49; strategic alliances used by MNEs in, 49; convergence trends within, 47; MNEs in, 8, 70; cross-border alliances in, 35; role of R&D in, 49; technological gap and narrowing income differentials in, 29; impact of cultural factors on MNE government strategies

212 Index

Triad (coni.) in, 8S; relation to non-Triad MNEs, 8S; corporate strategy in, 99; proportion of world's largest MNEs in, 84; impact of globalisation forces on MNEs based in, 99; adaptation to sovereignty, 97

Turkey, restrictions by sector, 146-9, lSI

Turnkey plants, in obsolescing bargain, SI

Underdevelopment, transnational elites as helping to create, 27

United Kingdom (UK), 70, 84, 150, 170; competitiveness philosophy of, 74-S; compare to Japanese approach on MNE-related activity, 74; as major outward investor, 68; coherent policy towards IFDI, 68; competition with Belgium and France for IFOI, 60; strategy to reduce endemic market failure, 74; compare to Japanese UK, 114; hostile takeovers in, 144; compared to US on FOI restrictions, ISO; restrictions on broadcasting in, IS4-S; restrictions by sector, 146-9, lSI; investment promotion agency of, 172-3, 177, 181; see also Investment in Britain Bureau

Unilateral approaches, management of MNE-state relations, S; see also multilateral approaches

United Nations (UN), Multilateral codes of conduct for MNEs, 4, 2 I; see also Multilateral approaches

United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations (UNCTC), 34, 66, \03

US,4-S,I1-12,17,70, 114, 119, 129, 131, ISO, 162; perceptions of foreign-owned MNCs, 22; use

of extra-territoriality by, 49; impact of foreign investments in, 49; domestic policies for MNEs, 49; competition among Maryland, New Jersey, and California for investment in, 60; regulation of affiliates of MNEs based in, 30; policy-making in, 39; as major outward investor, 68; decentralisation of economic power, 94-7, 99; concern over Japanese MNEs in, 87; role of home MNEs, 13, 84-S; International Trade Commission of, 96; identity of home MNEs lost, 84; compared to Germany and UK on FOI restrictions, 150; banking industry of, S3; competitiveness of MNEs based in, 139; growth of MNEs based in, 133; MNEs' share world exports, 133; restrictions by sector, 146-9, 151; broadcasting restrictions, 154; foreign entry in domestic airline services, 159, 164; comparative advantage by technology classes, 136; advertising intensity associated with US MNE affiliate production, 139-40; country advantage of, 130; firm advantage of, 130; exchange rate impact on trade shares· and home MNEs, 140; MNE share of exports, 140; approach to IFDI, 142; MNEs based in, 13, 132-3, 140; hostile takeovers in, 144; Monopolies Commission, 144; Exon-Florio Amendment, 144; Trade Competitiveness Act, 144; MNCs of in search of cheaper labour sites, 32; move of mature technology in, 32; protectionist policies of, 8; impact of home MNEs on macroeconomic policies of, 13; regulations on IFOI increasing in, 18; competitiveness of, 13;

Index 213

national security considerations of IFOI, 144

USSR, former, 88, 97; see also Eastern Europe

Utilities and energy production industry: restrictions on, 145-50 utilities, restrictions on IFDI in, 14; production sectors, restrictions in, 157-8

Value adding, international, 2, 35 Value chain: of MNE, 44; impact on

strategic locational choice, 44; see also International value chain

Values, transmission of by MNE, 92 Vernon, Raymond, 84,91-2, 101,

142, 127; 20 years after, 2-3; on concept of sovereignty, 5; support of multilateral solutions to state-MNE friction, 18, 34; product life cycle model (1966), product life cycle revisited (1971), 28; developer of obsolescing bargaining model, 30, 34; second product life cycle model, 48; developer of product

life cycle perspective, sovereignty at bay, obsolescing bargaining models, 30, 34; role of IDS and IPE literature in work of, 45; limitations on product cycle theory of firm, 104-5

Vernon, Raymond and Spar, D., 49 Vertical integration, 41-2; role of

technological innovation in, 44; views on sourcing strategies of MNEs in, 53

Volkswagon, 118 Voluntary export restraints, 115

Wage rates, as determinant of MNE location, 109, 114-15

Watzke, Gerard E. and Mindak, W.A., 169

Wells, Louis, 4, 15-16, 18 Western Canada, 93, 96; see also Sub·

national, Canada Western provinces, 96; see also

Canada Williamson, Oliver, 103 Wint, Alvin, 4, 15-16, 18 Work tlexibility, 10 World Bank, 38, 104