Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE Slides.pdf · Reference Tables for Physical...
Transcript of Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE Slides.pdf · Reference Tables for Physical...
by Charles Burrows
Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
(2010 Edition)
PAGE 1
Radioactive Decay Data Specific Heats of Common Materials
Equations Properties of Water
Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
New York State Fossil Ruler
PAGE 2
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
PAGE 3
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
PAGE 4
Surface Ocean Currents
PAGE 5
Tectonic Plates
PAGE 6
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
PAGE 7
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
PAGES 8 & 9
Geologic History Of New York State
PAGE 10
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
PAGE 11
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
PAGE 12
Dewpoint (°C) Relative Humidity (%)
PAGE 13
Temperature Pressure
Key to Weather Map Symbols
PAGE 14
Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere
Electromagnetic Spectrum
PAGE 15
Characteristics of Stars Solar System Data
PAGE 16
Properties of Common Minerals
by Charles Burrows
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
151
23
45
67
89
1011
1213
14cm
2010 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2009–2010 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2010 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
Gradient =change in field value
distance
Density =mass
volume
Rate of change =change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 ! 103
1.3 ! 109
4.5 ! 109
4.9 ! 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
by Charles Burrows
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
151
23
45
67
89
1011
1213
14cm
2010 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2009–2010 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2010 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
Gradient =change in field value
distance
Density =mass
volume
Rate of change =change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 ! 103
1.3 ! 109
4.5 ! 109
4.9 ! 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
by Charles Burrows
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
151
23
45
67
89
1011
1213
14cm
2010 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2009–2010 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2010 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
Gradient =change in field value
distance
Density =mass
volume
Rate of change =change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 ! 103
1.3 ! 109
4.5 ! 109
4.9 ! 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
by Charles Burrows
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
151
23
45
67
89
1011
1213
14cm
2010 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2009–2010 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2010 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
Gradient =change in field value
distance
Density =mass
volume
Rate of change =change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 ! 103
1.3 ! 109
4.5 ! 109
4.9 ! 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
by Charles Burrows
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
151
23
45
67
89
1011
1213
14cm
2010 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2009–2010 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2010 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
Gradient =change in field value
distance
Density =mass
volume
Rate of change =change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 ! 103
1.3 ! 109
4.5 ! 109
4.9 ! 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
by Charles Burrows
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
1617
1819
2021
2223
2425
151
23
45
67
89
1011
1213
14cm
2010 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2009–2010 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2010 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
Gradient =change in field value
distance
Density =mass
volume
Rate of change =change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 ! 103
1.3 ! 109
4.5 ! 109
4.9 ! 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18Solid water (ice) 2.11Water vapor 2.00Dry air 1.01Basalt 0.84Granite 0.79Iron 0.45Copper 0.38Lead 0.13
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42Nitrogen (N) 78.0Hydrogen (H) 66.0Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
by Charles Burrows
Hea
t ene
rgy
gain
ed d
urin
g m
eltin
g .
. . .
. . .
. . .
334
J/g
Hea
t ene
rgy
rele
ased
dur
ing
free
zing
. . .
. . .
. .3
34 J
/g
Hea
t ene
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gain
ed d
urin
g va
poriz
atio
n .
. . .
.226
0J/
g
Hea
t ene
rgy
rele
ased
dur
ing
cond
ensa
tion
. . .
2260
J/g
Den
sity
at 3
.98°
C .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. .1.
0g/
mL
New
Yor
k S
tate
Fos
sil
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25151 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14cm
2010
EDI
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NTh
is ed
ition
of t
he E
arth
Scie
nce R
efere
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ables
shou
ld b
e use
d in
the
class
room
begi
nnin
g in t
he 20
09–2
010 s
choo
l yea
r. The
first
exam
inati
on fo
rwh
ich th
ese t
ables
will
be u
sed
is th
e Jan
uary
2010
Reg
ents
Exam
inati
on in
Ph
ysica
l Sett
ing/
Earth
Scien
ce.
The U
nive
rsity
of t
he S
tate
of N
ew Y
ork
• TH
E ST
ATE
EDUC
ATIO
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TMEN
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Alba
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ew Yo
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234 •
www
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Ref
eren
ce T
able
s fo
rP
hysi
cal S
ettin
g/E
AR
TH S
CIE
NC
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Ecc
entr
icity
=di
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ce b
etw
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foci
leng
th o
f maj
or a
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Gra
dien
t=
chan
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fiel
d va
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dist
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Den
sity
=m
ass
volu
me
Rat
e of
cha
nge
=ch
ange
in v
alue
time
Equa
tions
RA
DIO
AC
TIV
EIS
OTO
PE
DIS
INTE
GR
ATI
ON
HA
LF-L
IFE
(yea
rs)
Car
bon-
14
Pot
assi
um-4
0
Ura
nium
-238
Rub
idiu
m-8
7
C14
K40
U23
8 Rb
87
N14
Pb
206 S
r87
5.7 !
103
1.3 !
109
4.5 !
109
4.9 !
1010
Ar
40
Ca
40
Spec
ific H
eats
of C
omm
on M
ater
ials
Radi
oacti
ve D
ecay
Dat
a
Prop
ertie
s of W
ater
Aver
age C
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ompo
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nof
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th’s
Crus
t, Hy
dros
pher
e, an
d Tr
opos
pher
e
MA
TER
IAL
SP
EC
IFIC
HE
AT
(Jou
les/
gram
• °
C)
Liqu
id w
ater
4.18
Sol
id w
ater
(ic
e)2.
11W
ater
vap
or2.
00D
ry a
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01B
asal
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84G
rani
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79Ir
on0.
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oppe
r0.
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ad0.
13
ELE
ME
NT
(sym
bol)
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US
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YD
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Per
cent
by
mas
sP
erce
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y vo
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eP
erce
nt b
y vo
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Oxy
gen
(O)
46.1
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.04
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21.0
Sili
con
(Si)
28.2
00.
88A
lum
inum
(A
l)8.
230.
48Ir
on (
Fe)
5.63
0.49
Cal
cium
(C
a)4.
151.
18S
odiu
m (
Na)
2.36
1.11
Mag
nesi
um (
Mg)
2.33
0.33
Pot
assi
um (
K)
2.09
1.42
Nitr
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)78
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ydro
gen
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er0.
910.
071.
01.
0
Eur
ypte
rus
rem
ipes
by Charles Burrows
2P
hysical Setting/E
arth Science R
eference Tables — 2010 E
dition
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
App
alac
hian
Platea
u (Uplands)
Interior Lowlands
Grenville Province(Highlands)
New E
ngla
nd P
rovi
nce
(Hig
hlan
ds)
Atlantic Coastal Plain
Allegheny Plateau
Erie-Ontario Lowlands(Plains)
Tug HillPlateau
AdirondackMountains
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
InteriorLowlands
St. Lawrence
Lowlands
Cha
mpl
ain
Low
land
s
Hudson Highlands
Manhattan Prong
The Catskills
Taco
nic
Mou
ntai
ns
Hud
son-
Moh
awk
Low
land
s
Newa
rkLo
wlan
ds
Major geographic province boundary
Landscape region boundary
State boundary
International boundary
Key
N
S
W E0 20 40
0 20 40 60 80Kilometers
Miles10 30 50
by Charles Burrows
Physical S
etting/Earth S
cience Reference Tables —
2010 Edition
3
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York Statemodified from
GEOLOGICAL SURVEYNEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
1989
Niagar
aR
iver
GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORKCRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and claysLATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill)PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shalesDEVONIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomeratesSILURIAN SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite.
ORDOVICIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostonesCAMBRIAN
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River
CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schistsintensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex
TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slatesslightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marblesLines are generalized structure trends.
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks
}}
}
}}
Dominantlysedimentaryorigin
Dominantlymetamorphosedrocks
LONG ISLAND SOUND
Intensely metamorphosed rocks(regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
N
S
W E0 20 40
0 20 40 60 80Kilometers
Miles10 30 50
by Charles Burrows
0°40°80°120°160°180°160°120°80°40°80°
40°
40°
0°
80°
20°
60°
60°
20°
Arctic Circle(66.5° N)
Tropic of Cancer(23.5° N)
Tropic of Capricorn(23.5° S)
Antarctic Circle(66.5° S)
Equator
20° 60° 100° 140° 20°60°100°140° 20°
0°40°80°120°160°180°160°120°80°40°20° 60° 100° 140° 20°60°100°140° 20°
Equatorial Countercurrent
Eas
tAus
tralia
C.
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
NorthAtlantic C.
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
NOTE: Not all surface ocean currents are shown.
NorthAmerica
SouthAmerica
Antarctica
Australia
NorthPacificOcean
Antarctica
Africa
AsiaEurope
Surface Ocean Currents
Africa
Per
uC
.
North Equatorial C.
South Equatorial C.
Southern Ocean
Arctic Ocean
IndianOcean
South Equatorial C.
West Austral
iaC
.
India
Greenland
NorthAtlanticOcean
EquatorialCountercurrent
Florida C.
Kuros
hio
C.
Oya
shio
C. Kam
chatka C.
North Pacific C.
Alaska C.
CaliforniaC
.
Bra
zil C
.
Beng
uela
C.
South Equatorial C.
Fal
klan
dC
.
Guinea C.
North Equatorial C.
GulfStre
amC.
Canary
C.
Labrador C.
West G
reenlandC.
EastGreenla
ndC.
Nor
wegia
nC
.
North Equatorial C.Equatorial Countercurrent
Agulh
asC
.
SouthPacificOcean
SouthAtlanticOcean
Warm currents
Cool currents
Key
4P
hysical Setting/E
arth Science R
eference Tables — 2010 E
dition
by Charles Burrows
Physical S
etting/Earth S
cience Reference Tables —
2010 Edition
5
Peru-Chile
TrenchHawaii
Hot Spot
San AndreasFault
Juan deFuca Plate
PhilippinePlate
Aleutian TrenchYellowstone
Hot Spot
North AmericanPlate
AfricanPlateCocos
PlateCaribbean
Plate
Mid
-Atla
ntic
Rid
ge
CanaryIslands
Hot Spot
SouthAmerican
Plate
GalapagosHot Spot
NazcaPlate
AntarcticPlate
Indian-AustralianPlate
PacificPlateFiji Plate
East
Paci
ficR
i dge
AntarcticPlate
Arabian
Plate
EurasianPlate
EurasianPlate
IcelandHot Spot
East
Afri
can
Rift
Mid-IndianR
idgeSoutheast Indian Ridge
Southwest Indian
RidgeScotiaPlate
SandwichPlate
Mid
-Atla
ntic
Rid
ge
Easter IslandHot Spot
St. HelenaHot Spot
BouvetHot Spot
Key
NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, andboundaries are shown.
Complex or uncertainplate boundary
Relative motion atplate boundary
Mantlehot spotDivergent plate boundary
(usually broken by transformfaults along mid-ocean ridges)
Convergent plate boundary(subduction zone)
subductingplate
overridingplate
Transform plate boundary(transform fault)
Tectonic Plates
TasmanHot Spot
M
aria
na
Tren
ch
Ton
gaT
ren
ch
by Charles Burrows
6 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
Ero
s ion
Wea
ther
ing
&E
rosi
on(U
plift
)M
etamorphism
MeltingSolidific
atio
nMeltingWeathering & Erosion
(Uplift)
Metamorphism
Weathering & Erosion
(Uplift)
Heat and/or Pressure
Heatand /or
Pressure
Melting
Cementation and Burial
Compactio
n and/or Deposition
IGNEOUSROCK
SEDIMENTS
MAGMA
METAMORPHICROCK
SEDIMENTARYROCK
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
PAR
TIC
LE D
IAM
ETE
R (
cm)
Boulders
Cobbles
Pebbles
Sand
Silt
Clay
1000500
50100
10510.5
0.10.05
0.01
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)
This generalized graph shows the water velocityneeded to maintain, but not start, movement. Variationsoccur due to differences in particle density and shape.
25.6
6.4
0.2
0.006
0.0004
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Relationship of TransportedParticle Size to Water Velocity
Pyroxene(green)
Amphibole(black)
Biotite(black)
Potassiumfeldspar
(pink to white)
(rel
ativ
e by
vol
ume)
MIN
ER
AL
CO
MP
OS
ITIO
N
Quartz(clear towhite)
CH
AR
AC
TER
ISTI
CS
MAFIC(rich in Fe, Mg)
HIGHER
DARKER
FELSIC(rich in Si, Al)
LOWER
LIGHTER
CRYSTALSIZE TEXTURE
Pumice
INT
RU
SIV
E(P
luto
nic)
EX
TR
US
IVE
(Vol
cani
c)
EN
VIR
ON
ME
NT
OF
FOR
MA
TIO
N
Plagioclase feldspar(white to gray)
Olivine(green)
COMPOSITION
DENSITY
COLOR
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
IGN
EO
US
RO
CK
S
non-
crys
talli
ne
GlassyBasaltic glassObsidian
(usually appears black)
less
than
1 m
m FineBasaltAndesiteRhyolite
1 m
mto
10
mm
CoarsePeri-dotiteGabbro
DioriteGranite
Pegmatite
10 m
mor
larg
er Verycoarse
Scoria Vesicular(gas
pockets)
Dun
ite
Non-vesicular
Non-vesicular
Vesicular basaltVesicular rhyolite Vesicularandesite
Diabase
by Charles Burrows
6 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
Ero
s ion
Wea
ther
ing
&E
rosi
on(U
plift
)
Metam
orphism
MeltingSolidific
atio
nMeltingWeathering & Erosion
(Uplift)
Metamorphism
Weathering & Erosion
(Uplift)
Heat and/or Pressure
Heatand /or
Pressure
Melting
Cementation and Burial
Compactio
n and/or Deposition
IGNEOUSROCK
SEDIMENTS
MAGMA
METAMORPHICROCK
SEDIMENTARYROCK
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
PAR
TIC
LE D
IAM
ETE
R (
cm)
Boulders
Cobbles
Pebbles
Sand
Silt
Clay
1000500
50100
10510.5
0.10.05
0.01
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)
This generalized graph shows the water velocityneeded to maintain, but not start, movement. Variationsoccur due to differences in particle density and shape.
25.6
6.4
0.2
0.006
0.0004
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Relationship of TransportedParticle Size to Water Velocity
Pyroxene(green)
Amphibole(black)
Biotite(black)
Potassiumfeldspar
(pink to white)
(rel
ativ
e by
vol
ume)
MIN
ER
AL
CO
MP
OS
ITIO
N
Quartz(clear towhite)
CH
AR
AC
TER
ISTI
CS
MAFIC(rich in Fe, Mg)
HIGHER
DARKER
FELSIC(rich in Si, Al)
LOWER
LIGHTER
CRYSTALSIZE TEXTURE
Pumice
INT
RU
SIV
E(P
luto
nic)
EX
TR
US
IVE
(Vol
cani
c)
EN
VIR
ON
ME
NT
OF
FOR
MA
TIO
N
Plagioclase feldspar(white to gray)
Olivine(green)
COMPOSITION
DENSITY
COLOR
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
IGN
EO
US
RO
CK
S
non-
crys
talli
ne
GlassyBasaltic glassObsidian
(usually appears black)
less
than
1 m
m FineBasaltAndesiteRhyolite
1 m
mto
10
mm
CoarsePeri-dotiteGabbro
DioriteGranite
Pegmatite
10 m
mor
larg
er Verycoarse
Scoria Vesicular(gas
pockets)
Dun
ite
Non-vesicular
Non-vesicular
Vesicular basaltVesicular rhyolite Vesicularandesite
Diabase
by Charles Burrows
6 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
Ero
s ion
Wea
ther
ing
&E
rosi
on(U
plift
)
Metam
orphism
MeltingSolidific
atio
nMeltingWeathering & Erosion
(Uplift)
Metamorphism
Weathering & Erosion
(Uplift)
Heat and/or Pressure
Heatand /or
Pressure
Melting
Cementation and Burial
Compactio
n and/or Deposition
IGNEOUSROCK
SEDIMENTS
MAGMA
METAMORPHICROCK
SEDIMENTARYROCK
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
PAR
TIC
LE D
IAM
ETE
R (
cm)
Boulders
Cobbles
Pebbles
Sand
Silt
Clay
1000500
50100
10510.5
0.10.05
0.01
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)
This generalized graph shows the water velocityneeded to maintain, but not start, movement. Variationsoccur due to differences in particle density and shape.
25.6
6.4
0.2
0.006
0.0004
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Relationship of TransportedParticle Size to Water Velocity
Pyroxene(green)
Amphibole(black)
Biotite(black)
Potassiumfeldspar
(pink to white)
(rel
ativ
e by
vol
ume)
MIN
ER
AL
CO
MP
OS
ITIO
N
Quartz(clear towhite)
CH
AR
AC
TER
ISTI
CS
MAFIC(rich in Fe, Mg)
HIGHER
DARKER
FELSIC(rich in Si, Al)
LOWER
LIGHTER
CRYSTALSIZE TEXTURE
Pumice
INT
RU
SIV
E(P
luto
nic)
EX
TR
US
IVE
(Vol
cani
c)
EN
VIR
ON
ME
NT
OF
FOR
MA
TIO
N
Plagioclase feldspar(white to gray)
Olivine(green)
COMPOSITION
DENSITY
COLOR
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
IGN
EO
US
RO
CK
S
non-
crys
talli
ne
GlassyBasaltic glassObsidian
(usually appears black)
less
than
1 m
m FineBasaltAndesiteRhyolite
1 m
mto
10
mm
CoarsePeri-dotiteGabbro
DioriteGranite
Pegmatite
10 m
mor
larg
er Verycoarse
Scoria Vesicular(gas
pockets)
Dun
ite
Non-vesicular
Non-vesicular
Vesicular basaltVesicular rhyolite Vesicularandesite
Diabase
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 7
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKSCOMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Rounded fragments
Angular fragmentsMostlyquartz,feldspar, andclay minerals;may containfragments ofother rocksand minerals
Pebbles, cobbles,and/or bouldersembedded in sand,silt, and/or clay
Clastic(fragmental)
Very fine grain
Compact; may spliteasily
Conglomerate
Breccia
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Crystalline
Halite
Gypsum
Dolomite
Calcite
Carbon
Crystals fromchemicalprecipitatesand evaporites
Rock salt
Rock gypsum
Dolostone
Limestone
Bituminous coal
. . . . .. . . .
Sand(0.006 to 0.2 cm)
Silt(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)
Clay(less than 0.0004 cm)
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Fine to coarse
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Fineto
coarsecrystals
Microscopic tovery coarse
Precipitates of biologicorigin or cemented shellfragments
Compactedplant remains
. . . . .. . . .
Bioclastic
Crystalline orbioclastic
FO
LIAT
ED
Fine
Fineto
medium
Mediumto
coarse
Regional
Low-grademetamorphism of shale
Platy mica crystals visiblefrom metamorphism of clayor feldspars
High-grade metamorphism;mineral types segregatedinto bands
Slate
Schist
Gneiss
COMPOSITIONTEXTUREGRAINSIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME
TYPE OFMETAMORPHISM
(Heat andpressureincreases)
MIN
ER
AL
ALI
GN
ME
NT
BA
ND
-IN
G
MAP SYMBOL
Foliation surfaces shinyfrom microscopic micacrystals
Phyllite
GA
RN
ET
PY
RO
XE
NE
FELD
SPA
RA
MP
HIB
OLE
MIC
AQ
UA
RTZ
Hornfels
NO
NF
OLI
ATE
D
Metamorphism ofquartz sandstone
Metamorphism oflimestone or dolostone
Pebbles may be distortedor stretched
Metaconglomerate
Quartzite
Marble
Coarse
Fineto
coarse
Quartz
Calcite and/ordolomite
Variousminerals
Contact(heat)
Various rocks changed byheat from nearbymagma/lava
VariousmineralsFine
Anthracite coalRegional Metamorphism ofbituminous coalCarbonFine
Regional
or
contact
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 7
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKSCOMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Rounded fragments
Angular fragmentsMostlyquartz,feldspar, andclay minerals;may containfragments ofother rocksand minerals
Pebbles, cobbles,and/or bouldersembedded in sand,silt, and/or clay
Clastic(fragmental)
Very fine grain
Compact; may spliteasily
Conglomerate
Breccia
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Crystalline
Halite
Gypsum
Dolomite
Calcite
Carbon
Crystals fromchemicalprecipitatesand evaporites
Rock salt
Rock gypsum
Dolostone
Limestone
Bituminous coal
. . . . .. . . .
Sand(0.006 to 0.2 cm)
Silt(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)
Clay(less than 0.0004 cm)
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Fine to coarse
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Fineto
coarsecrystals
Microscopic tovery coarse
Precipitates of biologicorigin or cemented shellfragments
Compactedplant remains
. . . . .. . . .
Bioclastic
Crystalline orbioclastic
FO
LIAT
ED
Fine
Fineto
medium
Mediumto
coarse
Regional
Low-grademetamorphism of shale
Platy mica crystals visiblefrom metamorphism of clayor feldspars
High-grade metamorphism;mineral types segregatedinto bands
Slate
Schist
Gneiss
COMPOSITIONTEXTUREGRAINSIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME
TYPE OFMETAMORPHISM
(Heat andpressureincreases)
MIN
ER
AL
ALI
GN
ME
NT
BA
ND
-IN
GMAP SYMBOL
Foliation surfaces shinyfrom microscopic micacrystals
Phyllite
GA
RN
ET
PY
RO
XE
NE
FELD
SPA
RA
MP
HIB
OLE
MIC
AQ
UA
RTZ
Hornfels
NO
NF
OLI
ATE
D
Metamorphism ofquartz sandstone
Metamorphism oflimestone or dolostone
Pebbles may be distortedor stretched
Metaconglomerate
Quartzite
Marble
Coarse
Fineto
coarse
Quartz
Calcite and/ordolomite
Variousminerals
Contact(heat)
Various rocks changed byheat from nearbymagma/lava
VariousmineralsFine
Anthracite coalRegional Metamorphism ofbituminous coalCarbonFine
Regional
or
contact
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
by Charles Burrows
PLEISTOCENEPLIOCENE
MIOCENE
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE
PALEOCENE
LATE
EARLY
LATEMIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLEEARLYLATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
EARLY
LATE
GEOLOGIC HISTORY
ElliptocephalaCryptolithus
Phacops Hexameroceras ManticocerasEucalyptocrinus
CtenocrinusTetragraptus
Dicellograptus EurypterusStylonurus
B LA EC D G HF I J NK M
CentrocerasValcouroceras Coelophysis
(Index fossils not drawn to scale)
EraEonP
HA
NE
RO
-Z
OIC
PR
EC
AM
BR
IA
NA
RC
HE
AN
PR
OT
ER
OZ
OI
C
LATE
LATE
MIDDLE
MIDDLE
EARLY
EARLY
0
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
4600
Million years ago
CENOZOIC
MESOZOIC
PALEOZOIC
QUATERNARY
NEOGENE
PALEOGENE
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
CA
RB
ON
IF-
ER
OU
S
DEVONIAN
Period Epoch Life on Earth
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN
CAMBRIAN
580
488
444
416
318
299
200
146
1300
Million years ago
NY RockRecord
PENNSYLVANIAN
HOLOCENE
65 5
251
1 85 3
0 010
23 033 9
MISSISSIPPIAN
Humans, mastodonts, mammoths
55 8
Large carnivorous mammalsAbundant grazing mammalsEarliest grasses
Many modern groups of mammalsMass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants
Earliest flowering plantsDiverse bony fishes
Earliest birds
Earliest mammals
Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites)
Mammal like reptiles
Abundant reptiles
Extensive coal forming forests
Abundant amphibiansLarge and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles
359Earliest amphibians and plant seedsExtinction of many marine organisms
Earth’s first forestsEarliest ammonoids and sharksAbundant fish
Earliest insectsEarliest land plants and animals
Abundant eurypterids
Invertebrates dominantEarth’s first coral reefs
Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft bodied organisms)Earliest fishes
Earliest trilobites542
Abundant stromatolites
Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft bodied marine organisms)
Extinction of many primitive marine organisms
First sexually reproducingorganisms
Oldest known rocks
Estimated time of originof Earth and solar system
Sediment
Bedrock
Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
Earliest dinosaurs
Great diversity of life forms with shelly parts
Evidence of biologicalcarbon
Earliest stromatolitesOldest microfossils
Oceanic oxygenproduced bycyanobacteriacombines withiron, formingiron oxide layerson ocean floor
Oceanic oxygen begins to enterthe atmosphere
Grenville orogeny: metamorphism ofbedrock now exposed in the Adirondacksand Hudson Highlands
Advance and retreat of last continental ice
Sands and clays underlying Long Island andStaten Island deposited on margin of AtlanticOcean
Dome like uplift of Adirondack region begins
Intrusion of Palisades sill
Initial opening of Atlantic OceanNorth America and Africa separate
Pangaea begins to break up
Catskill delta formsErosion of Acadian Mountains
Acadian orogeny caused by collision ofNorth America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston deltaforms
Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc
Widespread deposition over most of New Yorkalong edge of Iapetus Ocean
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean
Erosion of Grenville Mountains
OF NEW YORK STATE
MastodontBeluga Whale
CooksoniaBothriolepis
Maclurites EospiriferMucrospiriferAneurophyton
CondorNaples Tree CystiphyllumLichenaria Pleurodictyum
PO RQ S T U V W X Y Z
Platyceras
Time Distribution of Fossils(including important fossils of New York) Important Geologic
Events in New YorkInferred Positions ofEarth’s Landmasses
ESC/BW/TN (2009)
BR
AC
HIO
PO
DS
GA
ST
RO
PO
DSCO
RA
LS
CR
INO
IDS
AM
MO
NO
IDS
VA
SC
UL
AR
PL
AN
TS
TR
ILO
BIT
ES
NA
UT
ILO
IDS
The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specif c index fossil (e g Fossil lived at the end of the Early Cambrian)
BIR
DS
B
M
A
E
C
D
G
H
F
I
J
L
K
N
P
Q
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
PL
AC
OD
ER
M F
ISH
R
A
Alleghenian orogeny caused bycollision of North America andAfrica along transform margin,forming Pangaea
119 million years ago
DIN
OS
AU
RS
MA
MM
AL
S
GR
AP
TO
LIT
ES E
UR
YP
TE
RID
S
359 million years ago
458 million years ago
232 million years ago
59 million years ago
O S
by Charles Burrows
8 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
PLEISTOCENEPLIOCENEMIOCENE
OLIGOCENEEOCENE
PALEOCENE
LATE
EARLY
LATEMIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLEEARLYLATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
EARLYLATE
GEOLOGIC HISTORY
ElliptocephalaCryptolithus
Phacops Hexameroceras ManticocerasEucalyptocrinus
CtenocrinusTetragraptus
Dicellograptus EurypterusStylonurus
B LA EC D G HF I J NK M
CentrocerasValcouroceras Coelophysis
(Index fossils not drawn to scale)
EraEonP
HA
NE
RO
-ZO
ICP
RE
CA
MB
RI
AN
AR
CH
EA
NP
RO
TE
RO
ZO
IC
LATE
LATE
MIDDLE
MIDDLE
EARLY
EARLY
0
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
4600
Million years ago
CENOZOIC
MESOZOIC
PALEOZOIC
QUATERNARY
NEOGENE
PALEOGENE
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
CA
RB
ON
IF-
ER
OU
S
DEVONIAN
Period Epoch Life on Earth
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN
CAMBRIAN
580
488
444
416
318
299
200
146
1300
Million years ago
NY RockRecord
PENNSYLVANIAN
HOLOCENE
65.5
251
1.85.3
0.010
23.033.9
MISSISSIPPIAN
Humans, mastodonts, mammoths
55.8
Large carnivorous mammalsAbundant grazing mammalsEarliest grasses
Many modern groups of mammalsMass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants
Earliest flowering plantsDiverse bony fishes
Earliest birds
Earliest mammals
Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites)
Mammal-like reptiles
Abundant reptiles
Extensive coal-forming forests
Abundant amphibiansLarge and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles
359Earliest amphibians and plant seedsExtinction of many marine organisms
Earth’s first forestsEarliest ammonoids and sharksAbundant fish
Earliest insectsEarliest land plants and animals
Abundant eurypterids
Invertebrates dominantEarth’s first coral reefs
Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms)Earliest fishes
Earliest trilobites542
Abundant stromatolites
Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms)
Extinction of many primitive marine organisms
First sexually reproducingorganisms
Oldest known rocks
Estimated time of originof Earth and solar system
Sediment
Bedrock
Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
Earliest dinosaurs
Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts
Evidence of biologicalcarbon
Earliest stromatolitesOldest microfossils
Oceanic oxygenproduced bycyanobacteriacombines withiron, formingiron oxide layerson ocean floor
Oceanic oxygen begins to enterthe atmosphere
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 9
Grenville orogeny: metamorphism ofbedrock now exposed in the Adirondacksand Hudson Highlands
Advance and retreat of last continental ice
Sands and clays underlying Long Island andStaten Island deposited on margin of AtlanticOcean
Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins
Intrusion of Palisades sill
Initial opening of Atlantic OceanNorth America and Africa separate
Pangaea begins to break up
Catskill delta formsErosion of Acadian Mountains
Acadian orogeny caused by collision ofNorth America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston deltaforms
Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc
Widespread deposition over most of New Yorkalong edge of Iapetus Ocean
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean
Erosion of Grenville Mountains
OF NEW YORK STATE
MastodontBeluga Whale
CooksoniaBothriolepis
Maclurites EospiriferMucrospiriferAneurophyton
CondorNaples Tree CystiphyllumLichenaria Pleurodictyum
PO RQ S T U V W X Y Z
Platyceras
Time Distribution of Fossils(including important fossils of New York) Important Geologic
Events in New YorkInferred Positions ofEarth’s Landmasses
ESC/BW/TN (2009)
BR
AC
HIO
PO
DS
GA
STR
OP
OD
SCO
RA
LS
CR
INO
IDS
AM
MO
NO
IDS
VA
SCU
LA
R P
LA
NT
S
TR
ILO
BIT
ES
NA
UT
ILO
IDS
The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).
BIR
DS
B
M
A
E
C
D
G
H
F
I
J
L
K
N
P
Q
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
PL
AC
OD
ER
M F
ISH
R
A
Alleghenian orogeny caused bycollision of North America andAfrica along transform margin,forming Pangaea
119 million years ago
DIN
OSA
UR
S
MA
MM
AL
S
GR
AP
TO
LIT
ES E
UR
YP
TE
RID
S
359 million years ago
458 million years ago
232 million years ago
59 million years ago
O S
by Charles Burrows
10 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
12.8–13.1
9.9–12.2
3.4–5.6
3.0 basaltic oceanic crust2.7 granitic continental crust
DENSITY (g/cm3)
0 2000 4000 6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
DEPTH (km)
TEM
PE
RA
TUR
E (°C
)
1000 3000 5000
6000
ATLANTIC OCEANN
ORT
HAM
ERIC
A
MOHO
INN
ER
CORE(IR
ON
&
NICKEL)
AST
HEN
OSP
HERE(P
LASTICMANTLE)
EARTH’S CENTER
STI
FFER
MANTLE
MELTIN
G POIN
T
ME
LTIN
G P
OIN
T
OC
EA
NPA
CIF
IC
LITHOSPHERE
}R
IGID
MAN
TLE
CR
UST
7000
MID-ATLANTIC
RIDGE
OU
TER
CORE(IR
ON
&
NICKEL)
4
3
2
1
0
PR
ES
SU
RE
(mill
ion
atm
osph
eres
)
PARTIAL MELTING
INTERIO
R TEMPERATURE
CASCADES
TRENCH
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
by Charles Burrows
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8EPICENTER DISTANCE (! 103 km)
P
9 10
S
TRA
VE
L TI
ME
(m
in)
00
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 11
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
by Charles Burrows
1– 33– 28– 24– 21–18–14–12–10– 7– 5– 3–11468
10121416192123252729
2
– 36– 28– 22–18–14–12– 8– 6– 3–11368
111315171921232527
0– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
3
– 29– 22–17–13– 9– 6– 4–11469
1113151720222426
4
– 29– 20–15–11– 7– 4– 2
1469
11141618202224
5
– 24–17–11– 7– 5– 2
1479
121416182123
6
–19–13– 9– 5– 2
147
101214171921
7
– 21–14– 9– 5– 2
147
1012151719
8
–14– 9– 5–1248
10131618
9
– 28–16–10– 6– 2
258
111416
10
–17–10– 5–2369
1114
11
–17–10– 5–1269
12
12
–19–10– 5–137
10
13
–19–10– 5
048
14
–19–10– 4
15
15
–18– 9– 3
1
12840485561667173777981838586878888899091919292929393
2
1123334148545863677072747678798081828384858686
0100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100
– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
3
1320323745515659626567697172747576777879
4
112028364246515457606264666869707172
5
111202735394348505456586062646566
6
61422283338414548515355575961
7
10172428333740444649515355
8
61319252933364042454749
9
410162126303336394244
10
28
1419232730343639
11
17
12172125283134
12
16
111520232629
13
51014182125
14
49
131720
15
49
1216
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)Dry-BulbTempera -ture (°C)
Dry-BulbTempera -ture (°C)
Dewpoint (°C)
Relative Humidity (%)
12 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
by Charles Burrows
1– 33– 28– 24– 21–18–14–12–10– 7– 5– 3–11468
10121416192123252729
2
– 36– 28– 22–18–14–12– 8– 6– 3–11368
111315171921232527
0– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
3
– 29– 22–17–13– 9– 6– 4–11469
1113151720222426
4
– 29– 20–15–11– 7– 4– 2
1469
11141618202224
5
– 24–17–11– 7– 5– 2
1479
121416182123
6
–19–13– 9– 5– 2
147
101214171921
7
– 21–14– 9– 5– 2
147
1012151719
8
–14– 9– 5–1248
10131618
9
– 28–16–10– 6– 2
258
111416
10
–17–10– 5–2369
1114
11
–17–10– 5–1269
12
12
–19–10– 5–137
10
13
–19–10– 5
048
14
–19–10– 4
15
15
–18– 9– 3
1
12840485561667173777981838586878888899091919292929393
2
1123334148545863677072747678798081828384858686
0100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100
– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
3
1320323745515659626567697172747576777879
4
112028364246515457606264666869707172
5
111202735394348505456586062646566
6
61422283338414548515355575961
7
10172428333740444649515355
8
61319252933364042454749
9
410162126303336394244
10
28
1419232730343639
11
17
12172125283134
12
16
111520232629
13
51014182125
14
49
131720
15
49
1216
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)Dry-BulbTempera -ture (°C)
Dry-BulbTempera -ture (°C)
Dewpoint (°C)
Relative Humidity (%)
12 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 13
Key to Weather Map Symbols
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10
–20
–30
–40
–50
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
–20
–40
–60
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
Fahrenheit(°F)
Water boils
Room temperature
Water freezes
Temperature
Freezingrain
Haze
Rain
FogSnow
Hail Rainshowers
Thunder-storms
Drizzle
Sleet
Smog
Snowshowers
Air Masses
cA
cP
cT
mT
mP
continental arctic
continental polar
continental tropical
maritime tropical
maritime polar
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Occluded
Present Weather Fronts Hurricane
Tornado
30.70
30.60
30.50
30.40
30.30
30.20
30.10
30.00
29.90
29.80
29.70
29.60
29.50
29.40
29.30
29.20
29.10
29.00
28.90
28.80
28.70
28.60
28.50
1040.0
1036.0
1032.0
1028.0
1024.0
1020.0
1016.0
1012.0
1008.0
1004.0
1000.0
996.0
992.0
988.0
984.0
980.0
976.0
972.0
968.0
One atmosphere
Pressureinches
(in of Hg*)Kelvin
(K)Celsius
(°C)millibars
(mb)
196+19/
.25
28
27
12
Station Model Station Model Explanation
*Hg = mercury
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 13
Key to Weather Map Symbols
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10
–20
–30
–40
–50
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
–20
–40
–60
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
Fahrenheit(°F)
Water boils
Room temperature
Water freezes
Temperature
Freezingrain
Haze
Rain
FogSnow
Hail Rainshowers
Thunder-storms
Drizzle
Sleet
Smog
Snowshowers
Air Masses
cA
cP
cT
mT
mP
continental arctic
continental polar
continental tropical
maritime tropical
maritime polar
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Occluded
Present Weather Fronts Hurricane
Tornado
30.70
30.60
30.50
30.40
30.30
30.20
30.10
30.00
29.90
29.80
29.70
29.60
29.50
29.40
29.30
29.20
29.10
29.00
28.90
28.80
28.70
28.60
28.50
1040.0
1036.0
1032.0
1028.0
1024.0
1020.0
1016.0
1012.0
1008.0
1004.0
1000.0
996.0
992.0
988.0
984.0
980.0
976.0
972.0
968.0
One atmosphere
Pressureinches
(in of Hg*)Kelvin
(K)Celsius
(°C)millibars
(mb)
196+19/
.25
28
27
12
Station Model Station Model Explanation
*Hg = mercury
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 13
Key to Weather Map Symbols
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10
–20
–30
–40
–50
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
–20
–40
–60
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
Fahrenheit(°F)
Water boils
Room temperature
Water freezes
Temperature
Freezingrain
Haze
Rain
FogSnow
Hail Rainshowers
Thunder-storms
Drizzle
Sleet
Smog
Snowshowers
Air Masses
cA
cP
cT
mT
mP
continental arctic
continental polar
continental tropical
maritime tropical
maritime polar
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Occluded
Present Weather Fronts Hurricane
Tornado
30.70
30.60
30.50
30.40
30.30
30.20
30.10
30.00
29.90
29.80
29.70
29.60
29.50
29.40
29.30
29.20
29.10
29.00
28.90
28.80
28.70
28.60
28.50
1040.0
1036.0
1032.0
1028.0
1024.0
1020.0
1016.0
1012.0
1008.0
1004.0
1000.0
996.0
992.0
988.0
984.0
980.0
976.0
972.0
968.0
One atmosphere
Pressureinches
(in of Hg*)Kelvin
(K)Celsius
(°C)millibars
(mb)
196+19/
.25
28
27
12
Station Model Station Model Explanation
*Hg = mercury
by Charles Burrows
Gamma rays
X rays
Ultraviolet Infrared
Microwaves
Radio waves
Visible light
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength
(Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
DRY
60° SWET
DRYS.E.
N.W.Winds
30° S
0°
60° N
30° N
WET
DRY
S.E.Winds
N.E.Winds
N.E.
S.W.Winds
DRY
Tropopause
Polar front
Polar front jet stream
Subtropicaljet streams
Polar front jet stream
WET
Sea Level
Alti
tude
Temperature Zones
Mesopause
Mesosphere
Stratopause
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Temperature(°C)
–100° 0° 100°–90° –55° 15°
Pressure(atm)
Atmospheric Pressure
0 20 40
Concentration(g/m3)
WaterVapor
km mi
Thermosphere(extends to 600 km)
0 1.0
40 25
80 50
120 75
140 100
0 0
Tropopause
14 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
Planetary Wind and MoistureBelts in the Troposphere
The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of anequinox. The locations shift somewhatwith the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,the belts shift northward in the summerand southward in the winter.
(Not drawn to scale)
Selected Properties of
Earth’sAtmosphere
by Charles Burrows
Gamma rays
X rays
Ultraviolet Infrared
Microwaves
Radio waves
Visible light
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength
(Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
DRY
60° SWET
DRYS.E.
N.W.Winds
30° S
0°
60° N
30° N
WET
DRY
S.E.Winds
N.E.Winds
N.E.
S.W.Winds
DRY
Tropopause
Polar front
Polar front jet stream
Subtropicaljet streams
Polar front jet stream
WET
Sea Level
Alti
tude
Temperature Zones
Mesopause
Mesosphere
Stratopause
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Temperature(°C)
–100° 0° 100°–90° –55° 15°
Pressure(atm)
Atmospheric Pressure
0 20 40
Concentration(g/m3)
WaterVapor
km mi
Thermosphere(extends to 600 km)
0 1.0
40 25
80 50
120 75
140 100
0 0
Tropopause
14 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
Planetary Wind and MoistureBelts in the Troposphere
The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of anequinox. The locations shift somewhatwith the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,the belts shift northward in the summerand southward in the winter.
(Not drawn to scale)
Selected Properties of
Earth’sAtmosphere
by Charles Burrows
Gamma rays
X rays
Ultraviolet Infrared
Microwaves
Radio waves
Visible light
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength
(Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
DRY
60° SWET
DRYS.E.
N.W.Winds
30° S
0°
60° N
30° N
WET
DRY
S.E.Winds
N.E.Winds
N.E.
S.W.Winds
DRY
Tropopause
Polar front
Polar front jet stream
Subtropicaljet streams
Polar front jet stream
WET
Sea Level
Alti
tude
Temperature Zones
Mesopause
Mesosphere
Stratopause
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Temperature(°C)
–100° 0° 100°–90° –55° 15°
Pressure(atm)
Atmospheric Pressure
0 20 40
Concentration(g/m3)
WaterVapor
km mi
Thermosphere(extends to 600 km)
0 1.0
40 25
80 50
120 75
140 100
0 0
Tropopause
14 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
Planetary Wind and MoistureBelts in the Troposphere
The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of anequinox. The locations shift somewhatwith the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,the belts shift northward in the summerand southward in the winter.
(Not drawn to scale)
Selected Properties of
Earth’sAtmosphere
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 15
Solar System DataCelestialObject
Mean Distance from Sun
(million km)
Period ofRevolution
(d=days) (y=years)
Period ofRotation at Equator
Eccentricityof Orbit
EquatorialDiameter
(km)
Mass(Earth = 1)
Density(g/cm3)
SUN — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4
MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4
VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2
EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5
MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9
JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3
SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7
URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3
NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8
EARTH’SMOON
149.6(0.386 from Earth)
27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3
Characteristics of Stars(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)
(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)
Color
Surface Temperature (K)
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
Lum
inos
ity(R
ate
at w
hich
a s
tar
emits
ene
rgy
rela
tive
to th
e S
un)
20,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 3,000
Blue Blue White White Yellow
2,000
RedOrange
Sirius
Spica
Polaris
Rigel
Deneb Betelgeuse
SUPERGIANTS(Intermediate stage)
(Intermediate stage)GIANTS
Barnard’sStar
ProximaCentauri
Pollux
Alpha Centauri
Aldebaran
Sun
Procyon B SmallStars
MassiveStars
WHITE DWARFS(Late stage)
MAIN SEQUENCE
(Early stage)
40 Eridani B
30,000
by Charles Burrows
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition 15
Solar System DataCelestialObject
Mean Distance from Sun
(million km)
Period ofRevolution
(d=days) (y=years)
Period ofRotation at Equator
Eccentricityof Orbit
EquatorialDiameter
(km)
Mass(Earth = 1)
Density(g/cm3)
SUN — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4
MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4
VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2
EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5
MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9
JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3
SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7
URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3
NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8
EARTH’SMOON
149.6(0.386 from Earth)
27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3
Characteristics of Stars(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)
(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)
Color
Surface Temperature (K)
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
Lum
inos
ity(R
ate
at w
hich
a s
tar
emits
ene
rgy
rela
tive
to th
e S
un)
20,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 3,000
Blue Blue White White Yellow
2,000
RedOrange
Sirius
Spica
Polaris
Rigel
Deneb Betelgeuse
SUPERGIANTS(Intermediate stage)
(Intermediate stage)GIANTS
Barnard’sStar
ProximaCentauri
Pollux
Alpha Centauri
Aldebaran
Sun
Procyon B SmallStars
MassiveStars
WHITE DWARFS(Late stage)
MAIN SEQUENCE
(Early stage)
40 Eridani B
30,000
by Charles Burrows
1–2!
silver togray
black streak,greasy feel
pencil lead,lubricants C Graphite
2.5 !metallicsilver
gray-black streak, cubic cleavage,density = 7.6 g/cm3
ore of lead,batteries PbS Galena
5.5–6.5 !black to
silverblack streak,
magneticore of iron,
steel Fe3O4 Magnetite
6.5 !brassyyellow
green-black streak,(fool’s gold)
ore ofsulfur FeS2 Pyrite
5.5 – 6.5or 1 !
metallic silver orearthy red red-brown streak ore of iron,
jewelry Fe2O3 Hematite
1 !white togreen greasy feel ceramics,
paper Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Talc
2 !yellow toamber white-yellow streak sulfuric acid S Sulfur
2 !white to
pink or grayeasily scratched
by fingernailplaster of paris,
drywall CaSO4•2H2O Selenite gypsum
2–2.5 !colorless to
yellowflexible in
thin sheets paint, roofing KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 Muscovite mica
2.5 !colorless to
whitecubic cleavage,
salty tastefood additive,
melts ice NaCl Halite
2.5–3 !black to
dark brownflexible in
thin sheetsconstruction
materialsK(Mg,Fe)3
AlSi3O10(OH)2Biotite mica
3 !colorless
or variablebubbles with acid,
rhombohedral cleavagecement,
lime CaCO3 Calcite
3.5 !colorless
or variablebubbles with acidwhen powdered
buildingstones CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite
4 !colorless or
variablecleaves in
4 directionshydrofluoric
acid CaF2 Fluorite
5–6 !black to
dark greencleaves in
2 directions at 90°mineral collections,
jewelry(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)
(Si,Al)2O6Pyroxene
(commonly augite)
5.5 !black to
dark greencleaves at
56° and 124°mineral collections,
jewelryCaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3
Si6O22(O,OH)2
Amphibole(commonly hornblende)
6 !white to
pinkcleaves in
2 directions at 90°ceramics,
glass KAlSi3O8Potassium feldspar
(commonly orthoclase)
6 !white to
graycleaves in 2 directions,
striations visibleceramics,
glass (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8 Plagioclase feldspar
6.5 !green to
gray or browncommonly light green
and granularfurnace bricks,
jewelry (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Olivine
7 !colorless or
variableglassy luster, may form
hexagonal crystalsglass, jewelry,
electronics SiO2 Quartz
6.5–7.5 !dark redto green
often seen as red glassy grainsin NYS metamorphic rocks
jewelry (NYS gem),abrasives Fe3Al2Si3O12 Garnet
16 Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2010 Edition
HARD- COMMON DISTINGUISHINGLUSTER NESS COLORS CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) COMPOSITION* MINERAL NAME
Nonm
etal
lic lu
ster
*Chemical symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = siliconCa = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium
! = dominant form of breakage
Met
allic
lust
erEi
ther
FRAC
TURE
CLEA
VAG
E
Properties of Common Minerals