References

Ackerly, Brooke, and Jacqui True. 2008. “Reflexivity in Practice: Power andEthics in Feminist Research on International Relations.” International StudiesReview 10: 693–707.

Ackerman, Spencer. 2015. “Inside Obama’s Drone Panopticon: A SecretMachine with No Accountability.” The Guardian, April 25. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/apr/25/us-drone-program-secrecy-scrutiny-signature-strikes.

Adler-Nissen, Rebecca, and Vincent Pouliot. 2014. “Power in Practice: Negoti-ating the International Intervention in Libya.” European Journal of Interna-tional Relations 20 (4): 889–911.

Aikins, Matthieu. 2016. “The Bidding War.” The New Yorker, March 7. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/03/07/the-man-who-made-millions-off-the-afghan-war.

Airwars. 2017. “Alleged Civilian Casualties from Russian Airstrikes inSyria.”Airwars. https://airwars.org/russian-civcas/.

Alberto, Luiz, and Monix Bandeira. 2017. The Second Cold War: Geopoli-tics and the Strategic Dimensions of the USA. Cham, Switzerland: SpringerInternational Publishing.

Alkrie, Brien, Abbie Tingstad, Dale Benedetti, Amado Cordova, Irina Danescu,William Fry, D. Scott George, Lawrence M. Hanser, Lance Menthe, ErikNemeth, David Ochamanek, Julia Pollak, Jessie Riposo, Timothy Smith, andAlexander Stephenson. 2016. Leveraging the Past to Prepare for the Future ofAir Force Intelligence Analysis. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

Allinson, Jamie. 2015. “The Necropolitics of Drones.” International PoliticalSociology 9: 113–127.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusivelicense to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021S. Shoker, Military-Age Males in Counterinsurgency and Drone Warfare,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52474-6

211

212 REFERENCES

Allison, Graham. 2018. “The Myth of the Liberal Order: From Historical Acci-dent to Conventional Wisdom.” Foreign Affairs, July–August. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2018-06-14/myth-liberal-order.

Alt, Jonathan, Leroy ‘Jack’ Jackson, David Hudak, and Stephen Liberman.2009. “The Cultural Geography Model: Evaluating the Impact of TacticalOperational Outcomes on a Civilian Population in an Irregular Warfare Envi-ronment.” The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications,Methodology, Technology 6 (4): 185–199.

American Anthropological Association. 2007. “American Anthropological Asso-ciation’s Executive Board Statement on the Human Terrain System Project.”

Angwin, Julia, Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu, and Lauren Kirchner. 2016. “MachineBias.” ProPublica, May 23. https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing.

Anthony, Sebastian. 2013. “DARPA Shows Off 1.8-Gigapixel Surveil-lanec Drone, Can Spot a Terrorist from 20,000 Feet.” ExtremeTech,January 28. https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/146909-darpa-shows-off-1-8-gigapixel-surveillance-drone-can-spot-a-terrorist-from-20000-feet.

Apuzzo, Matt and Joseph Goldstein. 2014. “New York Drops Unit ThatSpied on Muslims.” The New York Times, April 15. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/16/nyregion/police-unit-that-spied-on-muslims-is-disbanded.html.

Aradau, Claudia, and Rens Van Munster. 2007. “Governing Terrorism ThroughRisk: Taking Precautions, (un)Knowing the Future.” European Journal ofInternational Relations 13 (1): 89–115.

Arkin, Ronald C. 2010. “The Case for Ethical Autonomy in UnmannedSystems.” Journal of Military Ethics 9 (4): 323–341.

Asaro, Peter. 2013. “The Labor Off Surveillance and Bureaucratized Killing: NewSubjectivities of Military Drone Operators.” Social Semiotics 23 (2): 196–224.

Atherton, Kelsey. 2019. “When Should the Pentagon Update Its Rules onAutonomous Rules?” C4ISRNET , December 12. https://www.c4isrnet.com/battlefield-tech/2019/12/12/when-should-the-pentagon-update-its-rules-on-autonomous-weapons/.

Bagwell, Randall. 2008. “The Threat Assessment Process (TAP): The Evolutionof Escalation of Force.” The Army Lawyer (April): 5–16.

Bailliet, Cecilia M. 2007. “‘War in the Home’: An Exposition of Protection IssuesPertaining to the Use of House Raids in Counterinsurgency Operations.”Journal of Military Ethics 6 (3): 173–197.

Bambford, James. 2006. “He’s in the Backseat!” The Atlantic, April Issue.https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/04/-hes-in-the-backseat/304712/.

Baracos, Solon, and Andrew D. Selbst. 2016. “Big Data’s Disparate Impact.”California Law Review 104: 671–732.

REFERENCES 213

Barbash, Fred. 2003. “Bush: Iraq Part of ‘Global Democratic Revolution’.”Washington Post, November 6. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A7991-2003Nov6.html.

Barela, Steven J. and Avery Plaw. 2016. “The Precision of Drones: Prob-lems with the New Data and New Claims.” E-International Relations,August 23. https://www.e-ir.info/2016/08/23/the-precision-of-drones-problems-with-the-new-data-and-new-claims/.

Barnett, Michael, and Martha Finnemore. 1999. “The Politics, Power, andPathologies of International Organizations.” International Organization (53)4: 699–732.

Barno, David W. 2007. “Fighting ‘the Other War’ Counterinsurgency Strategyin Afghanistan, 2003–2005.” Military Review 87 (5) (September–October):32–44.

BBC News. 2016. “Mosul Battle: US Says IS Using Human Shields.” BBC News,October 19. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37699233.

Becker, Jo, and Scott Shane. 2012. “Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’sPrinciples and Will.” The New York Times, May 29. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/world/obamas-leadership-in-war-on-al-qaeda.html.

Beckett, Ian F. W. 2005. Insurgency in Iraq: A Historical Perspective. Carlisle:Strategic Studies Institute.

Beer, David. 2009. “Power Through the Algorithm? Participatory Web Culturesand the Technological Unconscious.” New Media & Society 11 (6): 985–1002.

Beier, Marshall J. 2015. “Children, Childhoods, and Security Studies: AnIntroduction.” Critical Studies on Security (3) 1: 1–13.

Belcher, Oliver. 2017. “Anatomy of a Village Razing: Counterinsurgency,Violence, and Securing the Intimate in Afghanistan.” Political Geography 62:94–105.

Bell, Colleen, and Brad Evans. 2010. “Terrorism to Insurgency: Mapping thePost-Intervention Security Terrain.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding4 (4): 371–390.

Bennett, Andrew. 2010. “Process Tracing and Causal Inference.” In RethinkingSocial Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards, edited by David Collier andHenry E. Brady, 207–220. Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield.

Benson, Kristina. 2014. “‘Kill ‘em and Sort It Out Later:’ Signature DroneStrikes and International Humanitarian Law.” Global Business and Develop-ment Law Journal 27 (1): 17–50.

Berenson, Bradford. 2005. “The Torture Question.” Interview. Frontline,July 14. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/torture/interviews/berenson.html.

Blanchard, Eric. 2003. “Gender, International Relations, and the Developmentof Feminist Security Theory.” Signs 28 (4): 1289–1312.

214 REFERENCES

Bleich, Erik. 2002. “Integrating Ideas in Policy-Making Analysis: Frame and RacePolicies in Britain and France.” Comparative Political Studies 35 (9): 1054–1076.

Bloomberg. 2015. “Pentagon Plans to Increase Drone Usage by 50%.” MSNNews, August 18. https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/other/pentagon-plans-to-increase-drone-usage-by-50percent/vi-CCYX1?refvid=BBlGHP0.

Boone, Jon. 2010. “US Army Amasses Biometric Data in Afghanistan.” TheGuardian, October 27. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/27/us-army-biometric-data-afghanistan.

Bousquet, Antoine, Jarius Grove, and Nisha Shah. 2017. “Becoming Weapon:An Opening Call to Arms.” Critical Studies on Security 5 (1): 1–8.

Braidotti, Rosi. 2013. The Posthuman. Cambridge: Polity Press.Branch, Daniel. 2010. “Footprints in the Sand: British Colonial Counterinsur-

gency and the War in Iraq.” Politics and Society 38 (1): 15–34.Branch, Jordan. 2014. The Cartographic State: Maps, Territory, and the Origins

of Sovereignty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Brennan, John. 2012. “John Brennan Deliver Speech on Drone Ethics.” NPR,

May 1. https://www.npr.org/2012/05/01/151778804/john-brennan-delivers-speech-on-drone-ethics.

Brooks, Rosa. 2016. “Sorry Folks, Veterans Are Not Necessarily Experts onForeign Policy.” Foreign Policy, September 8. http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/09/08/veterans-are-not-necessarily-experts-on-foreign-policy-commander-in-chief-forum-trump-clinton/.

Broomfield, Matt. 2017. “Women’s March Against Donald Trump Is the LargeDay of Protests in US History, Say Political Scientists.” The Independent,January 23. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/womens-march-anti-donald-trump-womens-rights-largest-protest-demonstration-us-history-political-a7541081.html.

Brownlee, James. 2016. “What Is a Confusion Matrix in Maching Learning.”Machine Learning Mastery, November 18. https://machinelearningmastery.com/confusion-matrix-machine-learning/.

Brunstetter, Daniel, and Megan Braun. 2011. “The Implication of Drones onthe Just War Tradition.” Ethics and International Affairs 25 (3): 337–358.

Burman, Erica. 1994. “Innocents Abroad: Western Fantasies of Childhood andthe Iconography of Emergencies.” Disasters 18 (3): 238–253.

Bush, George W. 2001a. “Text of Bush’s Act of War Statement.” BBC News,September 12. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1540544.stm.

———. 2001b. “Text of George Bush’s Speech.” The Guardian, September 21.Speech, Washington, DC. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/21/september11.usa13.

REFERENCES 215

———. 2001c. “President Bush Addresses the Nation.” The Washington Post,September 20. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/specials/attacked/transcripts/bushaddress_092001.html.

Bush, Laura. 2001d. “The Weekly Address Delivered by the First Lady.” TheAmerican Presidency Project, November 17. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=24992.

Buzan, Barry. 1997. “Rethinking Security After the Cold War.” Cooperation andConflict 32 (1): 5–28.

Buzan, Barry, Weaver, O., and de Wilde, J. 1998. Security—A New Frameworkfor Analysis. Colorado: Lynne Rinner.

Byman, Daniel. 2013. “Why Drones Work.” Foreign Affairs, July–August.Campaign to Stop Killer Robots. 2017. “2017: A Lost Year for Diplomacy.”

Campaign to Stop Killer Robots, December 22. https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/2017/12/lostyear/.

Campbell, David. 1998. Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and thePolitics of Identity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Caprioli, Mary. 2004. “Feminist IR Theory and Quantitative Methodology: ACritical Analysis.” International Studies Review 6: 253–269.

Carpenter, Charli. 2005. “‘Women, Children and Other Vulnerable Groups’:Gender, Strategic Frames and the Protection of Civilians as TransnationalIssue.” International Studies Quarterly 49 (2): 295–334.

———. 2014. “‘Robot Soldiers Would Never Rape’: Un-Packing the Myth ofthe Humanitarian War-Bot.” Duck of Minerva, May 4. http://duckofminerva.com/2014/05/robot-soldiers-would-never-rape-un-packing-the-myth-of-the-humanitarian-war-bot.html.

CBC News. 2008. “‘You Don’t Care About me,’ Omar Khadr Sobs in InterviewTapes.” CBC News, July 15. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/you-don-t-care-about-me-omar-khadr-sobs-in-interview-tapes-1.709736.

———. 2017. “Omar Khadr Received $10.5M from Ottawa on Wednesday,Government Confirms.” CBC News, July 6. http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/omar-khadr-settlement-1.4194142.

Chiacu, Doina. 2016. “U.S Government Cancels 9/11-Era Registry forForeigners.” Reuters, December 22. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-registry/u-s-government-cancels-9-11-era-registry-for-foreigners-idUSKBN14B1VD.

Chin, Warren. 2007. “Examining the Application of British CounterinsurgencyDoctrine by the American Army in Iraq.” Small Wars Journal 18 (1): 1–26.

Chivers, C. J. 2012. “A Changed War for Afghanistan’s Skies.” The New YorkTimes, January 4. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/world/asia/afghan-war-reflects-changes-in-air-war.html.

Chizek, Judy G. 2003. Military Transformation: Intelligence, Surveillanceand Reconnaissance. CRS Report No.: RL31425, Congressional Research

216 REFERENCES

Service, Washington, DC. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20030117_RL31425_a6f967e7449ac82fb002b73f2f94fc453bfaf1f8.pdf.

Chowdhry, Geeta, and Shirin M. Rai. 2009. “The Geographies of Exclusionand the Politics of Inclusion: Race-Based Exclusions in the Teaching ofInternational Relations.” International Studies Perspectives 10 (1): 84–91.

Ciezadlo, Annia. 2005. “What Iraq’s Counterinsurgency Are Like.” The Chris-tian Science Monitor, March 7. https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0307/p01s04-woiq.html.

Cloud, David. 2011. “Civilian Contractors Playing Key Roles in U.S. DroneOperations.” Los Angeles Times, December 29. http://articles.latimes.com/2011/dec/29/world/la-fg-drones-civilians-20111230.

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. 2012. “The Kill List.” The Atlantic, May 31. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/05/the-kill-list/257890/#disqus_threa.

Coeckelbergh, Mark. 2013. “Too Close to Kill, Too Far to Talk-Interpretationand Narrative in Drone Fighting and Surveillance in Public Places.” InBridging Distances in Technology and Regulation, edited by Ronald Leenesand Eleni Kosta, 125–135. Oisterwijk: Wolf Legal Publishers.

Cohen, Eliot A. 1996. “A Revolution in Warfare.” Foreign Affairs 73 (1): 109–124.

Cohen, Michael A., and Jeff Danziger. 2010. “The Myth of a Kinder, GentlerWar.” World Policy Journal 27 (1): 75–86.

Cohn, Carol. 1987. “Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellec-tuals.” Signs 12 (4): 687–718.

———. 2013. “‘Maternal Thinking’ and the Concept of ‘Vulnerability’ in Secu-rity Paradigms, Policies, and Practices.” Journal of International PoliticalTheory 10 (1): 46–69.

Cohn, Carol, Felicity Hill, and Sara Ruddick. 2005. The Relevance of Gender forEliminating Weapons of Mass Destruction. Report No. 38, Weapons of MassDestruction Commission, Stockholm. https://genderandsecurity.org/sites/default/files/the_relevance_of_gender_for_eliminating_weapons_of_mass_destruction_-_cohn_hill_ruddick.pdf.

Cole, David. 2014. “We Kill People Based on Metadata.” The New York Reviewof Books, May 10. http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2014/05/10/we-kill-people-based-metadata/.

Colucci, Lamont. 2012. National Security Doctrines of the American Presidency.Santa Barbara: Praeger.

Columbia Law School Human Rights Clinic and Sana’a Center for StrategicStudies. 2017. “Out of the Shadows: Recommendations to Advance Trans-parency in the Use of Lethal Force.” Columbia Law School Human RightsClinic and the Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies. https://web.archive.org/

REFERENCES 217

web/20180331194746if_/https://www.outoftheshadowsreport.com/#new-page.

Columba Peoples and Nick Vaughan-Williams. 2010. Critical Security Studies:An Introduction. New York: Routledge.

Conant, Eve. 2014. “Ethnic Russians: Pretext for Putin’s Ukraine Invasion?”National Geographic, May 2. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140502-russia-putin-ukraine-geography-crimea-language/.

Condra, Luke, and Jacob Shapiro. 2012. “Who Takes the Blame? The StrategicEffects of Collateral Damage?” American Journal of Political Science 56 (1):167–187.

Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time ofWar. 1949. Adopted, by the Diplomatic Conference for the Establishmentof International Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War, August12. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Education/Training/Compilation/Pages/4GenevaConvention(IV)relativetotheProtectionofCivilianPersonsinTimesofWar(1949).aspx.

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.1979. New York, September 3. United Nations Treaty Series 1249(20378):1. https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-8&chapter=4&lang=en.

Convention on the Rights of the Child. 1989. New York, November 20. UnitedNations Treaty Series (557)2753: 3. https://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002800007fe&clang=_en.

Courson, Paul, and Steve Turnham. 2003. “Amid Furor, Pentagon KillsTerrorism Futures Market.” CNN , July 30. https://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/07/29/terror.market/.

Crawford, Neta. 2013. Accountability for Killing: Moral Responsibility for Collat-eral Damage in America’s Post 9/11 Wars. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

Crawford, Emily. 2015. Identifying the Enemy: Civilian Participation in ArmedConflict. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Currier, Cora. 2015. “The Kill Chain: The Drone Papers.” The Intercept,October 2015. https://theintercept.com/drone-papers/the-kill-chain/.

Dalby, Simon. 2007. “Regions, Strategies, and Empire in the Global War onTerror.” Geopolitics 12: 586–606.

Dale, Catherine. 2008. CRS Report for Congress: Operation Iraqi Freedom:Strategies, Approaches, Results, and Issues for Congress. CRS Report No.:RL34387, Congressional Research Service, Washington.

Davis, Cameron. 2017. “Innocent Until Proven Guilty: A Solution for America’sFailed Military Transparency.” The Roosevelt Institute at Columbia Univer-sity. https://rooseveltinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/RN-10-Ideas-online-201704.pdf.

218 REFERENCES

Dean, Robert. 1998. “Masculinity as Ideology: John F. Kennedy and theDomestic Politics of Foreign Policy.” Diplomatic History 22 (1): 29–61.

Department of Defense. 2012. Autonomy in Weapons Systems. DOD Directive3000.09. Washington, DC: Department of Defense. https://cryptome.org/dodi/dodd-3000-09.pdf.

———. 2014. “Report on Process for Determining Targets of Lethal or CaptureOperations (U).” Department of Defense. https://www.aclu.org/foia-document/report-process-determining-targets-lethal-or-capture-operations-0?redirect=dod-report-process-determining-targets-lethal-or-capture-operations.

———. 2018. “Summary of the 2018 Department of Defense Artificial Intel-ligence Strategy: Harnessing AI to Advance Our Security and Prosperity.”Department of Defense. https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/12/2002088963/-1/-1/1/SUMMARY-OF-DOD-AI-STRATEGY.PDF.

———. 2019. Summary of the 2018 Department of Defense Artificial IntelligenceStrategy. Washington, DC: Department of Defense. https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/12/2002088963/-1/-1/1/SUMMARY-OF-DOD-AI-STRATEGY.PDF.

———. 2020. DOD Adopts Ethical Principles for Artificial Intelligence. Wash-ington, DC: Department of Defense. https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2091996/dod-adopts-ethical-principles-for-artificial-intelligence/.

Department of State and the United States Agency of International Devel-opment. 2010. Leading Through Civilian Power: The First QuadrennialDiplomacy and Development Review. Middletown, January 12.

Deputy Secretary of Defense to Various U.S Agencies. 2017. Establishment ofAlgorithmic Warfare Cross-Functional Team (Project Maven). Official Memo-randum. Washington, DC: Defense Pentagon. http://www.govexec.com/media/gbc/docs/pdfs_edit/establishment_of_the_awcft_project_maven.pdf.

Diamond, Larry. 2004. “What Went Wrong in Iraq.” Foreign Affairs(September–October): 34–56.

Dill, Janina. 2015. Legitimate Targets? Social Construction, International Lawand US Bombing. Cambridge: University of Cambridge.

Dillon, Michael. 2007. “Governing Terror: The State of Emergency of Biopolit-ical Emergence.” International Political Sociology 1 (1): 10.

———. 2008. “The Liberal Way of War.” Lecture to the Universidad Catolca,Santiago, Chile, March 20.

Dillow, Clay. 2016. “All of These Countries Now Have Armed Drones.”Fortune, February 12. http://fortune.com/2016/02/12/these-countries-have-armed-drones/.

Dixon, Paul. 2009. “‘Hearts and Minds?’ British Counter-Insurgency from Malayto Iraq.” Journal of Strategic Studies 32 (3): 353–381.

REFERENCES 219

Downes, Alexander B. 2008. Targeting Civilians in War. Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press.

Drew, Christopher. 2010. “Military Is Awash in Data from Drones.” The NewYork Times, January 10. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/11/business/11drone.html.

Dubfrofsky, Rachel, and Shoshana Amielle Magnet. “Introduction: FeministSurveillance Studies: Critical Interventions.” In Feminist Surveillance Studies,edited by Rachel Dubfrofsky and Shoshana Amielle Magnet, 1–20. Durham:Duke University Press.

Duffield, Mark. 2010. “The Liberal Way of Development and the Development-Security Impasse: Exploring the Global-Life Divide.” Security Dialogue 41(1): 51–76.

Duschinsky, Robbie. 2011. “Slaughtered Innocents: Child Victims in PoliticalDiscourse During the Second Intifada and Gaza Conflict.” Social Semiotics21 (1): 33–51.

Eberhardt, Robin. 2017. “Trump Shown Photo of Afghan Women in Miniskirts:Report.” The Hill, August 22. https://thehill.com/policy/defense/347446-mcmaster-showed-trump-1970s-photos-of-afghan-women-wearing-miniskirts-in.

Elshtain, Jean Bethke. 2000. “‘Shooting’ at the Wrong Target: A Response toVan Creveld.” Millennium 29 (2): 443–448.

En, Toh Bao. 2016. “Swimming in Sensors, Drowning in Data: Big DataAnalytics for Military Intelligence.” Pointer: Journal of the Singapore ArmedForces 42 (1): 51–66.

Enloe, Cynthia. 2004. The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in the NewAge of Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Entman, Robert. 2006. “Punctuating the Homogeneity of InstitutionalizedNews: Abusing Prisoners at Abu Ghraib Versus Killing Civilians at Fallujah.”Political Communication 23 (2): 215–224.

Erwin, Sandra. 2012. “Too Much Information, Not Enough Intelligence.”National Defense, January 5. http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2012/5/1/2012may-too-much-information-not-enough-intelligence.

Essa, Azad. 2017. “Why Do Some UN Peacekeepers Rape?” Al-Jazeera,August 4. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/07/peacekeepers-rape-170730075455216.html.

Equivant. 2018. “Response to ProPublica: Demonstrating Accuracy Equity andPredictive Parity.” Equivant, December 1. https://www.equivant.com/response-to-propublica-demonstrating-accuracy-equity-and-predictive-parity/.

Farrell, Tracie, Miriam Fernandez, Jakub Novotny, and Harith Alani. 2019.“Exploring Misogyny Across the Manosphere in Reddit.” Workshop Item.Presented at WebSci ‘19 Proceedings of the 10th ACM Conference on WebScience, June 30–July 3, Boston, MA.

220 REFERENCES

Fielding-Smith, Abigail, and Crofton Black. 2015a. “‘When You Mess Up,People Die’: Civilians Who Are Dfone Pilots’ Extra Eyes.” The Guardian,July 30. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/30/when-you-mess-up-people-die-civilians-who-are-drone-pilots-extra-eyes.

———. 2015b. “Reaping the Rewards: How Private Sector Is Cashing in onPentagon’s ‘Insatiable Demand’ for Drone War Intelligence.” The Bureau ofInvestigative Journalism, July 30. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2015-07-30/reaping-the-rewards-how-private-sector-is-cashing-in-on-pentagons-insatiable-demand-for-drone-war-intelligence.

Finland and Estonia GGE Delegation. 2018. “Categorizing Lethal AutonomousWeapons Systems: A Technical and Legal Perspective to UnderstandingLAWS.” Submission to Group of Governmental Experts of the HighContracting Parties to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on theUse of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Exces-sively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, August 27–31, Geneva,Switzerland.

Finn, Ed. 2017. What Algorithms Want: Imagination in the Age of Computing.Cambridge: MIT Press.

Finnemore, Martha. 1996. “Constructing Norms of Humanitarian Interven-tion.” In The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in WorldPolitics, edited by Peter J. Katzenstein, 152–175. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press.

Finnemore, Martha, and Kathryn Sikkink. 2001. “Taking Stock: The Construc-tivist Research Program in International Relations and Comparative Politics.”Annual Review of Political Science 4: 391–416.

Flightglobal Insight and Raytheon. 2011. Airborne Imaging 2011: CurrentThinking, Strategic Analysis and Market Evolution. UK: Flight Global Insight.https://fdocuments.in/document/airborne-imaging-in-2011.html.

Florini, Ann. 1996. “The Evolution of International Norms.” InternationalStudies Quarterly 40 (3): 363–389.

Flynn, Michael T., Rich Juergens, and Thomas L. Cantrell. 2008. “EmployingISR: SOF Best Practices.” JFQ 50 (3): 56–61.

Foucault, Michel. 1976. The History of Sexuality. New York: Pantheon.Freedberg Jr., Sydney. 2017. “Artificial Stupidity: Learning to Trust Artificial

Intelligence (Sometimes).” Breaking Defense, July 5. https://breakingdefense.com/2017/07/artificial-stupidity-learning-to-trust-the-machine/.

———. 2019. “ATLAS: Killer Robot? No. Virtual Crewman? Yes.” BreakingDefense, March 4. https://breakingdefense.com/2019/03/atlas-killer-robot-no-virtual-crewman-yes/.

Frowd, Phillipe M. 2014. “The Field of Border Control in Mauritania.” SecurityDialogue 45 (3): 225–241.

REFERENCES 221

Gallaghager, Kathleen. 2017. “Anthropology, the Military, and the Risks ofEthical Inertia.” Human Organization 76 (2): 150–159.

Garamone, Jim. 2009a. “Commander: Tailban Forced Civilians to Remain inTargeted Buildings.” American Forces Press Service, May 10. http://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/NEWS-ARTICLES/News-Article-View/Article/883849/commander-taliban-forced-civilians-to-remain-in-targeted-buildings/.

———. 2009b. “Directive Re-emphasizes Protecting Afghan Civilians.” Amer-ican Forces Press Service, July 6. https://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=55023.

Garrison, Laura. 2013. “Biopolitics, an Overview.” The Anthropology of Biopol-itics, January 21.

General Atomics Aeronautical. 2018. “Predator B RPA.” http://www.ga-asi.com/predator-b.

Gentry, John. 2010. “Norms as Weapons of War.” Defense & Security Analysis26 (1): 11–30.

Gerrign, John. 2012. Social Science Methodology: A Unified Framework. 2nd ed.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gettinger, Dan. 2015. “Drone Geography: Mapping a System of Intelligence.”Center for the Study of the Drone, February 19. http://dronecenter.bard.edu/drone-geography/.

———. 2016. “Drone Spending in the Fiscal Year 2017 Defense Budget.”Center for the Study of the Drone. http://dronecenter.bard.edu/files/2016/03/DroneSpendingFy17_CSD_3-1.pdf.

Gibbons-Neff, Thomas. 2017. “In Third Shoot-Down in a Month, U.S. JetDestroys Another Iranian Drone over Syria.” The Washington Post, June 20.https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2017/06/20/in-third-shoot-down-in-a-month-u-s-jet-destroys-another-iranian-drone-over-syria/?utm_term=.3610cf39e7bb.

Gilmore, Jonathan. 2012. “A Kinder, Gentler Counter-Terrorism: Counterinsur-gency, Human Security and the War on Terror.” Security Dialogue 42 (1):21–37.

Glenn, David. 2007. “Former Human Terrain System Participant DescribesProgram in Disarray.” The Chronicle of Higher Education, December 5.https://www.chronicle.com/article/Former-Human-Terrain-System/285.

Golafshani, Nahid. 2003. “Understanding Reliability and Validity in QualitativeResearch.” The Qualitative Report 8 (4): 597–607.

Gonzalez, Roberto J. 2007. “Towards Mercenary Anthropology? The New USArmy Counterinsurgency Manual FM 3–24 and the Military-AnthropologyComplex.” Anthropology Today 23 (3): 14–19.

———. 2015. “The Rise and Fall of the Human Terrain System.” Counterpunch,June 29. https://www.counterpunch.org/2015/06/29/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-human-terrain-system/.

222 REFERENCES

Gordon, Joy. 2012. Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Google Developers. 2020. “Training and Test Sets.” Machine LearningCrash Course. https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/crash-course/training-and-test-sets/video-lecture. Accessed March 2020.

Gray, Mary L., and Siddharth Suri. 2019. Ghost Work: How to Step SiliconValley from Building a New Global Underclass. New York: Houghton MifflinHarcourt.

Gregory, Derek. 2011. “The Everywhere War.” The Geographical Journal 177(3): 238–250.

Grier, Peter. 2011. “April 15, 1953.” Air Force Magazine, June. http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2011/June%202011/0611april.aspx.

Grobklaus, Mathias. 2015. “Targeted Killing and the Problem of ‘NormErosion’.” Conference Paper. Presented at the 56th International StudiesAssociation Annual Convention, February 18–21, New Orleans, Louisiana.

Grothoff, Christian, and J. M. Porup. 2016. “The NSA’s SKYNET ProgramMay Be Killing Thousands of Innocent People.” ArsTechnica, February16. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2016/02/the-nsas-skynet-program-may-be-killing-thousands-of-innocent-people/.

Grove, Jairus. 2016. “The Stories We Tell About Killing.” The Disorder ofThings, January 6. https://thedisorderofthings.com/2016/01/06/the-stories-we-tell-about-killing/.

Guiora, Amos. 2004. “Targeted Killing as Active Self-Defence.” Case WesternReserve Journal of International Law 36: 1.

Gurtov, Mel. 2006. Superpower on Crusade: The Bush Doctrine in US ForeignPolicy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

Guzik, Keith. 2009. “Discrimination by Design: Data Mining in the UnitedStates’s ‘War on Terrorism’.” Surveillance and Society 7 (1): 1–17.

Hacking, Ian. 1983. “Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers.” InBiopower: Foucault and Beyond, edited by Vernon W. Cisney and NicolaeMorar, 65–84. London: University of Chicago Press.

Haddal, Chad, and Jeremiah Gertler. 2010. Homeland Security: UnmannedAerial Vehicles and Border Surveillance. CRS Report No.: RS21698, Congres-sional Research Service, Washington.

Hall, Abigail. 2013. “The Political Economy of Drones.” PhD diss., GeorgeMason University.

Hansen, Lene. 2006. Security as Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War.New York: Routledge.

Hayden, Michael V. 2016. “To Keep America Safe, Embrace Drone Warfare.”The New York Times, February 19. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/21/opinion/sunday/drone-warfare-precise-effective-imperfect.html.

REFERENCES 223

Heck, Axl, and Gabi Schlag. 2012. “Securitizing Images: The Female Body andthe War in Afghanistan.” European Journal of International Relations 19 (4):891–913.

Heller, Regina, and Martin Kahl. 2013. “Tracing and Understanding ‘Bad’Norm Dynamics in Counterterrorism: The Current Debates in IR Research.”Critical Studies on Terrorism 6 (3): 413–428.

Hempel, Jessi. 2017. “Melinda Gates and Fei-Fei Li Want to Liberate AI from‘Guys with Hoodies’.” Wired, May 4. https://www.wired.com/2017/05/melinda-gates-and-fei-fei-li-want-to-liberate-ai-from-guys-with-hoodies/.

Herold, Marc. 2002. “US Bombing and Afghan Civilian Deaths: The OfficialNeglect of ‘Unworthy’ Bodies.” International Journal of Urban and RegionalResearch 26 (3): 626–634.

Hoffman, Bruce. 2006a. “Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Iraq.” Studiesin Conflict and Terrorism 29 (2): 103–121.

Hoffman, Frank. 2006b. “Complex Irregular Warfare: The Next Revolution inMilitary Affairs.” Orbis 50 (3): 395–411.

———. 2007. Conflict in the 21st Century: The Rise of Hybrid Wars. Arlington,Virginia: Potomac Institute for Policy Studies.

Holt, Louise, and Sarah L. Holloway. 2006. “Editorial: Theorising OtherChildhoods in a Globalised World.” Children’s Geographies 4 (2): 135–142.

Hopking, Peter E. 2014. “Youthful Muslim Masculinities: Gender and Genera-tional Relations.” Royal Geographical Society 31: 337–352.

Howard, Jacqueline. 2017. “Adults View Black Girls as ‘Less Innocent,’ NewReport Says.” CNN , June 28. https://www.cnn.com/2017/06/28/health/black-girls-adultification-racial-bias-study/index.html.

Hu, Margaret. 2017. “Algorithmic Jim Crow.” Fordham Law Review 86 (2):633–696.

Hudson, Valerie M., and Patricia Leidl. 2015. The Hillary Doctrine. New York:Columbia University Press.

Human Rights Watch. 2008. “Adults Before Their Time: Children in SaudiArabia’s Criminal Justice System.” Human Rights Watch 20 (4).

Hunt, Ira “Gus”. 2013. “The CIA’s “Grand Challenges” with Big Data.”GIGAOM Data Conference, April 1. https://www.slideshare.net/gigaom/the-cias-grand-challenges-with-big-data-from-structuredata-2013.

Hyndman, Jennifer. 2010. “The Question of ‘the Political’ in Critical Geogra-phies: Querying the ‘Child Soldier’ in the ‘War on Terror’.” PoliticalGeography 29 (5): 247–255.

IBM. 2018. “Infographics and Animations: The Four V’s of Big Data.” IBM BigData and Analytics Hub. https://www.ibmbigdatahub.com/infographic/four-vs-big-data.

224 REFERENCES

Ingram, Helen, and Anne Schneider. 1993. “Social Construction of Target Popu-lations: Implications for Politics and Policy.” The American Political ScienceReview 87 (2): 334–347.

International Military Commission. 1868. Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868,November 29. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/decpeter.asp.

International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). 2009. “Subject: Tactical Direc-tive.” Headquarters: International Security Assistance Force, July 6. https://www.nato.int/isaf/docu/official_texts/Tactical_Directive_090706.pdf.

———. 2012. Afghanistan Civilian Casualty Prevention Handbook: Observations,Insights, and Lessons. Washington: Center for Army Lessons Learned.

Iraq Body Count. 2005. “A Dossier of Civilian Casualties in Iraq 2003–3005.”https://www.iraqbodycount.org/analysis/reference/press-releases/12/.

Islamabad, Chiade O’Shea. 2007. “NATO Accuses Taliban of Using Children inSuicide Missions.” The Guardian, June 23. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jun/23/afghanistan.uknews4.

Ito, Joi. 2018. “Supposedly ‘Fair’ Algorithms Can Perpetuate Discrimination.”Wired, February 5. https://www.media.mit.edu/articles/supposedly-fair-algorithms-can-perpetuate-discrimination/.

———. 2019. “Supposedly ‘Fair’ Algorithms Can Perpetuate Discrimination.”Wired, April 2. https://www.wired.com/story/ideas-joi-ito-insurance-algorithms/.

Jacobs, Cecilia. 2015. “‘Children and Armed Conflict’ and the Field of SecurityStudies.” Critical Studies on Security 3 (1): 14–28.

Jalal, Malik. 2016. “I’m on the Kill List: This Is What It Feels Like to BeHunted by Drones.” The Independent, April 12. https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/i-am-on-the-us-kill-list-this-is-what-it-feels-like-to-be-hunted-by-drones-a6980141.html.

Jamison, Melissa. 2005. “Detention of Juvenile Combatants at Guantanamo Bay:The Special Concerns of the Children.” UC Davis Journal of Juvenile Lawand Policy 9 (1): 127–170.

Jiwani, Yasmin. 2015. “Violating In/Visibilities: Honor Killings and InterlockingSurveillance(s).” In Feminist Surveillance Studies, edited by Rachel Dubfrofskyand Shoshana Amielle Magnet, 79–93. Durham: Duke University Press.

Joachim, Jutta. 2003. “Framing Issues and Seizing Opportunities: The UN,NGOs and Women’s Rights.” International Studies Quarterly 43 (2): 247–274.

Johns, Fleur. 2005. “Guantanamo Bay and the Annihilation of the Exception.”European Journal of International Law 16 (4): 613–635.

Johnson, Chalmers. 2001. “Blowback.” The Nation, September 27. https://www.thenation.com/article/blowback/.

REFERENCES 225

Johnson, Jeffrey Alan. 2015. “How Data Does Political Things: The Processes ofEncoding and Decoding Data Are Never Neutral.” LSE Impact Blog, October7.

Johnson, Ted, and Charles F. Wald. 2017. “The Military Should Teach AIto Watch Drone Footage.” Wired, November 26. https://www.wired.com/story/the-military-should-teach-ai-to-watch-drone-footage/.

Joint Chiefs of Staff. 2009. Counterinsurgency, Joint Publication 3–24. Wash-ington: Joint Chiefs of Staff.

———. 2013. Joint Intelligence. Joint Publication 2-0. Washington: Joint Chiefsof Staff. http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp2_0.pdf.

———. 2018. Civilian Casualty Review. Washington: Joint Chiefs of Staff.https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Civilian/Casualty/Review/Report/Redacted.pdf.

Jones, Samuel Vincent. 2006. “Has Conduct in Iraq Confirmed the MoralInadequacy of International Humanitarian Law? Examining the ConfluenceBetween Contract Theory and the Scope of Civilian Immunity During ArmedConflict.” Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 16 (24):245–298.

Jones, Seth G. 2008. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. Santa Monica: RANDCorporation.

Jones, David Martina, and Michael Lawrence Rowan Smith. 2010. “WhoseHearts and Whose Minds? The Curious Case of Global Counter-Insurgency.”The Journal of Strategic Studies 33 (1): 81–121.

Jontz, Sandra. 2015. “With IC ‘Swimming in Sensors and Drowning in Data,’Analysts Seek Big Data Solutions.” SIGNAL, April 14. https://www.afcea.org/content/?q=Article-ic-swimming-sensors-and-drowning-data-analysts-seek-big-data-solutions.

Kaldor, Mary. 2006. “The Globalized War Economy.” In Perspectives on WorldPolitics, 3rd ed, edited by Richard Little and Michael Smith, 286–294. NewYork: Routledge.

———. 2007. New and Old Wars. 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press.———. 2011. “Human Security in Complex Operations.” PRISM 2 (2): 3–14.Kaleve, Sepp. 2007. “From ‘Shock and Awe’ to ‘Hearts and Minds’: The Fall

and Rise of US Counterinsurgency Capability in Iraq.” Third World Quarterly28: 217–230.

Katz, Andrew. 2017. When Democracies Choose War: Politics, Public Opinion, andthe Marketplace of Ideas. Boulder: Lynne Reinner.

Kennedy, David. 2016. A World of Struggle: How Power, Law, and Expertise ShapeGlobal Political Economy. Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press.

Khan, Azmat, and Anand Gopal. 2017. “The Uncounted.” The New YorkTimes, November 16. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/11/16/magazine/uncounted-civilian-casualties-iraq-airstrikes.html.

226 REFERENCES

Khalili, Laleh. 2010. “Gendered Practices of Counterinsurgency.” Review ofInternational Studies 37 (4): 1471–1491.

Kheel, Rebecca. 2019. “Pentagon: US Military Operations Killed 120 CiviliansLast Year.” The Hill, April 2. https://thehill.com/policy/defense/441771-pentagon-us-military-operations-killed-120-civilians-in-2018.

Kienscherf, Markus. 2011. “A Programme of Global Pacification: US Coun-terinsurgency Doctrine and the Biopolitics of Human (In)Security.” SecurityDialogue 42 (6): 517–535.

Kilcullen, David J. 2005. “Countering Global Insurgency.” The Journal ofStrategic Studies 28 (4): 597–617.

———. 2006. “Twenty-Eight Articles: Fundamentals of Company-Level Coun-terinsurgency.” Marine Corps Gazette (Summer): 29–35.

Kindervater, Katherine Hall. 2017. “The Technological Rationality of the DroneStrike.” Critical Studies on Security 5 (1): 28–44.

Kinsella, Helen. 2004. “Securing the Civilian: Sex and Gender in the Laws ofWar.” Working Paper No. 201, Boston Consortium on Gender, Security, andHuman Rights.

———. 2005. “Discourses of Difference: Civilians, Combatants, and ComplianceWithin the Laws of War.” Review of International Studies 31 (1): 163–185.

———. 2006. “Gendering Grotius: Sex and Gender in the Laws of War.”Political Theory 34 (2): 161–191.

Knowlton, Brian, and International Herald Tribune. 2003. “Top U.SGeneral in Iraq Sees ‘Classical Guerilla-Type’ War.” The New YorkTimes, July 16. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/16/international/worldspecial/top-us-general-in-iraq-sees-classical.html.

Koenig-Archibugi, Mathias. 2010. “Global Dimensions of Policy.” Global Policy1 (1): 16–28.

Koren, Marina. 2019. “Why Men Thought Women Weren’t Made to Vote.” TheAtlantic, July 11. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/07/womens-suffrage-nineteenth-amendment-pseudoscience/593710/.

Koring, Paul. 2010. “Omar Kadr Is ‘al-Qaeda Royalty’ and a Grave Risk,Psychiatrist Testifies.” The Globe and Mail, October 27. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/omar-khadr-is-al-qaeda-royalty-and-a-grave-risk-psychiatrist-testifies/article4330447/.

Kowert, Paul and Jeffrey Legro. 1996. “Norms, Identity, and Their Limits: ATheoretical Reprise.” In The Culture of National Security, edited by Peter J.Katzenstein, 451–483. New York: Columbia University Press.

Krebs, Ronald R., and Patrick Thaddeus Jackson. 2007. “Twisting Tonguesand Twisting Arms: The Power of Political Rhetoric.” European Journal ofInternational Relations 13 (2): 35–66.

REFERENCES 227

Kurki, Milja. 2006. “Causes of a Divided Discipline: Rethinking the Concept ofCause in International Relations Theory.” Review of International Relations32 (3): 189–216.

Lagesen, Vivian Anette. 2012. “Reassembling Gender: Actor-Network Theory(ANT) and the Making of Technology in Gender.” Social Studies of Science42 (3): 442–448.

Lauri, Mary Anne. 2011. “Triangulation of Data Analysis Techniques.” Paperson Social Representations 20: 34.1–34.15.

Lauterbach, Claire. 2007. “The Costs of Cooperation: Civilian Casualty Countsin Iraq.” International Studies Perspectives 8: 429–445.

Lears, Jackson. 2003. “How a War Became a Crusade.” The New York Times,March 11. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/11/opinion/how-a-war-became-a-crusade.html.

Lee-Koo, Katrina. 2011. “Horror and Hope: (Re)presenting Militarised Childrenin Global North-South Relations.” Third World Quarterly 32 (4): 725–742.

Lemmon, Gayle Tzemach. 2009. “Extending the Horizon for Women’s AidProjects in Afghanistan.” The New York Times, August 14. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/15/business/global/15mall.html.

Lewis, Michael. 2011. “Drones and the Boundaries of Battlefields.” TexasInternational Law Journal 47 (2): 293–314.

———. 2013. “Drones: Actually the Most Human Form of Warfare Ever.” TheAtlantic, August 21. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/08/drones-actually-the-most-humane-form-of-warfare-ever/278746/.

Lin, Ann Chih. 1998. “Bridging Positivist and Interpretivist Approaches toQualitative Methods.” Policy Studies Journal 26 (1): 162–180.

Lind, Michael. 2004. “A Tragedy of Errors.” The Nation, February 23. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/tragedy-errors/.

Linebaugh, Heather. 2013. “I Worked on the US Drone Program: The PublicShould Know What Really Goes On.” The Guardian, December 29. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/29/drones-us-military.

LoBianco, Tom. 2015. “Donald Trump on Terrorist: ‘Take Out Their Families’.”CNN , December 3. https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/02/politics/donald-trump-terrorists-families/index.html.

Luban, David. 2016. “Has Obama Upheld the Law?” The New York Reviewof Books, April 21. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/04/21/has-obama-upheld-the-law/.

Macmillan, Lorraine. 2015. “Children, Civilianhood, and Humanitarian Securi-tization.” Critical Studies on Security 3 (1): 62–76.

Macnamara, Robert. 1995. In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam.New York: First Vintage Books.

Maguson, Stew. 2010. “Military ‘Swimming in Sensors and Drowning inData’.” National Defense: NDIA’s Business and Technology Magazine,

228 REFERENCES

January 1. http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2009/12/31/2010january-military-swimming-in-sensors-and-drowning-in-data.

Mahoney, James, and Gary Goertz. 2006. “A Tale of Two Cultures: ContrastingQuantitative and Qualitative Research.” Political Analysis 14: 227–249.

Manchanda, Nivi. 2017. “The Imperial Sociology of the ‘Tribe’ in Afghanistan.”Millennium: Journal of International Studies: 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305829817741267.

Manjikian, Mary. 2014. “Becoming Unmanned: The Gendering of LethalAutonomous Warfare Technology.” International Feminist Journal of Politics16 (1): 48–65.

Mann, Kate. 2017. Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

Markel, Wade. 2006. “Draining the Swamp: The British Strategy of PopulationControl.” Parameters (Spring): 35–48.

Markoff, John. 2014. “Fearing Bombs That Can Pick Whom to Kill.” TheNew York Times, November 11. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/12/science/weapons-directed-by-robots-not-humans-raise-ethical-questions.html.

Maurer, Kevin. 2015. “She Kills People from 7,850 Miles Away.” The DailyBeast, October 18. https://www.thedailybeast.com/she-kills-people-from-7850-miles-away.

Mazzotti, Massimo. 2017. “Algorithmic Life.” LA Review of Books, January 22.https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/algorithmic-life/.

McAfee, Andrew, and Erik Brynjolfsson. 2012. “Big Data: The ManagementRevolution.” Harvard Business Review, October. https://hbr.org/2012/10/big-data-the-management-revolution.

McCann, Michael. 1996. “Causal Versus Constitutive Explanations (or, On theDifficulty of Being so Positive…).” Law & Social Inquiry 21 (2): 457–482.

McFate, Montgomery. 2005. “Anthropology and Counterinsurgency: TheStrange Story of Their Curious Relationship.” Military Review 85 (2): 24–37.

———. 2008. “Comment: Cultural Knowledge and Common Sense.” Anthro-pology Today 24 (2).

McLafferty, Sara. 2005. “Women and GIS: Geospatial Technologies and FeministGeographies.” Cartographica 40 (4): 37–45.

McManus, Doyle. 2003. “A U.S. License to Kill.” The L.A Times, January.http://articles.latimes.com/2003/jan/11/world/fg-predator11.

McPherson, Lionel K. 2007. “Is Terrorism Distinctively Wrong?” Ethics 117 (3):542–546.

Medina, Richard. 2014. “From Anthropology to Human Geography: HumanTerrain and the Evolution of Operational Sociocultural Understanding.”Intelligence and National Security 31 (2): 137–153.

Meiches, Benjamin. 2015. “A Political Ecology of the Camp.” Security Dialogue46 (5): 476–492.

REFERENCES 229

Miller, T. Christian, Megan Rose, Robert Faturechi, and Agnes Chang. 2019.“Collision Course.” ProPublica, December 20. https://features.propublica.org/navy-uss-mccain-crash/navy-installed-touch-screen-steering-ten-sailors-paid-with-their-lives/.

Mishra, Smeeta. 2007. “Saving Muslims Women and Fighting Muslim Men:Analysis of Representations in the New York Times.” Global Media Journal 6(1): 1–20.

Mogelson, Luke. 2017. “The Recent History of Bombing the Shit Out of ‘Em.”The New Yorker, April 20. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-recent-history-of-bombing-the-shit-out-of-em.

Monaco, Lisa. 2016. “Lisa O. Monaco on Homeland Security and Coun-terterrorism.” Kenneth A. Moskow Memorial Lecture. Council on ForeignRelations, March 7. https://www.cfr.org/event/lisa-o-monaco-homeland-security-and-counterterrorism.

Moore, David T. 2007. “Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis.” NationalDefense Intelligence College, Occasional Paper Number Fourteen, Center forStrategic Intelligence Research, Washington. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dia/ndic_moore_crit_analysis_hires.pdf.

Muller, Martin. 2015. “Assemblages and Actor-Networks: Rethinking Socio-Material Power, Politics and Space.” Geography Compass 9 (1): 27–41.

Murphy, John M. 2004. “The Language of Liberal Consensus: John F. Kennedy,Technical Reason, and the ‘New Economics’ at Yale University.” QuarterlyJournal of Speech 90 (2): 133–162.

Nagel, Joane. 1998. “Masculinity and Nationalism: Gender and Sexuality in theMaking of Nations.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 21 (2): 242–229.

Nagl, John. 2002. Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife: Counterinsurgency Lessonsfrom Malaya and Vietnam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

———. 2007. “Forward to the University of Chicago Press Edition: TheEvolution and Importance of Army/Marine Corps Field Manual 3–24, Coun-terinsurgency.” In The U.S. Army and Marine Corps Counterinsurgency FiledManual, xiii–xx. London: University of Chicago Press.

Nakashima, Ellen, and Craig Whitlock. 2011. “With Air Force’s Gorgon Drone‘We Can See Everything’.” The Washington Post, January 2. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/01/AR2011010102690.html?sid=ST2011012204147.

National Geospatial Agency (NGA). 2014. The 2020 Analysis Technology Plan.Washington, DC: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency.

Nussbaum, Martha. 1999. Sex and Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

O’Sullivan, Dan. 2017. “Dark Cloud: Inside the Pentagon’s Leaked InternetSurveillance Archive.” Upguard, November 17. https://www.upguard.com/breaches/cloud-leak-centcom.

230 REFERENCES

Oakford, Samuel. 2017. “Coalition Civilian Casualty Claims Double UnderDonald Trump.” Airwars, July 17. https://airwars.org/news/trumps-air-war-kills-12-civilians-per-day/.

Obama, Barack. 2009. “Full Text of Obama’s Nobel Peace Prize Speech.”NBC News, October 10. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/honour-killings-domestic-abuse-by-another-name-1.792907.

Odierno, Raymond T., Nichoel Brooks, and Francesco Mastracchio. 2008. “ISREvolution in the Iraqi Theater.” Joint Force Quarterly 50 (July): 53–58.

Office of the Press Secretary. 2002. “White House Press Secretary Announce-ment of President Bush’s Determination re Legal Status of Taliban and AlQaeda Detainees,” February 7. https://www.state.gov/s/l/38727.htm.

OHCHR. 1979. “Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrim-ination against Women.” United Nations Human Rights Office of theHigh Commissioner, December 18. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cedaw.aspx.

———. 1989. “Convention on the Rights of the Child.” United Nations HumanRights Office of the High Commissioner, November 20. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.

Ohlin, Jens. 2016. “The Combatant’s Stance: Autonomous Weapons on theBattlefield.” International Studies 92 (1): 1–29.

Opperman, Kai. 2013. “Thinking Alike? Silence and Metaphor Analysis asCognitive Approaches to Foreign Policy Analysis.” Foreign Policy Analysis 9:39–56.

Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2015. “Investingin Women and Girls.” https://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/investinginwomenandgirls.htm.

Owens, Patricia. 2015. Economy of Force: Counterinsurgency and the HistoricalRise of the Social. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Owens, William. 1995–1996. “The American Revolution in Military Affairs.”JFQ Forum (Winter): 37–38.

Pacheco-Vega, Raul. 2016. “How to Do a Literature Review: Citation Tracing,Concept Saturation and Results’ Mind-Mapping.” Paul Pacheco-Vega, PhD,June 15. http://www.raulpacheco.org/2016/06/how-to-do-a-literature-review-citation-tracing-concept-saturation-and-results-mind-mapping/.

Packer, George. 2008. “Kilcullen on Afghanistan: ‘It’s Still Winnable, But OnlyJust’.” The New Yorker, November 14. https://www.newyorker.com/news/george-packer/kilcullen-on-afghanistan-its-still-winnable-but-only-just.

Panetta, Leon. 2016. “The Spymaster-CIA in the Crosshairs.” Forty EightHours, May 21. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/48-hours-presents-the-spymasters-cia-in-the-crosshairs/.

Parashar, Swati. 2013. “What Wars and ‘War Bodies’ Know About InternationalRelations.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 26 (4): 615–630.

REFERENCES 231

Park, Augustine S. 2014. “Constituting Omar Khadr: Cultural Racism, Child-hood, and Citizenship.” International Political Sociology 8 (1): 43–62.

Parks, Lisa, and Karen Kaplan. 2017. “Introduction.” In Life in the Age ofDrone Warfare, edited by Lisa Parks and Karen Kaplan, 1–23. Durham: DukeUniversity Press.

Petraeus, David. 2010. “Full Text: Gen Petraeus Speech.” BBC News, July 4.http://www.bbc.com/news/10501541.

Perkel, Colin. 2016. “Canada’s Syrian Refugee Programme Not AbandoningSingle Men: Deborah Tunis.” HuffPost, November 27. http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2015/11/26/syrian-refugees-groups-canada_n_8657142.html.

Peterson, V. Spike, ed. 1992. Gendered States. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.———. 2005. “How (the Meaning of) Gender Matters in Political Economy.”

New Political Economy 10 (4): 499–521.Petit, Brian. 2011. “The Fight for the Village: Southern Afghanistan 2010.”

Military Review (May–June): 25–32.Petraeus, David. 2013. “How We Won in Iraq.” Foreign Policy, October 29.

http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/10/29/how-we-won-in-iraq/.Pew Research Center. 2014. “A Less Gloomy Mood in Pakistan.” Global Atti-

tudes and Trends, August 26. http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/08/27/a-less-gloomy-mood-in-pakistan/pg-2014-08-27-pakistan-13/.

Pilkington, Ed. 2015. “Life as a Drone Operator: ‘Every Step on ants andNever Give It Another Thought?’” The Guardian, November 19. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/18/life-as-a-drone-pilot-creech-air-force-base-nevada.

Pirnie, Bruce, and Edward O’Connell. 2008. Counterinsurgency in Iraq (2003–2006). RAND National Defense Institute. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

Porter, Tony, and Michael Webb. 2009. “The Role of the OECD in theOrchestration of Global Knowledge Networks.” In The OECD and Transna-tional Governance, edited by Rianne Mahone and Stephen McBride, 43–60.Vancouver: UBC Press.

Powell, Colin. 1996. My American Journey. New York: Ballantine Books.Pruszewicz, Marek. 2014. “The 1920s British Air Bombing Campaign in Iraq.”

BBC News, October 7. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29441383.Pugliese, David. 2017. “Canadian Military Hoped to Buy Second-Hand

Drones Even Before Getting the OK.” The National Post, September6. http://nationalpost.com/news/politics/canadian-military-hoped-to-buy-second-hand-drones-even-before-getting-the-ok.

Pupavac, Vanessa. 2001. “Misanthropy Without Borders: The InternationalChildren’s Rights Regime.” Disasters 25 (2): 95–112.

Purkiss, Jessica, and Jack Serle. 2017. “Obama’s Covert Drone War in Numbers:Ten Times More Strikes Than Numbers.” The Bureau of InvestigativeJournalism, January 17. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/

232 REFERENCES

2017-01-17/obamas-covert-drone-war-in-numbers-ten-times-more-strikes-than-bush.

Quinlan, Andrea. 2012. “Imagining a Feminist Actor-Network Theory.” Inter-national Journal of Actor-Network Theory and Technological Innovation 4 (2):1–9.

Quirkos. “Reaching Saturation Point in Qualitative Research.” Quirkos, July 21.https://www.quirkos.com/blog/post/saturation-qualitative-research-guide.

Record, Jeffrey. 2000. “Operation Allied Force: Yet Another Wake-Up Call forthe Army?” Parameters 29 (4): 15–23.

Reus-Smit, Christian. 2007. “International Crises of Legitimacy.” InternationalPolitics 44 (2–3): 157–174.

Ricks, Thomas. 2006. Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. London:Penguin Books.

———. 2009. “The Dissenter Who Changed the War.” The WashingtonPost, February 8. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/02/07/AR2009020702153.html.

Risen, James. 2015. “American Psychological Association Bolstered C.I.ATorture Program, Report Says.” The New York Times, April 30. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/01/us/report-says-american-psychological-association-collaborated-on-torture-justification.html.

Risse-Kappen, Thomas. 1996. “Collective Identity in a Democratic Community:The Case of NATO.” In Domestic Politics and Norm Diffusion in Interna-tional Relations: Ideas Do Not Float Freely, edited by Thomas Risse-Kappen,357–399. London: Routledge.

Risse-Kappen, Thomas, Stephen C. Ropp, and Katheryn Sikkink. 2013. ThePersistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment to Compliance.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Robertson, Hamish, and Joanne Travaglia. 2015. “Big Data Problems We FacedToday Can Be Traced to the Social Ordering Practices of the 19th Century.”LSE Impact Blog, October 13. http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2015/10/13/ideological-inheritances-in-the-data-revolution/.

Robinson, Brian. 2009. “New UAV Sensors Could Leave Enemy No Place toHide.” Defense Systems, September 9. https://defensesystems.com/articles/2009/09/02/c4isr-3-gorgon-stare.aspx.

Roff, Heather M., and Richard Moyes. 2016. “Meaningful Human Control,Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Weapons.” Briefing Paper for Dele-gates at the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) Meetingof Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS), April.

Rogers, James. 2017. “Drone Warfare: The Death of Precision.” The Bulletin ofAtomic Scientists, May 12. https://thebulletin.org/drone-warfare-death-precision10766.

REFERENCES 233

Ross, Alice. 2016. “Former US Drone Technicians Speak Out AgainstProgramme in Brussels.” The Guardian, July 1. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/01/us-drone-whistleblowers-brussels-european-parliament.

Rothschild, Emma. 1995. “What Is Security?” Daedalus 124 (3): 53–98.Rumsfeld, Donald. 2002. “Transforming the Military.” Foreign Affairs 81 (3):

20–32.Rumsfeld, Donald, and General Myers. 2003. “Department of Defense News

Briefing.” Center for the Study of Human Rights in the Americas, April 25.http://humanrights.ucdavis.edu/projects/the-guantanamo-testimonials-project/testimonies/testimonies-of-military-psychologists-index/dod-news-briefing-secretary-rumsfeld-and-general-myers.

Sanchez, Raf. 2018. “Russia Uses Missiles and Cyber Warfare to Fight Off‘Swarm of Drones’ Attacking Military Bases in Syria.” The Telegraph,January 9. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/09/russia-fought-swarm-drones-attacking-military-bases-syria/.

Sanders, Sam. 2016. “Ted Cruz Criticized After Suggesting Law EnforcementPatrol Muslim Areas.” NPR, March 23. https://www.npr.org/2016/03/23/471600823/ted-cruz-faces-criticism-after-suggesting-law-enforcement-patrol-muslim-areas.

Sanger, David E. 2009. The Inheritance: The World Obama Confronts and theChallenges to American Power. New York: Harmony Books.

Sauer, Frank, and Niklas Schornig. 2012. “Killer Drones: The ‘Silver Bullet’ ofDemocratic Warfare?” Security Dialogue 43 (4): 363–380.

Savage, Charlie, and Eric Schmitt. 2017. “Trump Eases Combat Rules inSomalia Intended to Protect Civilians.” The New York Times, March30. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/30/world/africa/trump-is-said-to-ease-combat-rules-in-somalia-designed-to-protect-civilians.html.

Scharre, Paul. 2018. Army of None: Autonomous Weapons and the Future of War.New York: W.W Norton and Company.

Schmitt, Eric, and David E. Sanger. 2008. “Pakistan Shift Could Curtail DroneStrikes.” New York Times, February 22. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/22/washington/22policy.html.

Schwartz, Daniel. 2013. “Drone-Speak Lexicon: From ‘Bugsplat’ to ‘TargetedKilling’.” CBC News, February 8. http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/drone-speak-lexicon-from-bugsplat-to-targeted-killing-1.1342966.

Schwarz, Elke. 2017. “Hybridity and Humility: What of the Human inPosthuman Security?” In Reflections on the Posthuman in InternationalRelations, edited by Matt McDonald and Audra Mitchell, 29–39. Bristol:E-International Relations. http://www.e-ir.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Reflections-on-the-Posthuman-in-IR-E-IR.pdf.

234 REFERENCES

Schwarz, Elke Jairus Grove, K. Pablo, and Andrew Davenport. 2016. “Economyof Force.” The Disorder of Things, January 4. https://thedisorderofthings.com/2016/01/04/economy-of-force/.

Sepp, Kalevi. 2007. “From ‘Shock and Awe’ to ‘Hearts and Minds’: The Fall andRise of US Counterinsurgency Capability in Iraq.” Third World Quarterly 28(1): 217–230.

Serle, Jack. 2016. “Obama Drone Casualty Numbers a Fraction of ThoseRecorded by the Bureau.” The Bureau of Investigative Journalism,July 1. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2016-07-01/obama-drone-casualty-numbers-a-fraction-of-those-recorded-by-the-bureau.

Sewall, Sarah. 2007a. “He Wrote the Book: Can He Follow It?” WashingtonPost, February 25. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/23/AR2007022301741.html.

———. 2007b. “Introduction to the University of Chicago Pres Edition.” InThe U.S Army and Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Filed Manual, xxi–xliii.London: University of Chicago Press.

Shane III, Leo. 2007. “One in Four Troops Sees White Nationalism in theRanks.” The Military Times, October 23. https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2017/10/23/military-times-poll-one-in-four-troops-sees-white-nationalism-in-the-ranks/.

Shane, Scott. 2009. “C.I.A to Expand Use of Drones in Pakistan.” The NewYork Times, December 3. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/world/asia/04drones.html.

Shaw, Karena. 2002. “Indigeneity and the International.” Millennium 31 (1):55–81.

Shaw, Ian. 2013. “Predator Empire: The Geopolitics of US Drone Warfare.”Geopolitics 18 (3): 536–559.

———. 2016. “Scorched Atmospheres: The Violent Geographies of the VietnamWar and the Rise of Drone Warfare.” Annals of American Association ofGeographers 106 (3): 688–704.

Shaw, Ian, and Majed Akhter. 2012. “The Unbearable Humaness of DroneWarfare in FATA, Pakistan.” Antipode 44 (4): 1490–1509.

Shepherd, Laura. 2009. “Gender, Violence and Global Politics: ContemporaryDebates in Feminist Security Studies.” Political Studies Review 7 (2): 208–219.

Sheppard, Eric. 2005. “Knowledge Production Through Critical GIS: Genealogyand Prospects.” Cartographica 40 (4): 5–21.

Shimko, Keith. 2015. “The United States and the RMA: Revolutions Do NotRevolutionize Everything,” In Reassessing the Revolution in Military Affairs:Transformation, Evolution, and Lessons Learnt, edited by Jeffrey Collins andAndrew Futter, 16–33. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

REFERENCES 235

Shoker, Sarah. 2009. “Males and Females in the Liberation Tigers of TamilEelam: Why They Joined.” MA thesis, University of Saskatchewan.

———. 2016. “The United Nations and Post-Conflict Zones: Policy Failure inthe Afghanistan New Beginnings Programme.” In Democracy and Civil Societyin a Global Era, edited by Scott Nicholas Romaniuk and Marguerite Marlin,220–232. New York: Routledge.

———. 2017. “Counting Bodies (Or How to Effortlessly Minimize CivilianCasualties).” Lawyers, Guns, Money, April 22. http://www.lawyersgunsmoneyblog.com/2017/04/counting-bodies-effortlessly-minimize-civilian-casualties.

———. 2019. “How Artificial Intelligence Is Reshaping Global Power andCanadian Foreign Policy.” OpenCanada.org, May 7. https://www.opencanada.org/features/how-artificial-intelligence-reshaping-global-power-and-canadian-foreign-policy/.

Sifton, John. 2012. “A Brief History of Drones.” The Nation, February 27.https://www.thenation.com/article/brief-history-drones/.

Sikkink, Katheryn. 2013. “The United States and Torture: Does the Spiral ModelWork?.” In The Persistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment toCompliance, edited by Thomas Risse-Kappen, Stephen C. Ropp, and KatherynSikkink, 145–163. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sikkink, Kathryn, and Hun Joon Kim. 2013. “The Justice Cascade: The Originsand Effectiveness of Prosecutions of Human Rights Violations.” AnnualReview of Law and Social Science (9): 269–285.

Sil, Rudra, and Peter J. Katzenstein. 2010. “Analytic Eclecticism in the Studyof World Politics: Reconfiguring Problems and Mechanisms Across ResearchTraditions.” Perspectives on Politics 8 (2): 411–431.

Sims, Christopher. 2016. “Academics in Foxholes: The Rise and Fall of theHuman Terrain System.” Foreign Affairs, February 4. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/afghanistan/2016-02-04/academics-foxholes.

Singer, Peter. 2009. “Military Robots and the Laws of War.” The New Atlantis23 (Winter): 25–45.

Sisson Runyan, Anne. 2002. “Still Not ‘At Home’ in IR: Feminist World PoliticsTen Years Later.” International Politics 39 (3): 361–368.

Sjoberg, Laura. 2013. Gendering Global Conflict: Toward a Feminist Theory ofWar. New York: Columbia University Press.

Sledge, Matt. 2014. “How the CIA Twisted the Legacy of a Vietnam War Protestto Justify Torture.” HuffPost, December 16. http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/the-necessity-defense-how_n_6333996.

Smith, Thomas. 2008. “Protecting Civilians…or Soldiers? Humanitarian Law andthe Economy of Risk in Iraq.” International Studies Quarterly 9 (2): 144–164.

236 REFERENCES

Solomon, Ty. 2014. “The Affective Underpinnings of Soft Power.” EuropeanJournal of International Relations 20 (3): 720–741.

Spagat, Michael, Andrew Mack, Tara Cooper, and Joakim Kreutz. 2009. “Esti-mating War Deaths: An Arena of Contestation.” Journal of Conflict Resolution53 (6): 934–950.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1998. Can the Subaltern Speak? Reflections on theHistory of an Idea. New York: Columbia University Press.

Starr, Sonja. 2020. “Evidence-Based Sentencing and the Scientific Rationalizationof Discrimination.” Stanford Law Review 66 (1): 804–872.

Swearingen, Matthew. 2015. “A Kinder Gentler, Machine Gun Hand or How IGave Up My Right to Self Defense and Learned to Love COIN.” Small WarsJournal 11 (2).

Syed, Jawad. 2010. “An Historical Perspective on Islamic Modesty and ItsImplications for Female Employment.” Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: AnInternational Journal 29 (2): 150–166.

Sylvester, Christine 1992. “Feminists and Realists View Autonomy and Obli-gation in International Relations.” In Gendered States: Feminist (Re)Visionsof International Relations Theory, edited by Spike V. Peterson, 155–179.Boulder: Lynn Rienner.

———. 2012. “War Experiences/War Practices/War Theory.” Millennium 40(3): 483–503.

The American Civil Liberties Union et al. 2013. Shared Concerns Regarding U.SDrone Strikes and Targeted Killings, April 11. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2013-04-18/letter-to-obama-on-targeted-killings.

The Bureau of Investigative Journalism. 2017. “Our Methodology.” The Bureauof Investigative Journalism. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/explainers/our-methodology.

The Economist. 2012. “The Eyes Have It.” The Economist, July 7. http://www.economist.com/node/21558263.

The Future of Life Institute. 2017. An Open Letter to the United NationsConvention on Certain Conventional Weapons, August 21. https://futureoflife.org/autonomous-weapons-open-letter-2017/.

The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. 2014. The Senate IntelligenceCommittee Report on Torture. New York: Melville House Publishing.

The White House. 2011. “National Strategy for Counterterrorism.” The WhiteHouse. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/counterterrorism_strategy.pdf.

———. 2013. “Procedures for Approving Direct Action Against Terrorist TargetsLocated Outside the United States and Areas of Active Hostilities,” May 22.Washington. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/ppd/ppg-procedures.pdf.

———. 2014. Big Data: Seizing Opportunities, Preserving Values. Washington,DC: Executive Office of the President.

REFERENCES 237

The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. 2012. Press Briefing by PressSecretary Jay Carney, May 29. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2012/05/29/press-briefing-press-secretary-jay-carney-52912.

Thies, Cameron. 2002. “A Pragmatic Guide to Qualitative Historical Analysis inthe Study of International Relations.” Pedagogy in International Studies 3:351–372.

Tickner, J. Ann. 2005. “What Is Your Research Program? Some Feminist Answersto International Relations Methodological Questions.” International StudiesQuarterly 49: 1–21.

Tisdalla„ Kay E. M., and Samantha Punch. 2012. “Not So ‘New’? LookingCritically at Childhood Studies.” Children’s Geographies 10 (3): 249–264.

Townsend, Stephen J. 2017. “Reports of Civilian Casualties in the War AgainstISIS Are Vastly Inflated.” Foreign Policy, September 15. https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/09/15/reports-of-civilian-casualties-from-coalition-strikes-on-isis-are-vastly-inflated-lt-gen-townsend-cjtf-oir/.

Training Doctrine and Command. 2017. Multi-Domain Battle: Evolution ofCombined Arms for the 21st Century 2025–2040. Washington, DC: Depart-ment of the Army.

Trump, Donald. 2017. “Trump’s Speech in Warsaw (Full Transcript, Video).”CNN , July 6, Speech, Warsaw, Poland. https://www.cnn.com/2017/07/06/politics/trump-speech-poland-transcript/index.html.

Tunney, Catharine. 2017. “‘America Is Back’: John Baird Says Strike on SyriaCrucial in Sending Message.” CBC News, April 8. http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/john-baird-syria-missiles-trump-1.4061673.

Turse, Nick. 2013. “America’s Lethal Profiling of Afghan Men.” The Nation,October 7. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/americas-lethal-profiling-afghan-men/.

UNDP. 1994. “Human Development Report.” United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, September 11. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1994.

———. 2010. Second Generation Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reinte-gration (DDR): Practices in Peace Operations. New York: United Nations.https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/2gddr_eng_with_cover.pdf.

UNICEF Data. 2018. “Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women.”https://data.unicef.org/country/afg/.

U.S. Army Field Manual 3-24. 2006. Counterinsurgency. Washington: Depart-ment of the Army.

U.S. Air Force. 2015. “Air Force Distributed Ground System,” October13. http://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/104525/air-force-distributed-common-ground-syste.

238 REFERENCES

U.S. Congress, Senate on Foreign Relations. 2014. H.Con.Res. 107: A Concur-rent Resolution Denouncing the Use of Civilians as Human Shields by Hamasand Other Terrorist Organizations. 113th Session.

U.S. Group of Governmental Experts. 2018. “Humanitarian Benefits ofEmerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous WeaponsSystems.” Working Paper. Presented at the Group of Governmental Expertsof the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Prohibition or Restric-tions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemedto Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, April 9–13,Geneva, Switzerland.

U.S. Marine Corps. 1940. Small Wars Manual. Washington: GovernmentPrinting Office.

———. 2006. Small-Unit Leaders’ Guide to Counterinsurgency. Books ExpressPublishing.

Ucko, David. 2011. “Counterinsurgency After Afghanistan: A Concept inCrisis.” Prism 3 (1): 3–20.

United Nations Development Programme. 1994. Human Development Report1994. New York: Oxford University Press. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/255/hdr_1994_en_complete_nostats.pdf.

United States GGE Delegation. 2019. “Convention on CCW GGE: Consid-eration of the Human Element in the Use of Lethal Force.” Submissionto Group of Governmental Experts of the High Contracting Parties to theConvention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conven-tional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or toHave Indiscriminate Effects, March 26, Geneva, Switzerland.

United States Government Interagency Counterinsurgency Initiative. 2009. U.SGovernment Counterinsurgency Guide. Washington, DC: Bureau of Political-Military Affairs. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/119629.pdf.

Vazquez, Maegan. 2017. “George W. Bush: Bigotry and White Supremacy Are‘Blasphemy’ Against the American Creed.” CNN , October 19. https://www.cnn.com/2017/10/19/politics/bush-freedom-event/index.html.

von Zielbauer, Paul. 2006. “G.I.’s Say Officers Ordered Killing of Young IraqiMen.” The New York Times, August 3. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/03/world/middleeast/03abuse.html.

Wajcman, Judy. 2000. “Reflections on Gender and Technology Studies: In WhatState Is the Art?” Social Studies of Science 30 (3): 447–464.

Wall, Tyler, and Torin Monahan. 2011. “Surveillance and Violence from Afar:The Politics of Drones and Liminal Security-Scapes.” Theoretical Criminology15 (3): 239–254.

REFERENCES 239

Walter, Ben. 2016. “The Securitization of Development and Humans’ Insecurityin Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan.” Global Change, Peace & Security 28(3): 271–287.

Walters, William. 2014. “Drone Strikes, Dingoplitik and Beyond: Furthering theDebate on Materiality and Security.” Security Dialogue 45 (2): 101–118.

Waltz, Kenneth. 1979. Theory of International Politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Walzer, Michael. 2007. Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with HistoricalIllustrations. New York: Basic Books.

Warrior, Lindsay Cohn. 2015. “Drones and Targeted Killing: Costs, Account-ability, and U.S Civil-Military Relations.” Foreign Policy Research Institute(Winter): 95–110.

Watson, Alison. 2006. “Children and International Relations: A New Site ofKnowledge?” Review of International Studies 32 (2): 237–250.

Watson, Ben. 2017. “The Drones of ISIS.” Defense One, January 12. http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2017/01/drones-isis/134542/.

Weinberger, Sharon. 2017. “The Graveyard of Empires and Big Data.” ForeignPolicy, March 17. http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/03/15/the-graveyard-of-empires-and-big-data/.

Weizman, Eyal. 2011. The Least of All Possible Evils: Humanitarian Violence fromArendt to Gaza. London: Verso.

Welland, Julia. 2014. “Liberal Warriors and the Violent Colonial Logics of‘Partnering and Advising’.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 17 (2):289–307.

Wells, Karen. 2007. “Narratives of Liberation and Narratives of InnocentSuffering: The Rhetorical Uses of Images of Iraqi Children in the BritishPress.” Visual Communication 6 (1): 55–71.

Wendt, Alexander. 1998. “On Constitution and Causation in InternationalRelations.” Review of International Studies 24 (5): 101–118.

Whittle, Richard. 2015. Predator: The Secret Origin of the Drone Revolution. NewYork: Picador.

Whitworth, Sandra. 2004. Men, Militarism & Peacekeeping. London: LynneRienner.

Wilcox, Lauren. 2015. “Drone Warfare and Making Bodies Out of Place.”Critical Studies on Security 3 (1): 127–131.

———. 2017. “Embodying Algorithmic War: Gender, Race, and the Posthumanin Drone Warfare.” Security Dialogue 48 (1): 11–28.

Williams, Alison J. 2011. “Enabling Persistent Presence? Performing theEmbodied Geopolitics of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Assemblage.” PoliticalGeography 30: 381–390.

240 REFERENCES

Williams, Brian Glyn. 2010. “The CIA’s Covert Predator Drone War in Pakistan,2004–2010: The History of an Assassination Campaign.” Studies in Conflictand Terrorism 33: 871–892.

———. 2013. “CIA ‘signature drone stries’ and the killing of Americansabroad.” Valley Advocat, June 10. https://valleyadvocate.com/2013/06/10/cia-signature-drone-strikes-and-the-killing-of-americans-abroad/.

Wood, Matt. 2018. “Thoughts on Machine Learning Accuracy.” AWS NewsBlog, July 27. https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/aws/thoughts-on-machine-learning-accuracy/.

Zalewski, Marysia. 2007. “Do We Understand Each Other Yet? TroublingFeminist Encounters with(in) International Relations.” BJPIR 9: 302–312.

Zalewski, Marysia and Jane Parpart (eds). 1998. The “Man” Question inInternational Relations. New York: Routledge.

Zehfus, Maja. 2012. “Culturally Sensitive War? The Human Terrain System andthe Seduction of Ethics.” Security Dialogue 43 (2): 175–190.

Zenko, Micah. 2002. Between Threats and War: U.S Discrete Military Operationsin the Post-Cold War World. Stanford, CA: Stanford Security Series.

———. 2017. “The (Not-So) Peaceful Transition of Power: Trump’s DroneStrikes Outpace Obama.” Council on Foreign Relations, March 2. https://www.cfr.org/blog/not-so-peaceful-transition-power-trumps-drone-strikes-outpace-obama.

Zenko, Micah, and Amelia Mae Wolf. 2016. “Drones Kill More Civilians thanPilots Do.” Foreign Policy, April 25. https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/25/drones-kill-more-civilians-than-pilots-do/.

Index

AAbizaid, John, 71, 97able-bodied, 89abolition of slavery, 88absence of reason, 56Abu Ali al-Harithi, 1, 131Abu Ghraib Prison, 116academic, 18, 70, 72academics, 8, 21, 116academics in foxholes, 115. See also

Human Terrain SystemAccetta, David, 39act of combat, 152act of violence, 56

actor, in relation to political actors,60, 79, 103

actors, 3, 8, 18, 33, 35, 38–40, 42,45, 48–53, 60–68, 73, 89, 92,96, 99, 106, 107, 141, 158,171, 204–207

actuarial fairness, 171add women, 19. See also feminism,

feminist methods

Administration, 9, 13, 21, 24, 55,59, 68, 81, 84, 86, 88, 92, 95,103, 105, 107, 158, 169, 177,195, 204, 205. See also Bush,George, Bush Administration;Obama Administration; TrumpAdministration

adolescence, 53, 160adolescent(s), 53

adult, 20, 32, 39, 55–58adulthood, 48, 160

Advanced Systems and TechnologyDirectorate of the NationalReconnaissance Office, 167

Advanced Targeting and LethalityAutomated System (ATLAS),177, 178

adversaries, 17, 68, 82, 88, 109, 115,120, 135, 140, 143, 145, 148,169, 182, 183, 199, 201

adversary, 99, 115, 140, 142,145–150

advocacy, 12, 36, 40, 181, 198, 204

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusivelicense to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021S. Shoker, Military-Age Males in Counterinsurgency and Drone Warfare,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52474-6

241

242 INDEX

advocates, 15, 76, 77, 117, 153,202, 203, 205

aerial, 15–17, 38, 140–143, 145–149,158, 164

aerial combat, 141aerial dominance, 141, 146aerial surveillance, 15, 146aerial surveillance platforms, 15aerial technologies, 38, 148aerial warfare, 143

Afghanistan, 4, 5, 13, 21, 34–36, 38,39, 44, 47, 48, 53, 59, 67–74,90–98, 101–104, 108, 111–122,135, 140, 143, 147, 148, 156,158, 159, 163, 197

Afghanistan Civilian CasualtyPrevention Handbook, 108

Afghan Military Forces, 3Afghan(s), 3, 5, 36, 39, 51, 52, 57,

82, 95, 105, 117, 118, 162Afghan citizens, 3, 39Afghan civilians, 117, 118Afghan Pashtuns, 162Afghans, 51, 86, 105, 118, 158Afghan wedding party, 57Afghan women, 5, 36

Africa, 199African-owned slave ships, 89African(s), 88, 89

age, 2, 12, 20, 32, 34, 48, 50, 54–56,58, 59, 91, 93, 112, 118, 163,168, 180

ages, 1, 53aging, 48

agencies, 24, 37, 43, 79, 92, 134,137, 158, 202

agenda, 59, 79, 90, 92, 106, 138,168, 204

agendas, 45, 197agents, in relation to political actors,

48, 50, 167aid, 40, 69, 75, 92, 100, 112, 136

aid workers, 136air, 13–16, 43, 84, 118, 140, 141,

150, 154, 163, 201air bombing campaigns, 16airborne early warning and control,

154airfields, 15air power, 141airspace, 204airstrike, 13, 95, 139, 144, 149,

150, 162, 180air war, 14, 201

aircraft, 140–143, 148, 150, 154,164, 206

airframes, 150air force, 14, 15, 43, 140, 145–149,

154, 156, 164, 165, 181airport(s), 137, 152, 174, 199Airwars (organization), 78, 197al-Durrah, Mohammed, 39Algeria, 9, 84, 116Algorithmic Warfare Cross-Functional

Team, 169. See also ProjectMaven

algorithm(s), 132, 137, 167–180algorithmic, 22, 137, 139,

168–172, 181, 202algorithmic auditing, 169algorithmic bias, 170, 177, 202algorithmic decision-making, 139algorithmic discrimination, 22, 170,

171algorithmic injustice, 171algorithmic Jim Crow, 170

Al-Jazeera, 137allies, 32, 112, 118, 142, 150, 179al-Qaeda, 20, 32, 39, 44, 50, 60, 86,

88, 131, 134–138, 142, 148al-Shabaab, 198Amazon, 178amazon web services, 178

America, 4, 35. See also United States

INDEX 243

American(s), 4, 31, 35, 43, 46, 57,92, 95, 100, 115, 119, 120,144–149, 155, 171, 197

American Anthropological Association(AAA), 115

American Civil Liberties Union(ACLU), 12, 36, 149, 178

American Psychology Association(APA), 115

ammunition, 69Amnesty International, 36analogy, 10, 172. See also legitimacy

claimanalysis, 5, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 80, 107,

113, 132, 139, 154, 161–172,181

analyst, 22, 113, 154, 155, 161, 164,165, 169. See also geospatialanalyst; intelligence analyst(s)

analysts, 10, 22, 113, 135, 141,154, 156–168, 176, 201

analytics, 22, 139, 166, 180analytical framework, 24, 80. See also

method(s)ancestries of interest, 106anthropologist, 70anthropologists, 115–117

anthropology, 22, 93, 115, 116, 161anthropological, 9, 21, 70, 85, 99,

113, 121, 159, 161, 178, 183anthropological knowledge, 9, 21,

70, 121, 159, 161, 183bad anthropology, 22, 161

anti-aircraft missiles, 206anticipatory self-defense, 135anti-suffragettes, 89anti-terrorism, 46apolitical, 39appropriate, 5, 45, 48, 69, 73, 101,

174–178, 200appropriate behavior, 45

appropriate policies, 5. See alsonorms

Arab American Association of NewYork, 107

Arabic, 82, 100, 109, 161Arab Spring, 6architecture, 3, 23, 45–49, 77,

133, 139, 180–182. See alsocheckpoint(s); Tal Afar

areas of active hostilities, 12, 121,149, 158

ARGUS-IS, 164Argus, 148, 164

Arizona, 165Arkin, Ronald, 200armed, 31, 34, 51, 68, 111, 119, 120,

131, 133, 141, 144, 149, 163,181

armed conflict, 31, 34, 119, 131,149

armed force(s), 68, 108armed males, 51armed social work, 67, 111, 119, 140.

See also Killcullen, David3rd armored cavalry, 74arms program, 181arms race, 168army, 4, 36, 51, 55, 60, 67, 70, 75,

114, 116, 133, 148, 165, 177,181, 204

ArsTechnica, 137Article, 44, 97, 107. See also Geneva

Protocolsartificial intelligence (AI), 16, 23, 113,

114, 167–169, 201, 204AI-powered, 171artificial neural networks, 169artificial stupidity, 178

Asia, 35, 87, 199Asian, 48

asocial, 16, 154, 168assassination, 35, 162

244 INDEX

assemblage, 81, 93, 99, 111, 157, 180assemblages, 179assemblies, 199

associated force, 136. See also al-QaedaAssociate White House Counsel, 44Asymmetrical power relationships, 91asymmetrical, in relation to public

outrage, 56technological asymmetry, 140

at-risk, 17, 50, 60, 113attack on the USS Navy Cole, 1attitudes, in relation to xenophobia

and racism, 84–87attorneys, 44attributes, 24, 169, 174attribute selection, 114atypical, behavior, 169, 178

audience, in relation to persuasion,36, 48, 49. See also metaphors

audiences, 3, 16, 33, 35, 48, 49,180, 197

audit, 161, 203auditable methodologies, 178audited, patterns of life, 23, 137,

161. See also patterns ofbehaviour, pattern of life;signature strikes

audited, ProPublica Investigation,170

Australia, 181Australian, 100

authority, moral and legal, 4, 34, 45,50, 56, 94, 103, 172

Authorization of Target andActioning, 134

authorization, targeted and signaturestrikes, 134, 143, 180

authorized, 133autobiography, 47, 120autocrats, 6automate, 17. See also artificial

intelligence (AI)

automated, 132, 154, 164, 167–169, 171–173, 175, 200,203

automating, 23, 132, 143, 165automation, 15, 22, 167, 168, 173,

179, 180, 200Automatic Target Recognition (ATR),

167autonomous, 14–17, 22, 23, 114,

139, 167, 168, 172, 175, 176,180, 200. See also artificialintelligence; lethal autonomousweapons

autonomy, 16, 23–25, 137, 168, 171,174, 176, 178, 199, 201, 203

autotracking, 148axiomatic principle, 95, 96. See also

deontological ethics; utilitarianismaxis of evil, 76

BBa’athist party, 72backlash, 53, 196bad guys, 119Baghdad, 98, 104bag of capital, 118. See also armed

social workBaker, Stewart, 152. See also NSA

Generalbarbarism, 35barbarity, 39

barbed wires, 97, 99. See alsoobject-oriented democracy

Barno, David W., Lieutenant General,72

baseball, 48, 134. See also audience inrelation to persuasion, audiences;Guantanamo Bay; Khar, Omar;metaphors

base, in relation to social support, 70,99, 100

baseline of norms, 169, 178

INDEX 245

bases, US and foreign, 140, 155base, US in Djibouti, 1battalion, 47batteries, drone, 22, 132battery, 145

battle, 113, 140, 146, 183, 196, 199,204, 205

battlefield(s), 13, 146, 159battlespace, 1, 20–25, 82, 111, 115,

150, 158–160, 200, 204Bayesian methods, 113, 114behavioral economics, 76behavior, in relation to wartime

conduct, 3, 11, 23–25, 37, 39,45, 60, 76, 93, 99, 101, 131,136, 138, 152, 168, 169, 173,178–183, 199

behavioral, 17, 24, 76, 106, 114,137, 167–170, 181

behavioral anomalies, 169behavioral attributes, 174behavioral patterns, 106, 137, 167,

175behavioral signatures, 173pattern of life, 22, 132, 163patterns of behavior, 137, 168, 199predicting behavior, 111risky behavior, 183

belief, in relation to norms andideology, 10, 113, 143, 146, 203

beliefs, 113, 140, 175believe, 4, 35, 37, 49, 53, 69, 179,

204, 205believed, 16, 43, 53, 76, 105, 114,

196believe(s), 52, 114

beneficiaries of intervention, 85Berenson, Bradford, 44. See also

Associate White House CounselBerlin Wall, 6bias, 8, 11, 24, 132, 169, 170, 176,

178, 199, 201, 203

big data, 4, 14–17, 22, 23, 132, 138,151, 163–169, 170, 172–175,180, 181

big data analytics, 22, 166bin Laden, Osama, 133. See also

al-Qaedabiological, gender and childhood, 81,

92, 160biological, performance and gender,

24, 153biological limitation, 164, 200. See

also human-machine learning,human-machine teams; lethalautonomous weapons systems

biological weapons, 200biometric, 51, 96biometric-enabled, 70

biopolitics, 94black box, in relation to software, 138black, in relation to identity group,

47, 88, 89, 138, 161–164, 170,171

Blackwater, private securitycontractors, 96

blast, in relation to strike and range,145, 147, 151

blend, into civilian and urbanenvironments, 22, 31, 99, 145,182

blended, 97blood, 160, 197bloodthirsty, in relation to

nineteenth- century coun-terinsurgency, 85. See alsocolonial-era

blowback, 95Blue Books, 166. See also big datablue force [non-kinetic] actions, 113.

See also non-kineticBodies, 9, 10, 12, 14, 20, 48, 56, 57,

59, 60, 83, 111, 120, 144, 180,200

246 INDEX

bodily capacities, 177bodily harm, 61bodily injury, 19, 155bodily risk, 4bodily security, 78bodily vulnerability, 200body counts, 74dead bodies, 10, 34, 59, 83male bodies, 50, 52, 60racialized bodies, 90risky bodies, 3

bomb, 3, 147, 195BLU-97 cluster bombs, 147bomb-drop, 150. See also World

War Twobombed, 3, 118, 131bomber(s), 20, 32, 39, 107, 109,

164. See also air Forcebombing, 7, 14, 16, 57, 118, 201bombing lists, 7bombs, 45, 131, 143, 147, 163. See

also F15car bombings, 98cluster bombs, 45, 147smart bombs, 13

boots-on-the-ground, 139. See alsocounterinsurgency

border(s), 39, 88, 107, 131, 151,182, 199

borderlands, 37boredom, 7. See also drone(s), drone

crewsboring practices, 7

Borkum Island, 172. See alsoEichmann, Adolf, Eichmann Trial

bottleneck, 15, 165. See also dataanalytics

boundaries, 5, 45, 93, 100, 102, 152,158, 176

Bourdieusian competition, 204boy, 132, 160, 161boyhood, 57, 160

Brennan, John, 134–138, 142. Seealso National security advisor

briefing, press and media, 44, 48, 142Britain, 67, 87Britain’s gulag in Kenya, 99British, 67, 70, 86–90, 99. See also

slavery, slave tradeBritish colonial practice and war, 75British counterinsurgency, 75, 90British Kenya, 9British occupation of Iraq, 67

brown, in relation to identity groupbrown men, 90brown women, 90

brutality against women and childrenin Afghanistan, 91

brutish life in Afghanistan, 106. Seealso lieutenant colonel; Petit,Brian

Bugsplat, in relation to bombmodeling software, 84, 97

bugsplats, in relation to drone deaths,84

bureau chief, 137. See also Al-Jazeerabureaucracy, 14, 156, 183bureaucracies, 45, 57, 74, 84, 166bureaucratic, 7, 9, 14, 17, 20, 32,

33, 42–47, 54, 59–61, 78, 84,134, 154, 172, 175, 180, 198,202

bureaucratic entrenchment, 33bureaucrats, 8

Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 12burka, 153burnout, in relation to drone crews,

154Bush, George, 1–4, 24, 33, 35, 40,

41, 44, 60, 68, 72, 73, 75–79,86, 88, 91, 92, 103, 133, 135,164, 177, 195–199, 204

INDEX 247

Bush Administration, 2, 55, 71, 73,76–78, 81, 86, 92, 103, 133,135, 195, 196

Bush and Obama Administrations,3, 4, 15, 32, 33, 60, 68, 73,76, 88, 107, 109, 164, 195,197, 201

Bush-Cheney, 32Bush-era, 33

Bush, Laura, 35, 91bystanders, 198

Ccamel-jockey, 83. See also race, in the

context of identity, racismcamera, in relation to drones, 148,

164, 165campaign, in relation to military

campaigns, 16, 36, 43, 71, 74,81, 86, 104, 116, 119, 140, 144,147, 168

Campaign to Stop Killer Robots, 168camps, in relation to detention, 97,

99, 116, 147Canada, 107, 181Canadian, 49, 50, 107, 181, 205

Canadian Security Intelligence Service(CSIS), 50. See also Khadr, Omar

canvassing, in relation to localpopulations, 119, 159. See alsonon-kinetic

capabilities, 13, 15, 17, 68, 139, 158,169, 178, 199

capitalism, 116capture, in relation to detention

during wartime, 3, 48–50, 98,106, 135, 136

Carney, Jay, 142Carr Center for Human Rights Policy,

36Carter Administration, 41, 59Cartesian mapping, 157

cartographic, 160cartography, 157

casualties, 13, 14, 24, 36, 38, 47,57, 68, 75, 84, 86, 94, 95, 98,108, 110, 118, 119, 141–144,147–149, 195–203

casualty, 42, 43, 108, 142, 202,204

casualty aversion norm, 42cataloging, in relation to data

visualization, 166. See also BlueBooks

cataloging, in relation to behavioralattributes, 136. See alsobehavior, in relation to wartimeconduct, behavioral attributes

category, 3–5, 9, 20–24, 31–34, 39,42, 45–61, 69, 71, 76, 89, 90,94, 98, 106, 108, 109, 114, 133,153, 159–164, 166, 167, 173,180, 202, 203

categories, 2, 9, 14, 31, 34, 35, 45,54, 60, 73, 79, 97, 108, 166,180, 182, 202

categorized, 150, 161categorize(s), 12, 114, 167, 175categorize threats, 175civilian and combatant categories,

36, 54legal category, 3, 203military-age male category, 1, 2,

109, 173social categories, 166technocratic and bureaucratic

categories, 9, 31, 42, 58, 180causal, in relation to methods, 10, 11cause(s), 4, 9–11, 33, 59, 81causes-of-effects, 10

Central Command (CENTCOM), 3,15

248 INDEX

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),1, 12, 44, 45, 51, 53, 84, 95,131–135, 138, 162, 169

Centre for Army Lessons Learned(CALL), 108

Chain of Command, 7, 17, 121, 162,180

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,13, 161

characteristics, 9, 14, 81, 106, 114,152, 166, 174, 202

checkpoint(s), military, 22, 96–104,110

biometric-enabled checkpoints, 70,73, 96

chemical weapons, 174child, 20, 32, 39–41, 48, 50, 53, 89,

91, 109, 154, 179childcare, 92childhood development, 50, 92childhood(s), 33, 35, 38–40,

48–51, 53, 54, 57, 92, 161children, 1, 3, 12, 19, 20, 32–44,

46–61, 69, 71, 81–94, 100,106, 109, 118, 119, 132, 135,145, 151, 155, 159, 160, 172,179

child soldier, 48kids, 40

China, 24, 116, 141, 142, 167, 200Chinese, 99

choice(s), normative, 20, 37, 43, 45,93, 151, 156, 162

choose civilization, 105choose Hobbes, 105choose public life, 2, 52choose where to look, 165

Christian, 87, 195Christianity, 195, 196Evangelical Christian, 196

citadel, 78, 105. See also qalatcitizens, 169

citizenship, 18city, 74, 96, 119, 159, 165, 172civilian, 2–4, 12–16, 20–38, 41–47,

51, 54–83, 92–112, 132, 133,135, 138–153, 160–163, 166,169, 171, 172, 174, 175,177–180, 182–200

civilian clutter, 15, 20, 201civilian death, 12–14, 35, 36, 41,

58–61, 68, 69, 74, 87, 95–97,109, 118, 140, 143, 144, 147,150, 202, 205

civilian immunity, 32, 36, 38, 42,46, 54, 60, 75, 80, 87, 90, 96,97, 106, 120, 132, 144, 152,172, 180, 202

civilian immunity norm, 46civilians, 1–4, 17, 23, 31–41, 46,

50–57, 60, 68, 69, 74, 76, 81,82, 87, 90, 91, 96–98, 101,104, 106, 108, 109, 112, 113,115, 117, 118, 120, 121

civilian space, 70, 93, 162civilian status, 16, 32–35, 38, 44,

45, 57, 60, 97, 140, 150, 180,198

civilization, 35, 50, 60, 105, 195, 199civility, 37civilizational, 33, 35, 37, 49, 56,

57, 60, 195civilized, 3, 35, 39, 91

civil society, 23, 40, 97, 103, 104,175, 205

classificationclassification algorithms, 170, 176classification model, 177

Clausewitz, 104Clausewitzian, 146, 148

clear, hold, and build, 77, 78cleared, 77. See also COIN

Clinton Administration, 79Clinton, Hillary, 59, 91

INDEX 249

coalition, in relation to coalitionforces, 3, 6, 9, 13, 14, 36, 68,70, 78, 92, 95, 98, 101, 109,110, 117, 118, 121, 141, 155,163, 171, 198

Coalition Provisional Authority inBaghdad, 104

code, in relation to social relations,16, 33, 35, 55, 105, 115, 117,153, 158

Code of Ethics, 115. See alsoAmerican AnthropologicalAssociation (AAA)

gender as governing and analyticalcode, 132, 138, 174, 178

legal codes, 33, 43, 45, 61, 134,152, 198

moral code, 153normative code, 20Pashtunwali code of honor, 162

cog in the machine, 172. See alsoEichmann, Adolf, Eichmann Trial

cognitive shortcut(s) and shorthand,25, 31, 49, 202

COIN, 12, 14, 34, 37, 68, 70, 72,74–88, 90, 91, 95, 98, 100, 104,105, 113, 116, 119, 121

COIN academy in Iraq, 72COIN doctrine, 85

Cold War, 6, 72, 86, 115, 148collateral damage (CDC), 1–3, 9–13,

20, 25, 32, 38, 41, 49, 51, 52,54, 58, 59, 61, 74, 84, 106, 120,121, 140, 144, 149, 152, 159,183, 197–199, 201, 202

collective referent objects, 89colonel, 2, 72, 74, 77, 105colonial counterinsurgency, 21, 70scorched earth tactics, 77

colonial-era, 86colonial, in relation to warfare, 73,

77, 82, 84–87, 99, 166

British colonials, 85colonialism, 197colonial policing, 9, 21, 71, 97, 99colonies, 141, 163, 183colonization, 85, 117Columbia Law School Human

Rights Clinic, 144combat, 14, 25, 39, 46, 47, 68, 101,

110, 136, 141, 145, 163, 182,199, 203

combatant(s), 1–3, 12–16, 22–24,31, 32, 34–36, 46, 47, 51, 54,56, 58, 60, 68, 73, 81, 97, 98,103, 108, 110, 111, 113, 115,120–122, 132, 135–138, 143,148–151, 163, 169, 173–177,181–183, 202, 203

combatant status, 1, 3, 110, 151,152

commander(s), military, 13, 38, 72,94, 96, 100, 159, 163, 171

commitment to international humani-tarian law and democratic norms,143

Committee(s)Committee on Un-American

Activities, 115congressional defense committees,

149Peace Committee, Waziristan, 179US House Permanent Select

Committee on Intelligence,138

US House Select Committee onHunger, 40

common law, 45reasonable people, 135

communications, 8, 48, 58, 59, 100,148, 181

global communications architecture,180. See also Distributed

250 INDEX

Common Ground System(DCGS)

press and PR strategy, 6, 58technologies of communication, 48

communist supporters, 87communities, 75, 98, 99, 106, 147,

158, 172, 174, 179, 206community, 80, 87, 91, 107, 172,

195, 196community-building, 178community of nations, 197community of values, 87, 91epistemic communities, 181gated communities in Iraq, 98, 99in relation to host populations, 75intelligence and defense communi-

ties, 1, 7, 14, 57, 121, 151,157, 161, 162, 167, 179

international community, 172, 196natural science communities, 10

COMPAS, in relation to software,170, 174

competition, in relation to cate-gorization of threats, 204,205

complex irregular warfare, 115, 120compound, 1, 77, 78, 83, 131, 155,

163. See also citadelcomputer, 84, 167, 169, 173. See also

algorithm(s)concentration camp, 97, 172condemn, in relation to international

behavior, 3, 36, 96, 197condemnation, 4, 114, 197condemned, 20, 32, 38, 52, 82, 88,

91, 197condemning, 3

conduct, in relation to war, 3, 4, 7,13, 35, 38, 51, 96, 110, 142,153, 181

conduct-based targeting, 111

confidence level, 178. See also database, data science

confinement and arbitrary detention,97. See also Odierno, Ray

confirmation process, in relations todrone strikes, 143

Conflict Monitoring Centre ofIslamabad, 162

conflict(s), 11, 14, 16, 22–25, 31,34, 35, 38, 40, 47–51, 54,55, 72–77, 83, 89, 90, 103,104, 115, 119, 133, 140, 141,145–147, 155, 156, 175, 177,200, 202, 206, 207

conform, in relation to internationalnorms, 36, 91

confusion matrix, 177Congressional Research Service

(CRS), 97consensus, in relation to norms, 5,

174, 176conservative, in relation to political

ideology, 101, 102, 155constitutive, in relation to methods,

10, 11construct, in relation to social

constructivism theory, 40constructed, 48, 89, 160constructing, 7, 56construction, 45, 49, 54, 86, 89,

108, 139, 153, 206constructivist(s), 46, 72, 108, 181constructs, 71, 73

contemporary, 91, 98, 102, 151, 181contemporary battlespace, 82contemporary COIN, 82, 84, 85,

98contemporary counterinsurgency

and counterinsurgents, 60, 82,85, 86, 117

contemporary wars and warfare, 35,155

INDEX 251

contraband, 101contractor, in relation to security

contractors, 16, 96, 139, 164,173

conventional aircraft, 140, 150Convention on Certain Conventional

Weapons (CCW), 205convoy, 110, 131. See also Abu Ali

Al-Harithicooperate, in relation to host

communities, 70, 104counterinsurgency, 3–10, 14–17,

20–23, 32, 33, 37, 47, 51,60–90, 93–95, 98–100, 102–107,111–114, 118–121, 139–141,145, 146, 148, 156–159, 166,179, 197–199

counterinsurgency and COINcampaign(s), 72, 73, 81, 90,93, 94, 103, 105, 106, 117,119–121, 140

counterinsurgency doctrine, 60, 70,85

counterinsurgency joint publicationJP 3-24, 4

counterinsurgents, 3, 4, 31, 68–71,77, 79, 81–85, 99, 100, 105,106, 108, 111, 112, 121, 140

global counterinsurgency, 21, 99JP 3-24, 78, 81, 82, 103, 104

counterterrorism, 141, 145, 199court martial, 43. See also My Lai

massacreCrew, in relation to drones, 7, 13, 57,

154, 162, 163, 169crewman, 201crew-member, 154

Crimea, 87, 88criminalize, 162criminalized, 88criminals, 71

crowdsourced data, 117. See alsoDARPA’s Nexus 7 program

crows and ravens, 82, 83. See also race,in the context of identity, racism

Crusade, 196Crusaders, 83

Cuba, 149cultural characterizations, 46, 60culture of violence, 85curfew, 86, 87. See also colonial

counterinsurgencycustomary rules of armed conflict,

131. See also internationalhumanitarian law (IHL)

cyberspace, 204cyborgs, 16

Ddata analytics, 166database, 134, 169, 174, 178data collection, 11, 14, 16, 21,

22, 70, 113, 114, 121, 161,166–171, 205

data-driven, 15, 24, 117data intelligence feeds, 117data science, 176, 177dataset, 170, 171, 174, 177data visualization, 166

data science, 176, 177Death TV, 165. See also boredomdecision loop, 167deep learning, 169. See also artificial

intelligence (AI)defense, 1, 2, 5–9, 19–24, 44, 45, 48,

52, 54, 57–59, 73, 74, 105, 115,117, 120, 121, 141, 142, 146,149, 151, 158, 162, 164, 165,169, 170, 175–179, 182–198

Defense Advanced Research ProjectsAgency (DARPA), 112, 117,162, 169

252 INDEX

dehumanized, 87. See also race, in thecontext of identity, racism

dehumanizing, 82–84democracy, 86–88, 120, 197democracies, 90, 96, 141, 142, 181democratic, 2, 15–17, 21, 60, 73,

75, 84, 88, 140–143, 182,183. See 201‘, 205

liberal democracy(ies), 2, 24, 32,52, 69, 75, 78, 87, 90

object-oriented democracy, 205Democrats, political party, 162demographics unit, 106. See also Zone

Assessment Unitdeontological ethics, 96Department of Defense (DoD), 48,

84, 175–180, 200, 201DoD directive 3000.09, 176

Department of Homeland Security,107

Department of Justice, 44, 45Deptula, David, Lieutenant General,

157dereliction of duty, 171. See also USS

John S. McCaindetainees, 20, 44, 48, 49, 116. See

also torturedetention, 20, 33, 48, 50, 97, 109development, in relation to gender

and physiologybiological development, 153childhood development, 50, 92male development, 57

development, in relation to humani-tarianism, 35, 45, 76, 78–81, 87,90, 92, 94, 99, 100, 103, 117,120

development projects, 69, 94neoliberal development agenda, 90security-development nexus, 78social development, 21, 70

development, in relation to tech-nology, 100, 120, 142, 174, 176,182

digital algorithms, 179digital profile, 137

diplomacy, 68, 77directive, Department of Defense, 43,

47, 48, 94, 95, 101, 115, 176,177

Directive 5100, 43direct military action, 3, 98direct participation in hostilities

(DPH), 135, 203. See alsocombatant(s)

drone crews, 132, 145disability, 89Disarmament, Demobilization,

Reintegration (DDR), 103, 112disciplinary International Relations

(IR), 18, 81, 100, 105, 172discourse, 11, 15, 38–41, 46, 49, 50,

53, 58, 69, 75, 82, 86, 89, 92,139, 144, 145, 170, 195–198,206

discourse-object ecosystem, 206discursive, 24, 139, 143, 153, 197,

198, 203, 204discriminate, in relation to target

selection, 56, 110, 145, 200. Seealso civilian, civilian immunity;legitimate target

discriminating, 81discrimination, 22, 35, 169discriminatory, 23. See also

algorithm(s), algorithmicdiscrimination

disposition matrix, 134, 200disproportionate, in relation to civilian

death, 36Distributed Common Ground System

(DCGS), 23, 166, 181Djibouti, 1

INDEX 253

doctrine, in relation to military andcounterinsurgency, 7, 22, 37, 52,60, 70, 72, 85, 91, 115, 119,120, 204

Doctrine Revision Workshop, 37doctrine of double effect, 97, 120. See

also international humanitarianlaw (IHL)

domestic politics, 88, 197domestic relationships, in relation

to home life, 21, 71. See alsosecuring the intimate

domestic work, 68, 111drone(s), 1, 12, 20–24, 31–35,

38, 51, 54, 57, 58, 70, 96,110, 146–156, 158–164, 166,174–177, 182–201

drone crews, 3, 22, 31, 57, 84,153–158, 169, 180, 183, 199

drone monitor, 20, 121drone operations, 6–9, 70, 181,

202drone program, 6, 8, 41, 53, 131,

133, 137, 138, 153, 162, 180drone sensors and batteries, 22, 132drone strike(s), 135–138, 140, 144,

149, 150, 154, 162, 179, 182,183, 198, 202, 203, 205

drone swarms, 206drone target, 1drone warfare, 8, 13–17, 32, 36,

38, 58, 70, 110, 111, 121,122, 137, 139–141, 146, 149,153–159, 161, 163, 177–183,198, 202, 205

laser turret, 133dystopian, 168

EEagleburger, Lawrence, 40economic development, 76economic sanctions, 75

effects of causes, 10. See alsomethod(s)

Egypt, 141Eichmann, Adolf, 172Eichmann Trial, 172. See also cog in

the machineElasticity, 101. See checkpoint(s),

militaryembodied, 111. See also feminism,

feminist geographersempirical puzzle, 4, 8, 11, 139end-to-end encryption, 6enemies, 35, 41, 72, 109, 152enemy, 3, 15, 35, 36, 47, 74, 81,

100enemy combatants, 47

enlightened self-interested, 81. SeeAfghan(s), Afghan citizens

epistemic communities, 181erosion, in relation to norms, 46, 73erosion of civilian immunity, 42, 60

escalation of force (EOF), 110ethical principles for artificial intelli-

gence, 204. See Department ofDefense (DoD), DoD Directive3000.09

ethnic groups, 106ethnic identities, 2ethnic identity, 52ethnicity, 163, 197ethnic minority, 88

ethnographic, 85ethos, 67, 76, 111, 112European, 88, 89, 104evidence based assessments, 174. See

also COMPAS, in relation tosoftware

executive branch, 134existential emergency, 20

254 INDEX

Ffacial recognition software, 178. See

also artificial intelligence (AI)failed states, 38, 148failing state, 90

faith, in relation to religion, 196Fallujah, 2, 46, 96, 97. See also

Operation Al-Fajr; OperationVigilant Resolve

false negatives, 177false positive(s), 177, 178

falsified, 11. See also method(s)families, 92, 100, 101, 195. See also

securing the intimatefamily, 41, 80, 83, 99, 100, 105,

160, 179fangs-out, kill-kill-kill culture, 118father, 39, 41, 50, 179Federally Administrated Tribal

Authority (FATA), 162, 179female(s), in relation to gender, 19,

58, 101, 151, 159female combatants, 58female marines, 101female physiology, 19feminine, 56femininity, 18, 68, 153girl(s), 56–58, 79, 89, 92, 132

feminism, 17, 19feminist curiosity, 4, 5feminist geographers, 71feminist IR, 18, 24feminist methods, 17, 19feminist(s), 5, 8, 17–19, 80, 111,

158f-16 fighter aircraft, 156. See also

conventional aircraftfield work, 6. See also method(s)fighter aircraft, 140, 156. See also F-16fighting-age males, 52. See also

military-age males

film cartridges, 149. See also Vietnam,Vietnam War

firefight, 2, 50, 163FOB, 83fog and friction, 146. See also

Revolution in Military Affairs(RMA)

force protection norm, 43foreign policy agenda(s), 92, 197, 204France, 84freedom of information act lawsuit

(FOIA), 149French Algeria, 9Futures Markets Applied to Prediction,

162

Ggarbage in, garbage out, 176. See also

database, data scienceGates, Robert, 98gender, 2–6, 9, 14, 16–19, 22–33, 46,

52–60, 76, 78–81, 89–91, 94,100–102, 106, 108–112, 114,120–122, 137, 138, 150–163,166, 169, 170, 174, 177, 178,181–183, 199

gender-blind, 56gendered, 16, 24, 52, 54, 58, 61,

71, 81, 89, 94, 106, 109,111–116, 137, 139, 159, 166,169, 174, 181, 199

gendered space, 169gender equality, 159gender segregation, 78, 159, 161

General Atomics, 133Geneva, 3, 34–37, 44, 45, 56, 97,

174, 202Geneva Convention III, 34Geneva Protocols, 34, 202

geographic information system (GIS),121, 157

INDEX 255

geospatial analysts, 159. See also dronecrew(s)

geospatial-intelligence, 169ghost work, 16, 176Gilgamesh pod, 83global arms trade, 181global governance, 175Global Hawk, 156, 164. See also

drone(s)global north, 40, 48, 49global positioning system (GPS), 147global south, 18, 19, 33, 37, 40, 47Google, 170, 176Gorgon Stare, 148, 154, 165, 179Graziani, Rodolofo, 97. See also

Italo-Sanusi Wargreater evil, 45Greek Civil War, 41Grotius, Hugo, 16, 56, 172Guantanamo Bay (GITMO), 20, 32,

33, 44, 47–50, 205guardianship, 56, 172guerrilla, 12, 69, 71, 114guerrilla type war, 97

Guerrilla Warfare Advocates in theUnited States, 115. See alsoCommittee(s), Committee onUn-American Activities

Gulf War, 23, 43, 68, 75, 107, 146,147

1991 Gulf War, 75, 147

Hhaji(s), 83. See also race, in the context

of identity, racismhandbooks, in relation to military

pedagogy, 75, 100, 105, 108,116

headscarves, 151hearts and minds, 36, 68, 75, 77–81,

87, 99, 119. See also non-kinetichegemonic, 48

Hellfire missile, 1, 131, 133, 150, 163helo, 47. See also Vietnam, Vietnam

Warhigh-contrast environment, 31Hobbes, ThomasHobbesian, 21, 71, 104–108

Holocaust, 172home front, 43homelife, 106, 174. See also securing

the intimateHoneywell Corporation, 45honorably discharged, 7hostile act(s), in relation to behavior

in war, 110, 121hostile intent, 47, 110, 111, 121

host nation, 41, 116host population, 104, 140

human intelligence (HUMINT), 15humanitarian development, 87, 103humanitarians, 201

human-machine teaming, 177human-machine teams, 175, 177human-machine warfare, 173

Human Rights Watch, 14, 36, 160,201

human shields, 3, 39, 195Human Terrain System (HTS), 70,

99, 114, 115, 121. See alsoacademic, academics in foxholes

HTS specialist, 116Human Terrain Specialist, 116

human-to-machine tools, 167Hussein, Sadaam, 41, 98, 101, 110,

147hypermanned, 155, 180. See also

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)hyper-surveillance, 23, 164hypervisibility, 136hypervisible, 108, 112, 120, 136

hypotheses, 10, 11, 59. See alsomethod(s)

hypothesis, 59

256 INDEX

Iideational, 11. See also constructidentifier(s), 1, 2, 24, 68, 108,

202. See also military-age male;technocratic category

ideological, 85, 146, 164ideologically, 24, 69, 84, 85ideologies, 33, 106

illegitimate targets, 143immunity principle, 56, 87imperialistic, 116imperialists, 196

India, 181injury, 18, 19, 20, 39, 155. See also

feminism, feminist methodsinnocence, 38, 39, 50, 54, 177, 181.

See also child, childhood(s)innocent(s), 38, 39, 49, 57, 81, 87,

131, 142, 145, 151, 195input-output data, 176. See also

data base, data science; machinelearning

insecurity, 79, 80, 89, 101, 103, 113,119, 120, 132. See also construct

institutionalization, 46. See alsotechnocratic category

institutionalize/institutionalized, 2,3, 40, 42, 61, 72, 73, 83, 90,108, 114

institutionalizing, 31, 206Instructions for the Government of

Armies, 35. See also Lieber Codeinsurance, 54, 102, 171. See also

actuarial fairnessinsurgencies, 31, 50, 67, 120insurgency, 15, 31, 51, 55, 67, 69,

72, 81, 93, 95, 100, 101, 109,110, 112, 114, 121, 132, 147,156, 158, 164

insurgent, 15, 17, 21, 36, 41,68–71, 74, 81, 99, 100,111–116, 132, 136–138,

144–148, 152, 158, 162, 163,165, 166, 174, 182, 183, 199

intelligence analyst(s), 113, 135, 155,162, 164

intelligence video disseminator, 163intelligence, surveillance, and recon-

naissance (ISR), 14–16, 20, 22,67, 83, 137, 145, 146, 148, 149,156, 164, 165, 180, 181, 199

international actor, 103international development, 40international humanitarian law (IHL),

2, 15, 36–40, 80, 90, 96, 97,136, 143, 172

international laws of armed conflict,31, 119

laws of war, 20, 31, 39, 80, 93, 94,143, 182, 200

international periphery, 203International Security Assistance

Forces (ISAF), 38, 76, 84, 94,95, 104, 108, 121

international system, 19, 21, 91interned, 97, 99. See also detentioninterning, 75, 97. See also Kenyainternment camps, 99. See also

Britian, Britain’s gulag in Kenyainterpretive, 10. See also method(s)

interpretivist, 10, 11interrogation, 50–51. See also Khadr,

OmarIntervention, 6, 20–24, 32, 39, 40,

73, 77, 80–82, 85–99, 105, 106,111, 114, 116, 119, 120, 154,161, 162, 180, 197

interview, 6–9, 14, 34, 37, 41, 47,51, 53, 55, 72, 79, 83–85, 102,108, 109, 119, 131, 134–138,143, 144, 148, 151–160, 180,181, 206. See also method(s)

interviewed, 6–9, 34, 53, 82, 85,138, 153, 159

INDEX 257

interviewing, 6, 8invade, 92invasion, 86, 88

2003 invasion of Iraq, 88Iran, 72, 76, 141, 198Iran Contra Scandal, 42Iranian, 41, 141

Iraq, 4, 13, 21, 23, 36, 39, 43, 44,46, 47, 67–114, 133, 135, 140,145, 148, 158–160, 197, 198

Iraqi culture, 82Iraqi(s), 67, 72, 74, 82, 83, 96, 98,

100–102, 109, 110, 147, 156Iraq Body Count Organization, 118irregular wars, 2, 3, 199Islam, 86, 160, 161, 196Islamic, 9, 91, 107, 138, 160, 161,

195, 196Islamic theology, 160, 161

Islamabad, 39, 137, 162Islamic extremism, 196Islamic State of Iraq and Levant

(ISIS), 3, 13, 119, 141, 195Islamist, 58jihadis, 41jihadist(s), 50, 53

Israeli, 39, 54Italo-Sanusi War, 97Italy, 181Italian, 97

JJalal, Malik, 179. See also Al-Jazeera;

IslamabadJapanese internment camps, 116joint attack air controller, 163joint chiefs of staff, 4, 43, 72, 76, 81,

136, 146, 161, 162, 165, 181Joint Special Operations Command

(JSOC) Task Force, 134. Seealso Authorization of Target andActioning

Judge Advocate General (JAG), 43Justice Department White Paper, 143just war, 2, 37, 52, 152jus in bello, 96

juveniles, 48. See also GuantanamoBay (GITMO)

KKenya, 9, 75, 86, 99Khadr, Omar, 32, 33, 44, 47–51, 53,

205Kilcullen, David, 21, 50, 67, 70, 99,

100, 111, 119, 140. See alsoarmed social work

kill and capture mindset, 98. See alsoOdierno, Ray

Killchain, 180. See also dispositionmatrix

killer robot, 168kinetic, 68, 76, 176Kosovo, 14, 201Kuwait, 107

LLahore, 137Laporto, Giovani, 136large-scale actors, 6lawfare, 43lawful targets, 149. See also legitimate

targetsLebanon, 41legality, 33, 43, 45, 60, 150, 205legitimacy, 13, 38, 41, 45, 48, 56, 60,

68, 87, 144, 179, 204legitimacy claim, 48. See also audience,

in relation to persuasionlegitimate, 17, 20, 35, 36, 39, 40, 43,

45, 49, 53, 72, 90, 91, 104, 106,108, 138, 143, 150, 172, 199,200, 203

258 INDEX

legitimate targets, 17, 108, 138, 150,172, 199, 203

lesser powers, in relation to states ininternational system, 141

lethal autonomous weapons systems(LAWS), 23, 174, 175, 200

leviathan, 140–108. See also Hobbes,Thomas, Hobbesian

liberal internationalism, 88liberal democracies, 2, 69, 75, 90liberal democratic values, 205liberal development, 69, 81, 94liberal interventionism, 90liberals, 104, 195liberal subject, 89, 90liberal subjecthood, 21, 71, 82, 89,

90, 103, 104liberal universalism, 88, 89, 93liberal warriors, 68

liberian oil tanker, 171. See also USSJohn S. McCain

Libya, 12, 97, 121, 197, 198Lieber Code, 35. See also Instructions

for the Government of Armieslieutenant colonel, 39, 47, 77, 105lieutenant general, 67, 72life-mining, 166. See also database,

data scienceloiter, 22, 132, 145. See also drone(s)loitering, 13

long-range precision weaponry, 140.See also Revolution in MilitaryAffairs(RMA)

looters, 71low-contrast foe, 15low-intensity counterinsurgency

operations, 115. See also irregularwars

Mmachine learning, 22, 137, 167–174.

See also artificial intelligence (AI)

machine vision, 7, 16, 168madhab, 161. See also Islam, Islamic

theologyMalay, 75, 86, 87. See also Britian,

British counterinsurgencyMalaya, 99, 116

male-centric, in relation to biasin disciplinary InternationalRelations, 19

manhood, 51, 160manifest destiny, 196maps, 157, 159, 171. See also

Cartesian mappingmapped, 157

marginalized, 21, 80, 99, 169Martin, Trayvon, 197martyr (s), 12, 41masculinity, 2, 19, 20, 31–34, 45, 49,

55, 57, 68, 163male development, 57masculine, 89masculinist, 18masculinities, 18

mathematical, 54, 117, 200. See alsoalgorithm(s); proportionalityprinciple

McChrystal, Stanley, 76, 84, 94, 95,104, 105, 118, 143

Mcfate, Montgomery, 70, 114–116Mcmaster, H.R., 5, 74, 77Mcnamara, Robert, 120Memorandum of Notification, 135metadata, 137, 138, 152, 164, 167metaphors, 49method(s), 6, 7, 9–13, 17, 19, 117

IR’s methodological clash, 7methodological, 11, 13, 17, 84methodology, 19qualitative methods, 117

middle east, 35, 76, 79, 87middle eastern, 67, 160

INDEX 259

military-age male, 1–5, 8–12, 16–18,20–34, 42, 45–47, 58–61, 68,69, 81, 90, 118, 149, 150,153–157, 174, 180, 182, 183,197, 202

MAMs, 2, 9, 31–34, 44–47, 51, 52,54, 57–61, 98, 108, 109, 114

men of non-military age, 2, 96military-age males, 1–3, 18, 22–24,

31–33, 38, 46, 47, 51, 52, 58,59, 61, 69–73, 80, 93, 97,106, 108, 109, 112–114, 118,121

mIRC chatroom, 163. See alsoscreener(s)

mobility patterns, 100, 137, 138, 169Morris, Layne, 50MQ-9 Reaper, 140. See also drone(s)multi-domain battle, 204Muslim culture, 9. See also IslamMy Lai massacre, 43. See also Vietnam

Nnational interest, 59nationalist, 197National security advisor, 5, 15, 74national security entry-exit registration

(NSEERS), 107National Transportation Safety Board,

171near-peer competitor, 24. See also

China; RussiaNew America Foundation, 12New Way Forward, 72, 73, 76, 77, 81.

See also turn to counterinsurgencyNew York Police Department

(NYPD), 106, 197New York Stock Exchange, 166New York Times, 1, 2, 13, 14, 58,

107, 131, 153, 198Nexus 7 Program, 1179/11, 46

nineteenth-century liberalism, 88nondisclosure agreements, 6non-kinetic, 4, 68, 71, 78, 109–111,

113, 114, 116nontraditional adversaries, 115,

120, 199. See also insurgencies,insurgent

normative, 5, 6, 16, 20, 23, 40, 46,47, 60, 69, 75, 87, 90, 93, 94,121, 142, 153, 156, 174

norm(s), 3, 14, 16, 17, 19–21, 23, 25normalisation, 203norm-violating actors, 3

Norse mythology, 83North Korea, 76. See also axis of EvilNorthpointe, 170, 171. See also

COMPAS, in relation to softwareno-strike list, 43. See also Operation

Just Causenot-civilian, 31. See also military-age

maleNSA General Counsel, 152Nuremberg Trial, 172. See also

Eichmann, Adolf, Trial,Eichmann

OObama Administration, 1, 9, 36, 38,

55, 58, 73, 78, 81, 95, 103, 119,132–135, 137, 140, 144, 146,158, 164, 197, 198, 201, 204,205

Obama, 3, 4, 35, 73, 81, 121, 142,179

objectivity, 132, 173object-oriented democracy, 205object-oriented analysis, 11

occupation, in relation to militaryoccupation, 7, 67

British occupation, 67occupying force(s), 82, 116. See also

host nation

260 INDEX

US occupation, 73Odierno, Ray, 98, 145Office for the Coordination of

Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),55

Office of Legal Counsel in theDepartment of Justice, 44

operational environment (OE), 99,108, 157, 161, 164

Operation al-Fajr, 46. See also FallujahOperation Iraqi Freedom, 74, 109,

147Operation Just Cause, 43Operation Vigilant Resolve, 2, 96–98operator(s), in relation to military

operators, 132, 140, 154,171–173, 176, 180, 200, 201,203

Organization for EconomicCo-operation (OECD), 92

Ottoman Turks, 87Owens, William A., 146

PPachachi, Adnan, 96Pakistan Institute for Peace Studies,

12Panetta, Leon, 132paradigm, 10, 23, 156, 179, 204paradigmatic, 15, 24, 170

parole boards, 170participants, in relation to interview

participants, 6, 7, 34, 82, 83, 85,117, 133, 138, 143, 153, 155,158, 159, 183, 206

Pashtunwali code of honor, 162patriarchy, 49patriarchal, 105

pattern of behavior, 136, 182. See alsosignature strike

pattern of life, 22, 132, 163Peace Committee, 179

peacekeeping, 40peacekeeper, 68

pedagogical, 70, 116Pentagon, 3, 13, 43, 47, 73, 74, 120,

148performance, in relation to gender,

16, 18, 19, 152, 153Petit, Brian, 105Petraeus, David, 4, 38, 39, 69, 84,

95, 98, 104Petraeus Doctrine, 72, 119. See also

turn to counterinsurgencypolitical actor, 102positivist tradition, 11. See also

method(s)postcolonial subject, 104Powell, Colin, 47PR agenda, 59predictive analytics, 139, 166, 180.

See also big dataPresidential Policy Guidance, 198press secretary, 44, 143principle of distinction, 2, 3, 4, 15,

20, 21, 31, 34, 35, 56, 99, 135,142, 143, 150, 198–202. See alsointernational humanitarian law

prisoner of war, 3, 44Project Camelot, 116. See also

Vietnam, Vietnam WarProject Maven, 169. See also Algo-

rithmic Warfare Cross-FunctionalTeam

proportionality principle, 54, 61, 80,95, 96, 202

Provincial Reconstruction Teams(PRTs), 77

Provisional Authority in Baghdad, 104public space, 159, 161, 178, 179Putin, Vladimir, 87

INDEX 261

QQ-2 firebee, 148, 149. See also

intelligence, surveillance, andreconnaissance (ISR)

Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harithi, 131. Seealso USS Cole

qalat, 78, 105Quadrennial Diplomacy and Develop-

ment Review (QDDR), 78. Seealso security-development nexus

qualitative analysts, 10. See alsocausal, in relation to methods,causes-of-effects

Rrace, in the context of identity, 3, 9,

14, 83, 85, 90, 138, 168, 170,171, 179, 197, 202, 203

racial, 89, 121, 170, 197racialized, 18, 90, 137, 170, 171racism, 85racist, 83, 85, 91, 197

Radioplane company, 148Rand Corporation, 72, 165, 167Random Forest Algorithm, 173. See

also predictive analytics; SKYNET,in relation to NSA metadataprogram

rational, in relation to self-interestedindividuals, 21, 42, 60, 71, 76,81, 82, 105, 112

rational-legal authority, 45Raytheon, 165Reagan, Ronald, 42Reaper(s), 140, 150, 154, 181. See

also MQ-9 Reaperrecidivism score, 174. See also

COMPAS, in relation to softwarereconnaissance-strike complex, 139,

147recruitment, in relation to recruitment

of children, 60, 100

referent(s), in relation to security, 89,102, 145

remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), 142.See also drone(s)

research agenda, 168Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA),

23, 112, 115, 139, 146Rice, Condoleeza, 74risk threshold, 22risk score, 174risk society, 199risky subject, 33

risky subjects, 33, 93, 106, 116robots, 145, 153, 168, 171, 200–204Roosevelt Institute, 13, 150, 151Royal Canadian Air Force, 181RQ-4 global hawk, 164. See also

drone(s)rule-based market economy, 104rules-based order, 88. See also liberal

internationalismrules of engagement (ROE), 47, 67,

68, 94, 100, 109, 110, 134ROE card, 110

Rumsfeld, Donald, 48, 50, 71, 72,98, 147

Russia, 24, 78, 87, 143, 167, 200Russian, 87, 88, 206

Ryan Aeronautical Company, 148

SSaint-Arnaud, Armand-Jacques

Leroy, 84. See also colonialcounterinsurgency

scorched earth tactics, 77Sarsour, Linda, 107satellites, 142Saudi Arabia, 141, 160, 161Schiff, Adam, congressman, 138school(s) of thought, 12, 161. See also

method(s)

262 INDEX

science, in relation to natural science,10, 117, 167, 176, 179

scientific, 94, 173screener(s), 53, 54, 163. See also

drone crew(s)Secretary of Defense, 73, 132Secretary of State, 40, 59, 74, 120securing the intimate, 71security agenda, 79, 106, 138post-9/11 security culture, 1

security-development nexus, 78, 94security sector reform (SSR), 103security theater, 20, 31, 51, 93, 95,

113, 204security threat, 46segregation, 78, 102, 131, 138,

159–161. See also gendersegregation

self-defense, 110, 134, 135, 158, 182semi-automated, 164, 167. See also

lethal autonomous weaponssystems

semi-automation, 173, 180semi-autonomous, 23, 139, 176,

177Senate Select Committee on

Intelligence, 45, 53sensor(s), 7, 15, 22, 121, 132, 145,

148, 151–154, 158, 161, 164,165, 175, 181. See also drone(s)

sensor-to-shooter, 17, 23sensor-to-shooter sequence, 15, 175

Sentient, in relation to machinelearning program, 167. See alsoAutomatic Target Recognition(ATR)

sex, in relation to biological category,57, 109, 138, 151

sexes, 160sexual assault, 116

Shock and Awe, 147. See also Iraq;occupation, in relation to militaryoccupation, US occupation

Signal application, 6signature(s), 51, 110, 133–138, 150,

160, 167–169, 173, 177, 182,183, 199, 203

signature strike, 134–136, 138, 149,182

SKYNET, in relation to NSA metadataprogram, 137, 152, 168, 174

slavery, 88, 89slaves, 89slave trade, 89

small-n. See method(s), qualitativemethods

Small-Unit Leaders’ Guide (SULGC),50, 72, 75, 76, 81, 100, 158

smart weapons, 13, 15, 16, 202laser-guided missiles, 133laser-guided munitions, 13smart bombs, 143

snowball method, 6, 7. See alsointerview

social construction, 45, 49, 54, 108,206

socially constructed, 48, 89social reality, 5, 92, 167

social contract theory, 2, 104social development, 18, 21, 70. See

also liberal internationalism,liberal development

social disorder, 17social incentives, 21, 76social science, 10, 114, 116, 117social-scientific data collection, 10social-scientific, in relation to facts

and knowledge, 10, 114, 116,117

sociology, 115

INDEX 263

social sorting, 31, 136, 140, 145,151, 182, 183. See also riskysubjects

social values, 16, 20, 23sociocultural, 117, 121, 173socio-demographic, 113, 152socioeconomic, 174socio-geographic, 115sociological, 71, 73, 153, 183socio-material, 156, 183sociotechnical, 175

soft power, 68soldier-scholars, 70. See also Kilcullen,

David; Petraeus, DavidSomalia, 12, 13, 40, 121, 198

Somali, 40sovereign, 150, 158sovereignty, 5, 102, 107

Soviet, in relation to USSR, 41, 115,148

Soviets, 77space, 18–21, 37, 51, 68, 70, 71, 73,

80–83, 93, 95, 97, 100, 120,121, 139, 147, 164, 169, 178,179, 204

Special Operations Task Force South,105

speech-act, 48. See also legitimacyclaim

Speers, Christopher, 50spreadsheet(s), 134, 137, 180. See also

disposition matrixStanford Computer Science Lab, 170state-to-state warfare, 121statistics, 54, 113, 114, 177. See also

database, data collectionstatistical, 10, 13, 113, 114, 166,

169–172, 174, 177, 178, 203status-based, 110, 111. See also rules

of engagement (ROE)stereotypes, 14, 121, 202. See also biasSt. Petersburg Declaration, 35

strategic framing, 53, 56, 61. See alsodiscourse

suffrage, 89suicide attacks, 98suicide bombers, 20, 32, 39, 107,

109Sunni, 102, 161Sunni triangle, 98. See also Iraq

Surge, 77, 98, 145. See also turn tocounterinsurgency

surveillance, 14–17, 21, 22, 31, 33,61, 69, 77, 78, 81, 93, 96, 99,101, 106–109, 117, 120, 132,145, 152, 158, 161, 166, 168,173, 175, 199–202, 206

surveilling, 59, 199SWAT valley, 179symbolic, 46, 60, 77. See also

discursive languageSyria, 13, 119, 139, 141, 158, 197,

198, 206Syrian, 107

system of systems, 181. See alsoRevolution in Military Affairs(RMA)

TTactical Directive, 94. See also

McChrystal, StanleyTal Afar, 74. See also Operation Iraqi

FreedomTaliban, 3, 20, 32, 36, 38, 39, 44,

60, 82, 84, 88, 91, 95, 118, 133,148, 163, 179, 206

Taroke Kalacha, 77–80technical pipeline, 16, 176technocratic category, 9, 31technocratic, in relation to knowledge

production, 3, 9, 31, 42, 58, 202technology(ies), 4, 14–17, 20–25, 31,

38, 48, 54, 55, 61, 70, 71, 73,77, 84, 96, 99, 106, 112, 113,

264 INDEX

115, 117, 120, 121, 139, 148,160, 167, 168, 171–174, 178,181, 183, 199, 201, 204

techno-scientific, 143Templer, Gerald, 86, 87. See also

Britian, British Counterinsurgencyterrorism, 2, 46, 52, 72, 88, 107,

179, 195, 196terrorist attacks, 138, 162terrorist(s), 2, 12, 36, 44, 48, 51,

52, 72, 75, 91, 98, 106, 107,138, 142, 145, 150, 174, 195,196

Terrorism Futures Market, 162Terrorist Attack Disruption Strike

(TADS), 135, 149textual analysis, 107. See also

method(s)The Arab Mind, 116The Bureau of Investigative Journalism

(TBIJ), 12, 144, 205theories, 11, 19, 153, 206theoretical, 5, 11, 12, 18, 20, 23,

56, 117theoretical pluralism, 5theorize, 163theorizing, 19, 89theory, 2, 11, 12, 55, 89, 104

threat assessment escalation of force(EOF), 110

Tomahawk cruise missile, 144torture, 32, 33, 44, 45, 53, 109, 115,

116tortured, 20, 44

towel-head, 83. See also race, in thecontext of identity, racism

Townsend, Stephen J., 13, 14training and doctrine command

(TRADOC), 112–114, 204training set, 176. See also database,

data sciencetraitors, 196

traits, 3, 9, 14, 56, 68, 114, 160transnational insurgency, 15, 55, 121,

132transparency, in relation to the drone

program, 12, 13, 137, 173, 204transparent, 137, 178

triangulation, in relation to data, 11tribal, 51, 99, 114Trudeau, Justin, 107Trump Administration, 24, 139, 169,

195–198Trump, Donald, 15, 84, 107, 197,

198Turkey, 141turn to counterinsurgency, 68–70, 75two-stage checkpoints, 100. See also

Elasticity

UU-2 reconnaissance jet, 148Ukraine, 87unconventional, in relation to warfare,

67, 120UNICEF, 47, 91uniform, 7, 31, 68, 81, 155unisex pseudonym, 7. See also

interviewUnited Nations, 43, 79, 88, 173United Nations Convention on

Certain Conventional Weapons,17, 174

United Nations Convention on theRights of the Child, 35

United Nations Development Fundfor Women, 92

UN Office for the Coordination ofHumanitarian Affairs, 55

United States of America v. SalemAhmed Hamdan, 135

United States (US), 3, 4, 12, 20–24,31–35, 39–44, 52, 60, 79,85–89, 92, 96, 100, 107, 116,

INDEX 265

120, 133, 151, 153, 158, 160,162, 164, 170, 171, 181, 183,196, 197, 199, 200, 204

universal, 19, 88–91, 104, 195unlawful combatants, 136unmanned, 16, 17, 132, 145, 146,

165, 183Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV),

145–148, 155unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), 146urban environment, 77, 100US Agency for International

Development (USAID), 40US air force, 14, 145US Army/Marine Corps Coun-

terinsurgency Field Manual,4

US Army Human Terrain Program,70

US Central Command, 3. See alsoCentral Command (CENTCOM)

US intervention, 4, 6, 20, 21, 32, 40,71, 87, 88, 92, 103, 114, 116

USS Cole, 131USS John S. McCain, 171, 178utilitarianism, 96utilitarian, 76, 94–96

Uzbekistan, 133

Vvalidity, 11value(s), 16, 20, 23, 37, 39, 40,

85–89, 92, 113, 121, 133, 142,164, 165, 173, 174, 177, 195,201, 205

variable(s), 9, 59, 69, 80, 95, 96, 113,157, 169, 174

veteran(s), 6, 7, 155, 168Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of

Staff, 146, 165, 181victimhood, 17, 39

video, 15, 22, 50, 145, 151, 155–164,201

Vietnam, 2, 9, 33, 42–47, 74, 75,112, 116, 120

Vietnamese, 9Vietnam War, 2, 33, 42–47, 74,

112, 149violence, 2, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 31–34,

37, 42, 45, 47, 51, 52, 55, 56,58, 60, 67, 71, 85, 97–99, 107,114–116, 136, 137, 142, 143,150, 152, 163, 172, 174–179,183, 200, 204, 206

violent, 14–16, 23–25, 34, 35, 47,49, 50, 54–56, 60, 68, 73,112, 114, 159, 160, 200, 202,206, 207

violent action, 15, 175violent conflict(s), 14, 16, 23–31,

35, 47, 49, 54, 175, 177, 200,202, 206, 207

virtual crewman, 201. See alsohuman-machine learning,human-machine teams

visual signifiers, 31. See also uniformvolume, velocity and variety, 166,

181. See also big data

Wwarfighting, 2, 115, 118, 138, 139,

152, 165warmaking, 21, 37, 41, 97, 109,

156warlords, 103War on Terror, 20, 21, 23, 32, 46,

47, 49, 55, 72, 89, 92, 133, 138,145, 146, 156, 196, 199, 202

warplane(s), 118, 172warrior, 67, 137, 154wars, 2, 3, 7, 35, 37–40, 52, 56, 60,

69, 75, 76, 80, 90, 92, 94, 133,142, 148, 149, 172, 201, 204

266 INDEX

war theaters, 12wartime, 17, 23, 32, 38, 52, 60,

68, 114, 120, 153, 155, 163,200

warzone, 198Waziristan, 179Weapons of Mass Destruction

(WMDs), 41, 86wedding, in relation to drone strikes,

57, 179Western colonies, 2, 9Western customs, 92whistle-blowers, 6. See also interviewwhiteness, 195Women, 1, 5, 16–21, 35, 36, 39, 40,

45, 46, 54–60, 69, 71, 78–94,96, 100–102, 105, 106, 109,118, 119, 131, 132, 139, 145,151–160, 169, 172, 196

women’s equality, 88

womenandchildren, 140women of color, 89

World War Two, 116, 150

Xxenophobic, 85

YYemen, 1, 12, 13, 51, 121, 145, 163,

198Yemeni, 145

ZZaidan, Ahmad, 137, 138Zone Assessment Unit, 106. See also

New York Police Department(NYPD)