Reexamination of Scarp Development along the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada

David W. Hintz (B.A., Wilfrid Laurier University, 1995)

THESIS Submitted to the Department of Geography

and Environmental Studies in partial fulfdment of the requuements for the Master of

Environmental Studies degree Wilfrid Laurier University

1997

ODavid W. Hintz 1997

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The Niagara Escarpment is generally viewed as a relict landfonn which shows ancient structural feaîures and the effects of glaciation. Since it was realized that the Escarpment was not a huit, but instead a feature of erosional origin, little interest has been paid to development of the steep cWed section of the Niagara Escarpment.

This research project has several objectives. The fkst is an examination of the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological units. This will include anaiysis of the structure and lithology of each and the geochemistry, especiaiiy, of the Queenston Formation.

Associated with the examination of the morphology and the IithoIogy is a detailed analysis of dope components that are invoIved in, or influence mass movements on, the Nagara Escarpment. This analysis centers around the progressively deepening fractures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data- gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an exarnination of the bedding.

A Wild 'Total Station' was used to preciseiy map the cliffed zone of the escarpment, since available maps are insui3cient for any detailed d y s i s . In addition to the 'Total Station', the simpler method of tape and cornpass traverses was used to add detail to regions of hnited accessibility.

The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid basis for constructing a repeatable, measurable data array that has been used to record large scaie mass movements.

The research questions the validity of using the so-called 'homoclinal shiftuig' model to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It was shown that undercutting by strearn and spring sapping are absent from or rernote at the study sites.

Finaily, this work lends support to a new scarp model for the Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995).

Acknowledgments

1 would like to begin by thanking Dr. Ken Hewitt for his guidance and insights in this research. 1 would also like to thank him for a bief interruption in this work for a trip to the Karakoram, Pakistan. Thank-you to cornmittee member Dr. Houston Saunderson, and readers Dr. Mary-Louise Byme and Dr. Gordon Young for theu assistance and suggestions.

Technical support for both field and Iaboratory work was generously provided by Alex MacLean. Field assistance fiom Cam Chadwick, Andrew Gould, Mark Carpenter and Kirsty Dickson was greatly appreciatd.

Sanity was maintained with help fiom Kirsty Dickson, Shawn Good (Quebec), Steve Ferguson (Fishing) and Mark Carpenter (Ice Climbing).

Findy, 1 would like to thank my parents for their interest and support. Without their encouragement 1 would not have gotten this f a . Thanks.

Table of Contents

Absitract ......................................................................................... i .. Acknowledgrnents .................................. .... ............................................ u ... Table of Contents ................................................................................. UI

................................................... List of Figures .. ...................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................ vii

Chapter 1 .

Chapter 2 .

Chapter 3 .

Chapter 4 .

IN'IRODUCTION ........................................ 1.1 Staternent of the Problem 1

1.2 Objectives of the Study ..................... .... .............. 1 ................... 1.3 Location of Study Area .. ................... 3

1.4 Research on Mass Movements ................................ 5

INTRODUCTION TO THE NIAGARA ESCARPMENT 2.1 Introduction .......................................................... 8

...................... ....... 2.2 The Niagara Escarpment ..... 8 2.3 Bedrock ûeology ......................~........~.~.....~............ 13 2.4 Previous Work on the Niagara Escarpment ............. 19

RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Introduction ......................................................... 24

..................................................... 3.2 Field Techniques 25 3.2.1 Total Station Surveying ......................... .... 25

................... .................. 3 .2.2 Fracture Map ... 32 3 .2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks ........................... 33

........................................ 3 .2.4 Bedding Planes 33 3 .2.5 Fracture Survey ..................... .... ........... 3 4 3.2.6 Aerial Photos ..................................... 35

............................................ 3.3 Laboratory Techniques 35 3.3.1 Thin Sections ...................................... . . 37

.... .............................. 3.3.2 X-ray DifEaction .. 37

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Introduction ......................................................... 3 9

............................. 4.2 Observed Features at Study Sites 39 4.3 BaseMaps ............................................................... 4 9 4.4 Data and Test Arrays ...................... ...... ........... 54 4.5 Fracture Map .................................................... 63

........................................ 4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks 63 ................ 4.7 Bedding Planes .................................... .... 69

..................................................... 4.8 Fracture Survey 77 4.9 Thin Sections ......................................................... 82 . ................*............................................ 4 IO Mineraiogy 84

4.11 Behaviour .............................................................. 88

Chapter 5 . SuMh.IARY AND DISCUSSION ................................................ 5.1 Sumrnaiy of Results 90

...................................... 5.2 Scarp Development Mode1 92 5 -3 Limitations of the Study .......................................... 95 5.4 Further Research .................................................... 95

.................................................. 5.5 Future in Question? 96

Appendix A Appendix B .

Appendix C .

Appendix E .

Appendix F .

.......... Data Set &om the Total Station Base Map Survey Data Set f?om the Data Arrays ........................................

Data Set for the Test Array .............................................

B edding Plane Study Sketches

Data Set from the Fracture Survey ..................................

X-ray Difkaction Results f?om Brockhouse Institute for Materiais Research ...................................................

References ...........................................................................................

List of Fimrres

Fig . 1.1 Fig . 2.1 Fig . 2.2 Fig . 2.3 Fig . 3.1

Fig . 3.2

Fig . 3.3

Fig . 3.4

Fig- 3.5 Fig . 4.1 Fig . 4.2

Fig . 4.3 Fig . 4.4 Fig . 4.5

Fig . 4.6 Fig . 4.7

Fig . 4.8

Fig . 4.9

Fig . 4.10

Fig . 4.1 1 Fig . 4.12 Fig . 4.13 Fig . 4.14 Fig . 4.15

Fig . 4.16

Fig . 4.17 Fig . 4.18 Fig . 4.19

Location of study sites ............................. .. .............................. Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southern Ontario ........... Model of 'homoclinal shifting' ................................................... SIope profde showing the geologic ~n i t s found at the study sites .. Contour map of the House site showing the distribution of survey points ............................................................................... Contour map of the Quarry site showhg the distribution of survey points .................... ....... ........................................... Contour map of the Badtop site showing the distribution of s w e y points .................... ... ................................................. Contour map of the Badlands site showing the distribution of survey points .................... ....... ............................................. Diagram showing shape of data and test arrays ........................... Slope prome showing the dope components ............................... Example of the "near-scarp7 zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site ........................... ........ ................... Surface flow of rain water during a summer thunder storm .......... Wmter view ofthe 'crevice caves' at the House site .................... 'Secondary scarp7 cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at the Badtop site ........................................................... 'Perched footslope7 at Badtop/Badiands site ................................ Generai view of the Badlands looking up slope ........................ ....

Contour rnap of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the House site ........................................................... Contour map of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the Quarry site ......................................................... Contour rnap of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the Badtop site ....................................................... Contour map of the surface topography of the Badlands site ....... Direction of movement, House site ............................................ Direction of movement, Quarry site ......................................... Direction of movement, Badtop site .......................................... Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detached blocks at the House site ...................................... Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detached blocks at the Badtop site .................................... Cross section of detached biocks at the House site ................... ... Cross section of detached bIocks at the Quany site ..................... Cross section of detached blocks at the Badtop site .....................

Fig . 4.20 Fig . 4.21 Fig . 4.22

Fig . 4.23 Fig . 4.24

Fig . 4.25 Fig . 4.26

Fig . 4.27

Fig . 4.28

Fig . 5.1

.................. Location Hî ffom the main fracture at the House site .......... Location H3 shows tilting and topphg of detached blocks

Location Q 1 showing typicaI bedding found in large ........................................................... fkactures at the Quarry site

........... Location 43 shows an overhanging fice at the Quarry site Location B2 illustrates secondary fractures cutting through the bedding ..................................................................................

......... Location B3 is an example of a detached bIock tilting back Rose diagram showing the fracture angles fond at the House site .................................................................................... Rose diagram showing the fracture angles found at the Quany site ....................... ..,. ................................................. Rose diagram showing the eacture angles found at the Badtop site ................................................................................. Mode1 of dope fdure of N~agara Escarpment ..............................

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Generaiized exposed stratigraphie sections of the Niagara .............................................................................. Escarpment 15

Table 3.1 Surnrnary of sarnples coiiected for thin section and X-ray diffkaction analysis .................................................................... 36

Table 4.1 DEerences in the test array .................... .. ............................ 55 Table 4.2 Results fiom the House site data array ................................. ..... . 56 Table 4.3 Results from the Quarry site data array ................................. 59 Table 4.4 Results Çom the Badtop site data array ...................................... 62 Table 4.5 Summary of minerals found in clay and shale smples

at the Badlands and Badtop sites ............................................. 85

Cha~ter 1 Introduction

1.1 Statement of the Problem - AU too often in the academic world we see what we are told to see and not

what is really there. We stop questioning things that we thuik we understand. We

must never stop questioning the so called truths and always be ready to accept new

interpretations of the world around us. This is attested to by Our acceptance of the

development of the Escarpment.

The Escarpment is generdy viewed as a relia feature that shows

ancient structural features and the effect of glaciation. Since it was realized that the

Escarpment was not a fault, but instead a feature of erosional ongin, little interest

has been paid to development of the steep cliffed section of N~agara Escarpment.

1.2 Objectives of the Studv - A search of the literature will show that the prevailing view is that scarp

development dong the Escarpment ended with the last glacial penod and

any activity during the Holocene capable of generating this landform is not

considered.

This research project has several objectives. The nrst is an examination of

the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological

units. This will include analysis of the structure and lithology of each and the

geochemistry, especially, that of the Queenston Formation.

Associated with the examination of the morphology and the iithology is a

detailed anaiysis of slope components that are Uivolved in, or influence mass

movements on the IVmgara Escarpment. This analysis will center around the

progressively deepening fi-actures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data

gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an examination of

the beddig.

Much of the field work was completed using the highiy accurate 'Total

Station'. It was used to precisely map the cWed zone of the escarpment, suice

available maps are insufficient for any detailed analysis. In addition to the 'Total

Station', the simpler method of tape and compass traverses was used to add detail

to regions of limited accessibility.

The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid

basis for constructing a repeiitable measurable data array that can be used to record

large scaie mass movements. This was done for aii three sites and will idente any

jostiing of the detached blocks.

The research wili question the validity of using the 'homoclinai shifhg'

model, explained later, to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It

wiU be shown that undercutting by Stream and spring sapping are absent at the

study sites. The work lends support to a new scarp model for the Niagara

Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995).

While this study is not broad enough to conclusively deterrnine the

processes of scarp development, it is hoped that it will prompt others to begin a

new effort to reinterpret scarp development dong the Nagara Escarpment.

1.3 Location of Studv Area - Research was canied out during the sumrners of 1995, 1996 and 1997 at

three contrasting, but nearby, sites in the Pretty River-Blue Mountain area. The

sites were chosen partly due to ease of access, but also for the extensive cap rock

Eracturing and block glide development. It is believed that the three sites are key to

understanding development dong the Niagara Escarpment. They are east facing

slopes but aii have slightly different orientations. They ail have a complete dope

profile, not compiicated by drowning as dong Georgian Bay, or partiaiiy buried

sections and outliers to the south. It seems reasonable that, if a dope mode1 works

here, then it should work aithough possibly at different rates, elsewhere on the

Escarpment.

The fïrst site is located just south of Singhampton Caves near Nottawasaga

Lookout Nature Preserve. It can be found on NTS reference sheet 4 1 A/8. This

site is called the "House Site" due to its close proximity to several seasonal homes

(Figure 1.1).

The second site is found dong the Gilbraitar Sideroad where it passes over

Oder Bluff. It included a gullied area of Queenston shale that is known as the

'Sadlands". The site bas been narned the '%adtop" because of its location above

the Badands. It too c m be found on NTS reference sheet 4 1 N8 (Figure 1.1).

The third and hi site is aIso on Oder B l e but is located close to Petun

Conservation Area in the headwaters of BIack Ash Creek. Found on NTS

reference sheet 41 A&, it is caiied the "Quamy Site" because an area of the

escarpment to the west has been quarried some t h e in the past (Figure 1.1).

1.4 Research on Mass Movements - Work has been done in other locations around the world, where rigid,

massive rock including carbonates overlies softer mata, often shaies and other clay

rich rocks. Studies of direct relevance to this work have been conducted in

Europe, the United States and New Zealand.

Zaruba and Mencl (1 969) examined dope movements caused by the

squeezing out of softer rock. BIock sIides occur in areas where soft clay beds

underlie jointed solid rocks. The blocks sIowly sink, squeezing out soR substratum

and move downslope. This process occurs as plastic deformation of rock dong a

s\ srem of partial slide surfaces. The differential shiRs do not connect to form a

uniform slide surface, and this gives the movement the character of plastic

deformation. The resulting movernent is slow and oRen classed as creep. This

form of movement is only perceivable over very long periods of tirne. As a rule the

lower part of the block moves outward, while the upper sufice inclines into the

Pretty River Valley

Singhqton Caves \

Fiaure 1.1 Location of Study Sites: '?3ouseY' Site near, Singhampton Cave "BBadldsn- "Badtop" Site, Osler BlufF, "Quarry" Site, Black Ash Creek. (Source: Bruce Trail Guide, Map 23)

surfàce. Zaruba and Mencl suggested that this is a widely ocçuning natural

process but is so slow that it often escapes attention.

Long-term gravitational deformation of rocks by mass rock creep has been

examuiecl by Chigira (1992). Field investigations were carrieci out at eleven

Iocalities that cover the areas of sedimentary, metamorphic, plutonic and volcanic

rock on the Island of Honshu in Japan (Chigira, 1992). It was found that

subsurface rocks are deformed gravitationally by mass rock creep to form

deformational structures simiIar to those caussd by tectonism. Arnong the various

fauits and fractures associated with m a s rock creep, shear f i a a r e s are the main

deformational structures formed in massive rock. Field studies suggest that the

shear zone grades downward into a non-fiactured or weakly fiactured rock.

Gravitational rock creep proceeds in different ways depending on different

Lithologies. In some locations creep is continuous, others incremental, whiie others

need a triggering agent such as an earthquake. Radbruch-Hall(1979) has looked at

the various circumstances in which gravitational creep of rock masses can occur.

Of particular importance for this work is the "valIey-ward squeezing out of weak

ductile rocks overlain by or interbedded with more rigid rocks, causing tensional

kacturing and outward movernent of more rigid rocks" @adbruch-Hall, 1979).

Aiso important is the "distortion and buckling of dipping interbedded strong and

weak rocks or by creeping of rigid rock over soft rocks without buckling"

(R.adbr~~h-Hall, 1979).

Landscapes are found in England where gently dipping strata are associated

with cliffs with bare faces and scree (Sweeting, 1970). The morphology of the

clifEs depend upon the lithology of limestone and the fiequency of jointing. Where

massively bedded Iimestone occurs, rectanguiar blocks 1 -2 m in length have

column-like appearance. Sweeting (1970) tooked at massively bedded areas and

found that movements are generaüy infiequent, but during the winter of 1947 many

blocks feii due to intense fiost action. Again in 1958 many failures occurred due to

6ost action. Sweeting (1970) believed that, whiIe still present, this process is

slower now than at the end of the last glaciai period.

The Niagara Escarpment is thought to have migrated to its present location

through the removaI of vast arnounts of material. Schmidt (1989) examined the

denudational efficiency of scarp retreat in the Colorado Plateau to determine if it is

suflïcient to explain the wide erosional gaps in the sedimentary cover. By

calculating the amount of retreat ffom the width of beheaded valleys of known age,

he determined that the rates of retreat are controiied by the thickness and resistance

of the cap rock.

By looking at, similar environments, around the world ideas can be drawn

that suggest that the Niagara Escarpment is not just a remnant feature in the

Ontario landscape but a continuously evolving landform.

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Niagara Escamment

2.1 Introduction - This chapter introduces the reader to the Niagara Escarpment. The

geomorphology and geology of this one of southern Ontario's moa striking

features will be outhed. In addition, Chapter 2 will summarize scientific research

on the dopes of the Magara Escarpment.

2.2 The Niagara Escamment - Tovell(1992) describes the Niagara Escarpment as a massive topographie

feature consisting of Ordovician and Silurian rocks that formed fiom sedirnents

deposited in a shallow warm sea between 445 and 420 million years ago. The

Escarpment is what is left of the eastem rim deposits of this ancient sea. This

landform results fiom erosion of various gently warped Palaeozoic formations

found in concentric belts with the strata dipping southwest towards the center of

the Michigan basin (Bolton, 1957). The fonnation can be traced in a giant

horseshoe fiom near Rochester, New York, (not exposed in this region), through

the Niagara Penninsula south of Lake Ontario to Hamilton, and north to Tobermory

on the Bruce Peninsula. It then disappears beneath the water of Lake Huron to

reappear on Manitoulin Island, across northem Michigan and down the West side of

Lake Michigan in to the State of Wisconsin (Tovelî, 1992) (Figure 2.1).

Nigara Escarpment

Lake Erie

Figure 2.1 Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southeni Ontario. (Source: adapteci fiom Toveii, 199 1, Introduction)

The Niagara Escarpment is associated with three main geologic features:

the Algonquin &ch, the AUegheny Basin and the Michigan Basin. Aii three

features involve sedimentary rocks and the ancient, underIying Precambrian rocks

(Toveil, 1992). The Algonquin Arch is a broad southwest-plunging anticline that

forrns the spine of southern Ontano (Tovell, 1992). The rocks on the southeast

flank of the Algonquin Arch slope into the Megheny Basin, while the rocks on the

northwest flank of the arch slope into the Michigan Basin (TovelI, 1992). Where

the Niagara Escarpment intersects the Algonquin Arcti, it reaches its highest

elevation at Blue Mountain, south of Collingwood (Tovell, 1992).

Spatialiy, the Escarpment morphology varies fkom steep faced landforms

with talus accumulation below, to a gentle ramped feature, and in areas a

completely buried landform. These ciifferences lead to a geomorphicaily complex

landform and one that is dif£icult to interpret.

One factor involved in the development of the distinctive morphology of the

Niagara Escarpment is variation in rock hardness. Since sorne rock formations of

the Escarpment are much more resistant to erosion than others, dserential

weathering takes place. As erosion has acted on the rock of the Escarpment,

irregular feaîures and a steep cliff have resulted. One such feature are Outliers

which can be found in many locations. The Milton Outlier c m be seen UnmediateIy

south of highway 40 1. There is still debate as to whether the Outliers were formed

s m d y by erosional forces or if tectonic activity has pIayed a part.

Retreat of the Escarpment has been attributed to the process of 'homociinal

shifting' (Toveii, 2992; Bird, 1972). The Escarpment is thought to have migrated

to its present location by undercutting and down dip migration by "subsequent",

strike oriented streams Figure 2.2). In this model, streams exploit different

erosional resistance's of strata, thereby undermining the base of the Escarpment.

As the underlying layers are removed, the Escarpment face moves down-dip and

c m increase in height (Figure 2.2). However, since there are no streams actuaiiy

undercutting the base of the Escarpment at any of the research sites, little

movement should be occming. If'homochal shifling were the process causing

the Escarprnent to retreat, it wodd be expected to occur especiaiiy at the study

areas since they are excellent exampIes of east facing scarp slopes, not complicated

by partial burial or drowning as dong Georgian Bay. If 'homoclind shilling' is not

the process acting on the Blue Mountain area, then it seems unlikely to explain CH

development on the Niagara Escarpment as a whole.

Much of the Niagara Escarpment, including the area evaluated by this study,

1s afTected by isostatic rebound. Studies suggest that the area is still rebounding to

the nonheast at a rate of 15 cd100 years (Tovell, 1992). The isolines tend to run

roughl y at right angles to the steep cWed face of the Escarprnent. While this

affects the landform, it is unclear how it could affect the features studied and is

probably too slow and would be masked by faster processes identified by this

research.

"ScarpIands and drainage patterns in dipping sedimentary rocks" as applied to the Niagara Escarpment. Subsequent streams are key to undercutting of the scarp and initiating scarp retreat (Source: adapted fiom Bird, 1972, p. 15 1)

Escarpment 'liue dip dope

Fimre 2.2 Formation of the Niagara Escarpment as suggested by ToveU. Over tirne the scarp erodes d o m dip and inmeases in height. (Source: adapted fiorn Toveii, 1992, p.83)

Another type of land form feature that occurs dong the Niagara Escarpment

is Karst. Karstic features occur in the dolomite caprock and include sink holes,

pitting and sub-surface caves. When water collects in holIows in rock, solution can

take place, particularly along bedding planes, joints and other lines of weakness.

Acceleration of this process cm occur because of decomposition of organic

material. Increases in the acidity of sudace and shallow ground water cm be

caused by decaying vegetative matter. This would have the effect of increasing the

rate of solution. It is possible that solution pIays a role in widening regional joints,

but, karst processes were not thought to significantly shape the features and like

isostatic rebound are too slow to impact ciiffdeveloprnent.

2.3 Bedrock Geolow - The characteristics of the various lithologic units that comprise the Magara

Escarpment are integral to its evolution. The dEerent erosional resistance's affect

the strength of the landform as a whole. The description of the various units

provides a perspective usefûl to geomorphology, but need not include lengthy

geologic interpretations found in other sources. Table 2.1 displays the spatial

variability of the Escarpment iithologies fiom the Niagara Peninsula, through the

study site near Blue Mountain and north along the Bruce Peninsula. Figure 2.3 is a

dope profile showing the geoiogical units found at the study sites and their location

relative to various features. The sequence moves upward through the Escarpment

lithologies of the study area

The Lindsav Formation generally outcrops beyond or at the base of the Niagara

Escarprnent and is not part of the Escarpment proper. It is gray, with thin to

medium-thin bedding, fïnely crystailine to sublithographic, very fossiliferous,

argtliaceous limestone (Telford, 1973). Shale partings are cornmon and up to 30

cm beds of medium to coarse crystailine coquinoid lirnestone and calcarenite are

present (Telford, 1973).

The Coiiingwood Member is found above the Lindsay Formation. Formaiiy

part of the Whiîby Formation, it is made up of thin, extremely organic nch

carbonate sediments (Toveii, 1992). The Coüingwood Member has been caiied a

shale but in fact is an impure limestone.

The Blue Mountain Formation consists of poorly exposed non-organic clay

shaies that represent an environmental shift fiom clear seas to more turbid sediment

laden waters (Tovell, 1992).

The Geornian Bav Formation consists of bIue-gray and green-gray, blocky

and fissile shales with numerous 10 cm to 30 cm beds of green-gray argdiaceous

limestone and siltstones (Telford, 1973). The unit is very fossiiXerous and is

believed to have a minimum thickness of about 120 meters near The Caves

southwest of Cohgwood (Telford, 1973). This formation is thought to represent

a rapid change in depositional environments of mud and silt in a shaiiow sea.

Evidence of waves and currents are found by the fiequent ripple marks (Tovel,

1992).

The Oueenston Formation is the youngest of the Ordovician rocks forming

part of the Niagara Escarpment. It consists of red shales with thin layers of

Table 2.1 Generalized Exposed Stratigraphic Sections of the Nqpra Escarpment, Outlines Formation, and Members for three locations dong the Escarpment. (Source: adapted from Toveil, 1991, p.43)

Guelph Fm 1 i Guelph Fm !

; LockportFm j Amabel Fm AmabelFm

i Niagara Blue Peninsula f Mountain -

!

1

Reynales Fm Fossil Hill Fm ; Fossii Hill Fm , --. i-. - - - . - ! - - - - - ---I

Bruce Peninsula

! I

GrimsbyFm , Grimsby Fm i GrimsùyFm ; - . . -- - -- - - - - -- -

Cabot Head Fm ; Cabot Head Fm j Cabot Head Fm f

- !

: Whirlpool Fm Manitoulin Fm and r Manitoulin Fm Whirlpool Fm i

i J

QueenstonFm ; Queenston Fm r Queenston Fm

t Georgian Bay Fm Georgian Bay Fm I

I

Blue Mountain Fm . f

1 Collingwood Mb i j

I

Lindsay Fm i I

siltstones. The red shaies are blocky, rnicaceous and arenaceous (Telford, 1973).

Green patches represent reduction zones that occur paralle1 to bedding planes

(TeKord, 1973). The shaie breaks down rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere

and results in a red, siippery clay (Toveli, 1992). This formation is thought to

result fiom an ancient coastal deltaic plah, with litt1e vegetation crossed by muddy

streams. The Queenston Formation is believed to have a decisive role in basal dope

development and overd scarp developrnent (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995).

The Whirl~ooi Formation outcrops in the lower subsidiary scarp of the

Escarpment. It is gray-brown, medium-bedded, fine to medium grained

laminated, quartz sandstone (Telford, 1973). It is an unfossiliferous, resistant unit

that creates rninor terraces and waterfâils in stream vdeys and profiles. Fluvially

sculpted forms in this unit have been documented by Tinkler and Stenson (1992).

Common are ripple marks, cross bedding and large scale wave marks. This

formation weathers to thin beds and a bluEcolour. The Whirlpool Formation thins

northward, its northernrnost exposure occurring in a srnali stream on the northern

side of Oder Bluff (Telford, 1973).

The Manitoulin Formation is the cap rock of the subsidiary scarp below the

main face of the Niagara Escarpment. The outcrop is very prominent at the study

sites dong Osler Bluff. It is t h to medium bedded, blocky hght brown to gray,

6ne to medium crystalline, argillaceous dolomitic hes tone (Bolton, 1957). The

formation is sparingiy fossiliferous and weathers to bluff colour in 5 cm to 15 cm

beds (Telford, 1973). Within the study area the Whirlpool Formation and the

Manitoulin Formation overlap. This can be seen in Figure 2.2.

The Cabot Head Formation is red, green and bluish-gray shde interbedded

with thin beds of limestone (Tovell, 1992). The material weathers relatively easily

and rarely outcrops.

The Grimsbv Formation is a red shale conglomerate with massive red

sandstone interbeds (Toveil, 1992). The soft sedient is susceptible to extensive

weathering and erosion. The sediment is of deltaic ongin and is believed to have

formed in nvers traversing a delta (Toveli, 1992).

The Fossil Hill Formation is unifonn, thin and unevedy bedded tan-brown

dolomite (ToveU, 2992). It is medium crystalline and very fossilized, but where no

fossils are present the dolomite is more dense and more finely crystaiiine (Tellord,

1973).

The Amabel Formation forms the cap rock of the main Escarpment and

evposures are extensive. It is massive bedded, light gray to bluish gray, fine to

medium crystalline porous dolostone (Tellord, 1973). Fossils are present but not

promnent because of intense dolomitization. Vertical faces Vary in height fiom 1

mcter to 22 meters. Bolton (1957) and Liberty and Bolton (1971) divided the

.-bel Formation into several members but the study area has a relatively uniform

consistency.

2.4 Previous Work on the Niaeara Escarprnent - Considering the prominence of the Niagara Escarpment within the southern

Ontario landscape, one rnight expect it to have received a great deal of attention. A

detailed review of the geology has been completed by Tovell(1992). Topics

sumrnarized in the guide include physiographic features, bedrock geology, origin,

glaciation and ancient Iakes. Included in ToveU's work are field trips that locate

areas of geographical interest and importance. ToveiIYs work is the only attempt to

summarize the various geological components into one unifjing presentation, and

therefore represents the state of knowledge on the Nagara Escarpment at the time

of publishing. Of particuiar interest for this thesis is ToveiI's explmation of

Escarpment genesis. He suggests that undercutting of lower formations by streams

and nvers have gradudy dlowed the escarpment face to migrate and increase in

height. This process, know as "homoclinal shifting," is the process that maintains

the scarp profïie due to down-dip migration and undercutting by "subsequent"

strike-orientated Stream (Bird, 1 972). Believed to create escarpments in other

areas of the world, it has been generdy accepted as tme for the

Escarpment. It will be shown, however, the sites for this study exhibit no streams

or rivers that could accomplish such a process.

Chapman and Putnam (1966) in ï7ze Physiogrqhy of S o u t h Ontario

provide a good description of the Escarpment fkom the Niagara River to the tip of

the Bruce Peninsula and across to Manitoulin Island. They discussed the detached

blocks creating the deep fissures known as the crevice caves, but made no mention

of their formation.

Bolton (1 957) has contributed an exhaustive study of the Silunan

stratigraphy and paiaeontology of the Niagara Escarpment. He outlined the

identification and characteristics of the geologicd formations and the accompanying

members. Bolton's work was started in order to correct some correlations formally

proposed for the various Silurian formations in Ontario.

Glaciation has received some attention. Straw (1968) looked at the three

main phases of ice advance and recession within the Late Wisconsinan and a

general advance within the Eariy Wisconsinan and its infiuence in enlarging

reentrant d e y s dong the Niagara Escarpment. In fact Straw suggested "that the

re-entrants of the present Escarpment can be regarded as largely if not

whoily produced by ice erosion during the Wisconsin Glaciation" (Straw, 1968).

Research conducted by G r a s and Engeider (1991) in Western New York

and Southem Ontario found that late-forming FNE joints resuIted from response to

the low tensile stresses developed in bedrock adjacent to the retreating Niagara

Escarpment. They suggested that the joints and reentrants are neotectonic features.

With respect to slope processes, Milne and Moss (1995) examined

biophysicai change on the escarpment face, and identified three slope types. These

are the ciiffface, buried faces, and rounded dopes. Each was briefly descnbed and

characteristics listed. Associated with this has been work on the interaction of

geomorphoIogical processes and vegetation, and their relationship to slope stability

(Moss and Ndchg, 1980; Moss and Rosenfeld, 1978).

Lee (1978) has also dealt with cWstability, in a study that looked at long-

term stress relief of a cliffbehind a power station at Niagara Falls. The gradua1

release of strah energy fiom the rock mass has resulted in a progressive rnovernent

of the cl* and at the same tirne the development of vertical jointing behind the face

of the cliff Lee (1978) also believed that the vertical jointing and the horizontal

bedding contributed to the disintegration of the rock mass in and above the

Rochester Formation.

Straw (1966) looked at mass movements on the Niagara Escarpment near

Meaford. This work exaimed the large blocks of Middle Silurian dolomite that

have been subjected to rnass rnovernents which caused a widening of the fkactures

and displacernent of the blocks. The joints do not seern to have opened

simultaneously and appear to have widened since formation. S taw believed that

d u ~ g "penglacial conditions aitemathg fieeze and thaw pulverked the upper

layers of the shde and assisteci in the displacement of dolomite blocks (Straw,

1966). Straw found evidence of abrasion by ice, but refùted suggestions that the

blocks were disturbed by glaciation, since the direction of ice would have pressed

against the scarp and kept the joints cbsed.

Extreme rates of erosion have been found to occur on exposed Queenston

Shale outcrops (Tato, 1974; Deloges and Smith, 1995). Work has been done on

the Chinguacousy badlands near Inglewood, Ontaxio and has found that erosion has

resulted in an average surface lowering over the entire site of 2.8 cm a-' and

represents a specific yield of 49,500 t km-* a-' (Desloges and Smith, 1995). Vertical

degradation is up to an order of magnitude Iarger than other badland sites in North

Amenca and the specific yield is three orders of magnitude greater than yields

caicuiated for agriculturally modified drainage basins in southern Ontario (Desloges

and Smith, 1995).

There have also been investigations into the material properties of bedrock

found dong the Escarpment. These indude deformation and strength properties of

hestone (Lo and Hori, 1979), controls on shaie durability (Russell, 1982), and

fracture fiequency in Mudrocks (RusselI and Harrnan, 1985).

Lo and Hori (1979) performed uniaxial compression tests on sedirnentary

rocks 6om severai areas across Ontario, including dolomite and shales found dong

the Niagara Escarpment. They found that strong iimestone rocks fiom the

Lockport Formations are essentialiy isotropie in deformation behaviour but that

shaly lirnestone of the Gasport Member of the Lockport Formation is distinctly

anisotropic, meaning that the material does not deform the same in al1 directions.

They found that the strength and behaviour of anisotropic shales is such that failure

in the rock surroundiigs of underground openings is possible.

Slake durability tests, which are a combination of breakdown fiom exposure

to moisture and abrasion, have been conducted on Queenston Shale by Russell

(1982). It was shown that shale durability is controlled by mineralogy and, in the

case of Queenston Shaie, alrnost entirely by calcite cementation. When compared

to shales of the Georgian Bay Formation, Queenston Shaie generally had a lower

durability. This was partly due to inefficient cementing by calcite, but prirnady

because the microcracks in the Queenston Shale are more curved than in the

Georgian Bay Formation, the other formation exarnined.

in ali of this work very little has been done on the geornorphic development

through the Holocene and in terms of present-day geomorphic processes (Hewitt,

Saunderson and Hintz, 1995). In fact the iiterature suggests that the prevailing

view is that the Escarpment is a relict feature that records the ancient structural

features on the bedrock and, eariy post-glacial and penglaciai action.

Even though the Niagara Escarpment is situated close to a large percentage

of Canada's popuiation, its evolution seems to have been taken for granted. Until

now no one questioned the traditionaiiy held view of the geomorphology of this

landform. Kt is the goal of this thesis to present evidence that highlights the need

for new interpretations of the cliff development of the Niagara Escarpment.

Cha~ter 3 Research Methods

3.1 Introduction - There are a large number of methods available for the study of slopes. They

range widely in cost and complexity. The difliculty stems fiom choosing a method

that meets one's needs while being within one's means. For this study, severai

factors needed to be considered in order to arrive at an appropriate method, or in

this case, combination of methods. Three field seasons (1 995, 1996 and 1997)

were possible to gather data, aithough a longer tenn study is clearly desirable too.

A fùrther consideration was that available maps are not at a suf£ïcient scde

to show fiactures or even detached blocks. This necessitated the creation of

original base maps. However, the landscape being studied is a complex three

dimensionai entity that could not be mapped or even represented in a single

graphical method. For this reason important components of the landforrn were

looked at and portrayed in dserent ways. For example, the fiachires were

displayed in rose diagrams, with the dominant fiactures also being shown in an

overhead view map and also in cross section.

The other main consideration of methods was that some of the work was

done alone. While this was not aiways the case the methods were chosen with this

in mind. Fiaüy, hancial limits played a role in choosing research methods.

Luckily, the total station could be used without rental fees, but the cost of having

samples sent to extemal laboratones for thin section and clay mùieralogy anaiysis

restncted the numbers exarnined.

The remainder of this chapter will detail the field and laboratory techniques

used to assess slope movement or its potential dong the Niagara Escarpment.

Various surveying and mapping methods d l be outlined as weii as the creation of

data arrays for recording m a s movement, and the laboratory tests made on soils

fiom the study sites.

3.2 Field Tecbniaues - The goal of this study was to investigate a complex slope environment

dong the Niagara Escarpment and to reevaluate the interpretations made of it in the

past. In order to accomplish this a single field rnethod was not sac ien t . A range

of field methods was used, each directed at a particular aspect of scarp

development. Included were several mapping methods, using various instruments, a

significant use of photographs, and resurveyed data arrays for recording slope

movernent. Together these methods help to provide new insights into the nature of

the s m p slopes of the Niagara Escarpment.

3.2.1 Total Station Surveving - A significant amount of field work was completed during the surnmers of

1995 and 1996 with the Wdd-Leitz Total Station. The Total Station is an

electronic theodolite and distomat with an on-board data terminai. It can be very

effective for surveys that need precise detaii and large three diensional data sets.

The data can be downloaded fkom the REC modules as horizontal distances and

angies, and converted with TOPOS software to X, Y, and Z data points (appendix

A).

The fist task was to create a digital base map for the three chosen study

sites, plus the Badlands. The areas to be surveyed were well vegetated and difficult

to work on. Even surveying durhg the short wuidow of opportunity in the sprîng

before the leaves anived, was logisticdy demanding and tirne consuming. The first

survey was completed during the summer of 1995, but was of lirnited value due to

unexplained errors. A search of the literature suggested a possible explanation. The

method of data collection resembled track data and may have created oscillation

errors in the computational procedure as experienced by Carlson and Foley (1992).

For this reason a second survey was undertaken during the summer of 1996 with a

different sarnpiing method and much better results. In order for there to be a high

degree of confidence in the base maps, s&cient coverage of survey points needs to

made. This was accomplished for al1 three sites, plus the badlands. The location

and distribution of each survey point can be seen in figures 3.1, 3 -2, 3.3, and 3.4 .

The data was then imported into Surfer for Windows version 5 .O 1, a

software package for digital terrain mapping with a rnicrocomputer. It interpolates

irregularly spaced Y, and Z data ont0 a regularly spaced grid. While a user

defined grid can be specified, aii the maps were made using default grid settings.

These settings Vary automaticaiiy depending on the nature of the data set. There is

a range of interpolation methods that aiiow the creation of a surface that best suits

House Site

Figure 3.1 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the House Site

Dots indicate location of s m e y points. CIifYface shown with bold line at the top of m

0.5 m contour interval.

Quarry Site

Figure 3.2 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Quaq Sire Dots indicate location of survey points. Cliffface shown with bold line at top of map. 1 m contour inteniai.

Badtop Site

Figure 3.3 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Badtop Site. Dots indicate location of survey points. ClEface shown with bold lhe at top of Map.

1 m contour intervd.

Badlands Site

I l l I I

Figure 3.4 Contour Map of the Surface topography of the Badlands Site. Dots indicate distribution of survey points. 1 m contour intervai

individual data sets. A comparative exercise between Krïging, Triangulation with

Linear Interpolation and the Multiquadnc Method was undertaken to determine the

most appropriate rnethod. The Triangulation with Lhear Interpolation method

was chosen because it needs three nodes to work fiom and therefore does not

extrapolate beyond known data points.

Using the Total Station as a measuring tool a data array was constructed

for each of the three study sites. The goal was to create an array of locations that

could be repeatedly measured in the hope of recording movement of the detached

blocks. Since the 'Total Station' records X, Y, and Z coordinates, movement in

three dimensions could be identified (appendix B). The data points were selected

dong two intersecting transects that form a 'T' shape (figure 3 -5). The vemcal

portion of the 'T' began back from the fiachires in an area that is covered by glacial

deposits and not thought to be actively movhg. The transect runs in a straight h e

through the Occupied site of the base map survey and terrninates at the ciiffface.

The second transect runs dong the cliffface and on to the detached blocks. Ail of

the data array points are permanently marked on the ground to enable repeat

surveys.

Shce no literature could be found to quantify the accuracy of using the

'Total Station' in such a way, a test array was made (appendix C). This was done

in order to discover the human errors associated with occupying and reoccupying a

survey location. The test m a y was also constructed in a 'T' shape for comparative

purposes. The Figure 3 -5 illustrates the array;

1 anm Som OCC Som 1 oom

Fimire 3 -5 Shape of Data and Test Arrays

First OCC#1 is occupied, and the backsight is shot. This is foliowed by

shots dong a 200m line (horizontal portion of the 'T'). The next step is to fore

shoot to the backsight, enabling the back site to become the new occupied site. To

finish, the 200m iine of sites are shot again. The test involves measuring the

differcnce between the two X, Y, and Z coordinates at each location.

3.2.2 Fracture Man - Due to the depth and narrow widths O f the hctures close to the ciifYedge

and the wmpletely detached blocks, the Total Station could not be used to survey

them, and another rnethod was developed. Since the major hctures are large

enough to climb down into, it was decided that a survey with tape and compass

would be suitable. This was cornpleted for the House and Badtop sites. It

provided a means to show the inûuence of dominant fractures on the creation of

large blocks. The terrain made the Quarry Site too difficult to survey with this

method.

3.2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks - In order to austrate the three dimensionai geometry of the fkactured and

detached blocks cross sections were made. A transect was made at each study site.

This was done in order to show the tilting and jostling of the blocks away from and

towards the Escarpment face. Each transect begins at the top of the scarp where

the blocks fist break away and form ngid units that glide towards the face and end

downslope at the taius deposits.

3.2.4 Beddine Planes - In an attempt to anaiyze the structurai characteristics of the Amabel cap

rock, photos of bedding planes were taken for each site. From vantage points in

the fractures promes of the bedding could be viewed and measured. Each area was

photographed, sketched, and bedding spacing and micro fractures measured

(appendii D). This was done to show the ciifFerences between sites, yet noting the

sirnilar overaii morphology and lithological conditions that are common to ad areas.

This method is aiso usefiil in examining the relationship between bedding thickness

and the resulting size of detached blocks.

3.2.5 Fracture Survev - The patterns of fractures at each site are very compiex and often de@

complete interpretation. For this survey aii fiactures and joints are included. No

distinction was made between regionai joints that are present in the caprock and

fiactures that have opened due to subarid processes. In order to get a clearer sense

of the fiequency and orientation of the eacnires a sample survey, or inventory was

undertaken. This invohed rneasuring the length, width, depth and orientation of a

large number of fractures at the three study sites (appendix E). This information

was then summarized and displayed in rose diagrams in order to ease recognition of

dominant fiacture angles, their orientation and frequency. This method brings

insights into the fiactures that would not otherwise be seen in the other methods.

For instance, the most fiequent fiacture angle is not usuaiiy the dominant, cliff

forming angle.

3.2.6 Aerial Photos - Stereo paired air photos were examined with the hope of seeing the larger

detached blocks. Unfortunately the vegetative cover was too thick to aiiow any

anaiysis. This is disappointing since the scde of the photos and the size of some of

the blocks would have been very valuable in getting a larger perspective on c i 8

development beyond the study sites. The truth is, there is a very s m d window of

opportunity for an air photo to be taken without snow or leafcover.

3.3 Laboratorv Techniaues -

Much of the information needed to interpret the Niagara Escarpment has to

come fiom materiai analysis and not just fiom maps. It is very important to

understand the types and behaviour of rock types at each of the three sites in order

to determine their role in slope activity, Before any Iaboratory work could be

started, samples needed to be coIlected in the field. Fiist, sarnples were collened

for thin section and X-ray e a c t i o n analysis. This was undertaken at the Basal

Zone of the Badlands, up through the lithologic units to the dolomitic cap rock.

The sarnple number and a description of the location are summarized in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Summary of Samples Collected for Thin Sections and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis.

No. BA-08-96

#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11 #12

Description

In major gully, base of slope In major gully, up slow In major gully, up dope In badlands area, near main site Top of Badlands Top of Badlands Top of Badlands In gully of lower Badlands Outcrop of shale carbonate on road Outcrop of shale carbonate on road Highesl Outcrop of Queenston Shale

-~ - - -p -

Elevation

320m 341m 355m 421m 427m 427111 427m 4 17m 457m 457m - 450m -

#13 Top of main scarp 509m - Top of sccondary scarp 470ni

3.3.1 Thin Sections - Four carbonate cap rock samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for

Materiais Research at McMaster University to make thul sections. Thin section

andysis was chosen because it is a cost effective method for determining grain size

and shape characteristics of a rock sample. It could not be used with shale samples,

for the grain size is too smaü to be seen under available microscopes. However,

this test is suflticient for anaiysis of the dolomite cap rock. The preparation of a

sample for thin section involves rnechanicdy grinding a rock fragment to a

standard thickness of 0.03 mm (0.00 12 inches), polishing it, mounting it

between two pieces of glass as a microscope slide (Blatx, 1992). At this thickness

most ninerals are transparent or translucent. Microscopes fitted with polarized

Light are used to view the slides. As light passes through crystals it is deflected or

rotated, and identification can be made since different minerais produce diflFerent

ddections (Montgomery, 1990). Thin sections are used for texturai, mineralogic

and diagenetic studies (Blatt, 1992).

Thin sections were used because of its relatively low cost per sarnple and

short tirne involved in anaiysis. This procedure wiii show the grain structure of a

given sample.

3.3.2 X-rav Diffraction - Nme samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research, at

McMaster University for X-ray =action analysis. X-ray diffraction is based on

the way crystals of a given substance d i i h c t X-rays. This test was chosen in order

to determine which minerals were present dong the escarpment and to be able to

predict possible behaviour of the Lithologic units. The preparation of a sample

involves powdering, mounting on a glas slide and then bombarding with X-rays

(Blatt, 1992). "The X-rays are m a c t e d by planes of atoms in the crystal

structure, and a trachg is produced on a paper chart." (Blatt, 1992) The chart is an

x-y plot of the dEaction angle versus the intensity of dS?acted radiation (appendix

F). It reveals the interplanar spacing which in turn shows the type of mineral, sinez

dinerent rninerals posses a distinct X-ray difnaction pattern.

X-ray diffraction analysis has a relatively high cost of $100 Cdn per sample.

Price not withstanding this method was chosen because minerai content can play an

important role in material behaviour and was therefore necessary for this study.

Cha~ter 4 Results and Anahsis

4.1 Introduction - This Chapter presents the factors which suggest that the Niagara

Escarpment is not the relict feature the literature c l h it to be. It wili begin vith a

description of the geological features observed at the three study sites. There

foliows a series of investigations centered around the cMed section of the Niagara

Escarpment. These show that there are many features that indicate

geornorpholo~cal activity in the recent past, and apparentIy a? the present time as

weii. The information is presented in several types of maps suggesting a

progressive fiacturing of the cap rock, and giving interpretation of the fracture

angles. Required is an investigation into the properties of the underlying shales and

their susceptibility to erosional forces.

4.2 Observed Feahires at Studv Sites - Several features were present at the three study sites that are relevant to the

geornorphology of the Escarpment. They can be defmed by location in; Upper,

311ddlc and Basal Zones. Figure 4.1 illustrates the the siope components typicdy

found at each site.

The Upper Zone has several distinct parts with a '%ue" dip slope at the

head that begins roughly one hundred meters back fiorn the escarpment face. It is

UPPER ZONE MIDDLE ZONE LOWER OR BASAL ZONE

Figure 4.1 Schematic drawing of components of the dope profile. This profile is typical of dopes in the study area. Beginning with the upper zone at the upper left, down to the Basal zone at the bottom hght. Location of photos

-

indicated by figure reference. (Not to scale)

"generally blanketed in giacial deposits, notably the Gibraltar and Banks Moraine

complexes" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 19%) (Figure 4.1).

Beyond this area is a "near-scarp" zone that is partially or wholly bare

exposing the carbonate bedrock. Here the cap rock has a slight dip towards the

clifFface and is separated into smaller units by weli-defined fissures in the bedrock.

(Figure 4.1 and 4.2) "The exposed carbonate is ofien modeled by solution

weathering forms, including "karrenY7 forms" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz,

1995). Within this area, drainage seerns to be entirely underground through the

fissures and water was observed flowing ffom the cliff face fiirther down-slope

(Figure 4.1 and 4.3).

As the face is approached the fissures develop into "crevice caves", which

tend to get wider and deeper close to the clifFface. They can be as much as several

meters apart. Some narrow at the base, while others widen. "They d e h e detached

blocks of intact carbonate bedrock, and reflect the geometry of joints, fiacturing

and patterns of movement" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Huitz, 1995, p.9) (Figure 4.1

and 4.4).

The main face of the scarp is sometimes weli defined, with a talus dope

below, but more often it has a zone of detached blocks that become more broken

down-slope. In either case it is usually massive carbonate of the Amabel

Formation. (Figure 4.1)

At the base of the upper zone is a talus slope dominated by carbonate debris

fiom rockf'âils, toppIed blocks, sometimes with "megaclasts less than 1 meter

F i w e 4.2 Example of the "near-scarp" zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site during the summer of 1995. The cap rock is tilting towards the cliffface and this zone has well defined fractures, as seen in the foreground. Location of photo can be seen in Figure 4.1.

S d c e flow of rain water d u ~ g a summer thunder storm. Water seen flowing over secondary scarp, Badtop site. Location can be seen on Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.4 Wmter view of the 'Crevice Caves' at the House site. Note the d i f f e ~ g angles and relative tilt of the wds, some tendhg to open out towards the top, others to close in. Tt is suggested that this is due to dierential sagging and tilting of the separated bedrock blocks. Location of photo iïsted on Figure 4.1.

diameter and as large as 20 meters" meWitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995) (Figure

4.1).

The Middle Zone is an area of secondary scarps some of which behave like

or at least, have a sirnilar morphology to the Upper Zone. "This is a cornplex siope

unit that may include cwfaces as high and continuous as the upper cm with

equaiiy long or longer debns and talus slopes below" (Hewitt, Saunderson and

Hui% 1995) (Figure 4.1 and 4.5). This zone occurs in the Clinton and Cataract

Groups and tends to disintegrate into minor blocks and rubble. As seen in Figure

4.3, springs are found ernerging above and beiow this cWed section, oRen

developing into watwfds during storrn events.

The Lower or Basal Zone is a significant, ofien the larges, part of the

overaii height of the Escarpment. It is mostly made up of Queenston Shale and cm

usualiy be divided into three sub-zones.

The upper section is a "perched footslope" and has a shelf a few tens to

hundreds of rneters wide, with flats or depressions (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz,

1995). The depression may be swampy or even have ponds or a s m d stream

(Figure 4.1 and 4.6). At this same height some of the small strearns may flow

paralel to the Escarpment. This is an area of both deposition and removal of

eroded material.

DownsIope is the %asal Wash SIope" that descends quite steeply in most

areas (20-30 degrees) with a fa11 of one hundred meters plus (Hewitt, Saunderson

and Elïntz, 1995). This area generally begins with a convex upper zone that is weii

Fime 4.5 'Secondary Scarp' cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at Badtop site. Note the srnall detached block that has moved down and away fiom the face. Wmter 1996. Location of the photo can be seen on Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.6 'Perched footslope' at BadtopBadlands site. Summer 1995. This area is usually swampy, and in some cases, such as at the BadtopJBadlands, a smaU pond is found. Location c m be seen on Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.7 Generd view of the Badlands site looking up dope. Note the extensive gullying caused by spring runoff and periodic storm events, despite considerable efforts at erosion control. Sumrner 1995. Location c m be seen on Figure 4.1.

drained and dry most of the year but may be @ed and have considerable runoff

during the spring snow melt and periodic storm events. "The main part of this

sIope is usualiy a long, straight mid-section with deeply incised strearn guilies

pardel to the dope" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Kintz, 1995) (Figure 4.1 and 4.7).

The final part of the dope is the "True Footslope", a concave lower section

with coIluMai deposits that join with stream vdeys or flood plains beyond (Hewitt,

Saunderson and Hintz, 1995).

4.3 Base Mam -

Base maps for each of the study sites were surveyed with the Total Station.

The area surveyed is of the Upper Zone, in particular the "near-scarp" zone and a

srnaIl area of the crevice caves. The sites have a great variation in the depths of the

fractures, ranging fiom about 10 centimeters, to as deep as 10 meters in the crevice

caves. In order to represent the shallower fiactures of the near scarp zone a

contour interval of -5 to 1 meter was used. This however meant that the deeper

fractures of the crevice caves could not be shown.

The base map of the House Site found in Figure 4.8, clearly shows the main

cliEfkce at the upper left corner as weIl as the large fiacture mnning roughly

paraiiel to the cm Other fracture systems can be seen south of the cliffand have

not devetoped to the depth of those near the cliffface. The rnap also clearly shows

the dip of the site towards the c w opposite to the regionai down dip of the

Niagara Escarpment.

House Site

Fipure 4.8 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the House Siti

Cliff face indicated by bold line at the top of the map. 0.5 m contour interval. Figure 3.1 shows location of survey points.

Quarry Site

Figure 4.9 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Nesr-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Quarry Siti ClifFface indicated by bold line at the top of the map. 1 m contour interval. Figue 3.2 shows the location of survey points.

Badtop Site

Figrue 4.10 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Badtop Site.

Cliff face indicated by bold line at the top of the Map. 1 m contour Uitervai.

Figure 3.3 shows the Iocation of s w e y points. 52

Badlands Site

Figure 4.1 1 Contour Map of the Surface topography of the Badlands Site. Perched Footslope to the right and Basal Wash Slope to the left. 1 m contour interval. Figure 3.4 shows the location of survey points

The Ouarry Site base map, (Figure 4.9), shows a much more cornplex system of

fractures than did the house site. This site has a gradua1 dip towards the clifFface

found at the top of the map, and fairIy wefl developed hctures 10 meters back

fiom the c m but still have a progressive deepening doser to the cliffface.

The Badtop Site has an increasingly cornplex and deepening system of

fractures as one mars the cliffface at the top of the map (Figure 4.10). Like the

other sites the fractures get deeper closer to the c i 8 &ce.

In addition, a survey was made of a fourth Iocation beiow the badtop site

caiied the Badlands. Figure 4.11, shows the two main gullies running down dope.

This is an area of extreme erosion and sparse vegetation. Some of the smaiier

erosionai features unfortunately did not show up due to the contour intervai of 1

meter, but a smalier interval became to cIuttered with contour iines.

4.4 Data and Test Arravs - The a h was to use the accuracy of the Totai Station to record movement

of the detached blocks. Before we could assess the reliability of readings fiom the

data arrays, a test plot needed to be made and the accuracy of the equipment

measured. Not only was the accuracy of the equipment important, but as it turns

out, more importantly the errors in equipment set up and human induced errors are

the significant issues. In order to assess these errors the Total Station was set up

and seven points were measured. Then the Total Station was moved to the back

site and the same seven points were rneasured again. Table 4.1 shows the

difference between these two measurements.

Table 4.1 DSerences In The Test Array

It c m be seen from the figure, many of the measurements were exactly the

same and therefore had a dserence of O. This shows that the equipment and those

operating it cm be very accurate at repeating a survey. On the other hand #101

had a 0.235 m error in for the Z coordinate. Whiie the reason for this is not known,

it was probabIy movement of the pnsm by the person positioning the prism pole. If

nothing else, this shows that sizable errors cm occur with this method, and that

caution should be taken when interpreting the data array results. Generally there

are two errors that can occur. The fist involves the position of the total station

over the Occupied site. If this is not exactly the same position for each survey, a

standard error would occur equaily through the entire data set. Theoreticaiiy, this

could be identifieci and accounted for.

The second type of error involves the positioning of the prism. Slight errors

occur when the sunrey prism poIe is not is a perpendicular position. Since this wiii

vary with each measurement, this is random error and therefore can not be

completely accounted for.

The base measurements for the data arrays of a i l three sites were made

d u ~ g the summer of 1995. Each data point of the array was pennanently marked

on the ground in order to ensure accurate repeat surveys. During the summer of

1996 a repeat survey of the data arrays was made for ail three sites. A third survey

of the House site and the Quarry site was made during the spring of 1997. The

same procedure was used to repeat the survey as w u used for the original survey.

Once again the matching data points were compared to detennine any change in

location. The foiiowing table shows the results of this analysis for the House Site:

Table 4.2 Results From The House Site Data Array Summer 1995 and 1996.

First impressions would suggest that there has been a great deal of

movement of the detached blocks. The difFerence in values between the two

Number #IO2

X -0.026m

Y -0.053m

Z -0.177m

surveys ranges fbm -428m to -.517m While there is some error in the data arrays,

the values are too high to be errors alone. By using the test arrays as a guide to

reasonable uperator errors, it is apparent that during the t h e between surveys,

movement has occurred at the House Site. It is reasonable to expect some

movement at this site, since the data m y points were positioned on semi-detached

blocks and show s i p of being in an active environment. Tt is not possible to

detemine the exact amount of error and therefore the amount of movement.

In order to better assess the movement of the data arrays, the locations of

each data point for each survey was plotted. A different symbol was used for each

of the three surveys and ovedaid in order to indicate the direction of movement.

When the amount of movement was too smaü to show up, i t was rneasured

manudy and the direction shom with an arrow. The results for the house site can

be seen in Figure 4.12. They show that generaiiy the movement has been Iaterai,

with some inward tilthg and some outward toppling. Data point 2.00 seems to

have moved outwards fiorn the parent ciiffbetween 1995 and 1996, but moved

back towards the ciiffin the 1997 survey. The author is unsure ifthis is an error or

just jostling of a block.

The foilowing figure summarizes the results h m the Q u w Site. The

differences between readings is much smder with a range of .25 l m to -.206m.

While this is still a large amount, it is l e s than the results fkom the House Site.

Once again this is believed to be a combination of operator e ro r and genuine block

movement. Due to more difl6cult tenain and the isolation ofsorne blocks the data

array needed to be set up on siightIy more stable terrain. This rnay account for the

somewhat smaller movement readuigs.

The results of the directional plot for the House site can be seen in Figure

4.12. They show that the general movement has been outward fiom the clS. Data

point 10.00, with its huge ciifference between summers 1996 and 1997 can not be

Table 4.3 Results From The Quarry Site Data Array Surnrner 1995 and 1996.

Table 4.3 showing the results fiom the Badtop Site have less deviation

ktu een the two surveys than did the other sites. The range for the vahes are

OCMm to -. 1 18m. The data array for this site was located in an area of extensive

fiaauring. but not completely detached blocks. This tends to explain the lower

readings, yet is still high enough to indicate movement.

Figure 4.14 shows the results of the directionai plot for the Badtop site. A

third survey during the spring of 1997 was not able to be completed, therefore only

two surveys are plotted. Many of the data points showed lateral movement to the

cliE The other main direction the points moved was back towards the ciif At

fkst it would seem this is surely an error, but by examining the cross section of

Figure 4.19, it can be seen that some of the blocks tilt back towards the cm

Movement of these blocks is downslope at the base but towards the cliffat the top.

It is therefore reasonable to get movement back towards the clifffor some data

points on the directional plot.

Table 4.4 ResuIts Frorn The Badtop Site Data Array Summer 1995 and 1996.

The results of the data arrays are strong evidence of dope movernent on the

steep cWed section of east facing dopes of the Niagara Escarprnent. While the test

array shows that a portion of the results must be due to error associated with

setting up the total station, the readings are suf3ïcient to c l ah slope movement.

When reasodIe directions of movement are added, it seems d e to say that there

is movement at the three study sites dong the Niagara Escarpment.

4.5 Fracture Mari - Since it was not possible to use the totd station for surveying the deep

fractures of the cWed zone, the sirnpler method of tape and compass was used.

This method was used for the House Site and the Badtop Site. It was not possible

to do the same for the Quarry Site owing to accessibility problems. Fracture maps

offers a clear view of the interconnectedness of the fractures. Tt shows the way

fractures intersect to create the detached blocks. Figures 4.15 and 4.16 provide a

good understanding of the length and width of the fiactures and give an idea of the

size of the detached blocks. The maps (Figures 4.15 and 4.16) show that the

fractures range in width fiom less than 2 meters to greater than 10 meters.

The view that the detached blocks are caused by progressively widening and

deepening fiacturing is supported by the comparison of fiachire orientation in the

blocks with those back fiom the clifFface (Figure 4.8 and 4.10). By comparing the

fracture maps with the base maps, the fractures line up to show a deepening and

widening of the fiactures as one moves toward the c i E face.

4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks - Cross sections of the detached blocks were made for each of the sites.

Distance, depth and Eracture wall angle were measured dong each transect. The

Figure 4-15 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detacheci blocks at the house site. hset map shows relative Iocation of the fiaczure map at the house site.

lcm = 2.6m

F i w e 4.16 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detacheci blocks at the badtop site. Inset map shows relative location of the hcture map at the badtop site.

goal was to determine the way in which detached blocks toppled. It seemed

reasonable that the blocks would fd out and away f?om the parent c& leadiig to

scarp recession. However, if this was the only method of failure, then the crevice

caves, noted in this area, would not occur. W~th this in min& the cross sections

were used to explain the contradictory views.

The House Site (Figure 4.17) has two major fractures roughly 10 meters

deep and about 2.5 meters wide. Two detached blocks are found dong the

transe&. They are very large and relativeiy deep. The fiacrure walIs are nearly

vertical, with littie indication of a tendency to topple in any one direction. Below

the detached blocks is a large talus slope suggesting historical toppling of blocks.

The Quarry Site has two major fractures roughly 10 meters deep and alrnost

2 meters wide. They create two detached blocks foliowed by a talus slope below

the last block. Figure 4.18 shows that the blocks at the Quarry Site tilt away fiom

the parent cliffin a downslope fashion. The fî-acture waiis range in steepness fiom

8-3 degees to 90 degrees.

The Badtop Site (Figure 4.19) is more cornpfex than the other sites with

respm to the nurnber of detached blocks. Along the transect there are four

fractures which result in four detached blocks. They are not as deep as the other

sites. averaging about 5 meters in depth. The width of the fractures are roughiy the

same as the other sites with a range of 1.2 meters to 3.2 meters. While the other

sites had consistent positioning, the Badtop Site has blocks toppling toward as well

UPPER ZONE

Crevice caves and detached blocks Tali

Firmre 4.17 Cross Section of Detached Blocks at the House Site, Moving D o d o p e from Left to Right.

UPPER ZONE

Near-scarp zone Crevice caves and detached blocks

Talus :

Fimire 4.18 Cross Section of Detached Blocks at the Quany Site, Moving Downslope iiom Left to Right.

UPPER ZONE

Near-scarp zone 6

I

Crevice caves and detached blocks Tal

Fimire 4.19 Cross Section of Detached BIocks at the Badtop Site, Moving Downslope fiom Left to Right.

as away fiom the parent cl*. Below the blocks is a talus covered slope similar to

the other sites.

4.7 Bedding Planes - Photographs of bedding planes were taken in order to interpret the complex

vertical and horizontal hctures found at the study sites. It was hoped that this

method would aiso give insights into a possible relationship between bedding

thickness and the size of detached blocks. This examination was conducted on two

locations for each of the three study sites.

Three separate locations were examined, with two being used for the

anaiysis at the House site. The hs t location was named HZ and is found inside the

main fiacture and is part of the climbing waü (Figure 4.20). Baseci on terminology

for bedding thickness by Ingram (1954), H2 has very thick bedding with aU three

pictured block tilting away fiom the parent clx The bedding for al1 three blocks

is even and pardel (terrninology for sedirnentary layering fiom Campbell, 1967).

The center block is leaning against the block pictured at the left-hand side of the

photo, and creates a crevice cave. The right hand block (which is a sport climbing

route) is prevented &om toppling by faen boulders and i f l unseen in the photo.

(Photo was taken fiom this location)

The second site was named H3 (Figure 4.21) and is located beIow the

eastern most point of the survey. It is a detached block that is tiIting away fiom the

parent C E . The bedding of the block is thick to very thick, parallel and even

Fieure 4.20 Location H2 fiom the main fiacture at the House site shows tilting of massive bIocks of the Amabei formation. The location of c m be seen in Figure 4.15. White survey pole in picture is 3 -90 rn in length.

Location Hi3 shows tilting and toppling of detached blocks. The location of H3 can be seen on Figure 4.15. White survey pole in picture is 3.90 rn in length.

Fieure 4.22 Location QI showing typicd medium to thick bedding found in large fractures at the Quarry site. Q 1 is Iocated outside the base map in a Iarge fiacture and therefore can not be seen in any figure. White survey pole in picture is 3.90 rn in length.

bedding that ranges fiom 43 cm to 185 cm thick Visible downslope and at the left

side of the photo is a second block that has toppied, thus suggesting that block H3

wiIl also topple.

Two locations were examuied at the Quarry site. The first location was Q1

(Figure 4.22) which is near, but not within the Quany site survey. The upper

sections are wavy non-pardel, thick bedding, while the lower sections are even

nomparailei, thick bedding. Vertical fiactures do not cut through successive layers

of bedding. Most of the fiactures are closed but some of the upper fiachires have

roots growing in them, helping to pry them open. When the upper sections fracture

into bIocks, they do so in fairly large clasts of about -25 to -5 m3.

The second location at the Quarry site (43, Figure 4.23) has an overhang

of about Z 12". The upper section is thickly bedded, foilowed by a medium to

thickly bedded section in the middle and f i n d y thick bedding at the base. Al1

sections are generally even and pardel bedding. There is a large vertical fiacture

that runs down through aii visible layers.

Badtop was the h a 1 site to be examined using two of three locations

photographed. The first location (B2) is located at the north edge of the surveyed

area. The bedding is medium to thick with wavy non-paralle1 layering. The thicker

beds seem to have less fiachiring than do the thinner beds. There is a Iarge vertical

fracture that runs down through al1 visible bedding. A sigdcant undercut cm be

seen in the photo (Figure 4.24).

Fimire 4.23 Location 43 shows an overhanging face and severai broken blocks that have fden fiom the face. 4 3 is located outside the base map in a large fiacture and therefore can not be seen in any other fi,oure. Hei& of cliffin the photo is 2.70 m.

Fimire 4.24 Location B2 iiiustrates secondary fkactures cutting through the bedding. The location of B2 can be seen in Figure 4.16. White pole in picture is 3.90 m in length.

Fiare 4.25 Location B3 is an example of a detached block tilthg back towards the parent cliffat the Badtop site. The location ofB3 can be seen in Figure 4.16. White survey pole in the picture is 3.90 rn in lengîh.

The second location is found near B2 but M e r down slope. The bedding

of B3 ranges fiom thick to very thicic, with even non-pardel, discontinuous

layering. There is very littie space between bedding; usually about I cm to 2 cm.

Unlike the other locations examineci, this site has blocks tilting back towards the

parent clifE and creates a crevice cave. Pictured in the foreground (Figure 4.25)

are large clasts of about a 1 m3 within the main f iame.

The results of this investigation showed that wMe most block movements

were of substantial size, the largest bIocks were found in areas with the thickest

bedding. This cm be seen at the House Site at location EI2, which has the thickest

bedding of the three study sites and also has the largest detached blocks. It has

been observed that areas with thinner bedding tend to have more vertical Eacturing

and therefore may disintegrate before moving downdope in a single detached

block.

4.8 Fracture Survev - The survey of hc ture angles and their fiequency Ied to some interesthg

insights that could not be recognited by the other methods. Sumrnary of the

Uiformation in rose diagrams b ~ g s clarity to a generally complex environment. As

mentioned earlier, no distiction was made between regionaI joint and fiactwed

opened by subariai processes.

The House Site has two dominant fracture @es that mn roughiy at right

angles to one another (Figure 4.26). The most ii-equent angIe is 140/320°, which

&UR 4.26 Rose Diagram Showing the Fracture Angies Found a? the House Site. lnset map (Figure 4.8) shows area surveyed. CWindicated on inset map.

represents 21 of 58 measured fractures, or 36.2% of ail the fractures. While this is

the most fiequent fiacture angle, it is not the most dominant or cliffforming series

of fractures. The 140/320° fhctures mn parallel to the cliffand in fact, maintain the

cWs developrnent. The 14O/3 20" fiactures cut across the cliff f o h g fiactures

and help to create detached blocks that, once separated, move toward the cliffface,

jostle each other and eventually toppie. The second major set of joints mn at

5O/23 0°, which represents 12 of 58 measured fractures, or 20.6% of aii the

fiactures. It is this senes of fractures that enlarge to create the major fiactures and

becorne detached blocks. This series ofjoints are the ones moa easily seen on the

base maps. The remahhg fkactures are less signincant with not a single orientation

accounting for a very large percentage. With only two major joint systems, the

House Site is the least complex of the three sites.

The Quarry Site is more cornplex than the House Site in that it has three

main joint systems (Figure 4.27). The most fiequent series is 80/260° and

represents 30 of the 103 measured fractures, or 29.1%. The second most cornmon

ansle of fiactures is 100/280° and accounts for 20 of the 103 fractures or 19.5% of

the rotal Both of these systems of fkactures cross the main cliffforming fractures

ai rou~hly a 45 degree angle. The third system of fiactures are the cliffforming

fraaures that are most noticeable when visiting the site. It is at 40/220° and

represents 15 of the 103, or 14.6% of fkactures surveyed. Two other fractures of

60/240° and 70/250° are of some significance.

Y-'

Figure 4.27 Rose Diagram Showing the Joint and Fracture AngIes Found at the Quarry Site. Inset map (Figure 4.9) shows area surveyed. Cliffindicated on inset map.

Fime 4.28 Rose Diagram Showing the Fracture Angles Found ai the Badtop Site. Inset map (Figure 4.10) shows area surveyed. CWTindicated on inset map.

The Badtop Site is the most complex of the three sites examinai (Figure

4.28). It has three major joint systems but, as the rose diagram iliustrates, there are

severai other systems that are aiso significant. The rnost fiequent fracture

orientation is 401230" and accounts for 21 of 1 16, or 18% of the fractures

measured. This system runs at about 90 degrees to the c w and create the blocks

found at this site. The next most fiequent series of hctures are at 60/250° and

represent 17 of 116 or 14.6% of the fractures at this site. The third major hcture

system is the cl= forming system and is orientated at 2012 20". There are 12 of

these fractures representing 10.3% of the total. As can be seen ffom the rose

diagram, there are several other joint systems that have a large percentage of the

total number of fractures. Of these 30/220°, 901280" and 140/330° are the next

most numerous fractures.

4.9 Thin Sections - Four carbonate cap rock samples were sent to Brockhouse hstiture for

Materiais Reasearch at McMaster University to make thin sections. The anaiysis of

the four thin sections was preformed by Mark Carpenter, a feüow graduate student

at W f i d Laurier University. While aU four samples were taken from

Badtop/Badlands area each sarnple had significant diierences.

Sample BA-8-96-5 was collected dong the upper portion of the Badlands,

dong the perched footslope (Figure 4.1). This rock is composed mostIy of

carbonate minerals and is medium fine grained, with grain sue of individual crystais

around 0.1 mm in diameter. In plane polarized light the rock appears colourless

with a brown hue. Organic debris have undergone dolomitization to alter their

aragonitic and calcitic mineral assemblages. The cement matnx consists of clear

equant calcite sparite mostly <O. 1 mm in diameter and is located between grains as

weli as within bioclasts. The absolute porosity is very low; estimated at 5% and has

been reduced by diagenetic cementation and neomorphic dolomitization.

Sample BA-8-96-9 came h m an outcrop of shaly carbonate (secondary

scarp talus dope) Iocated dong the road between the Badlands and Badtop sites

(Figure 4.1). This sample is composed almost entireiy of carbonate minerais with

abundant shell debris, and traces of organic burrowing. This rock can be classified

as a h e grained, biociastic lhestone, with an average grain size of 0.05 mm in

diarneter. It has two distinct zones, the fist of which is composed of roughly 80%

shell material. The cernent is extremely fhe grained carbonate minerais including

calcite and micrite, each x0.025 mm in diameter. The porosity is <IO% and occurs

as large voids up to 2 mm x 1 mm, though usuaily <OS mm x 0.5 mm. The second

portion of the slide has much less bioclastic material and is a paie brown-crearn

colour. Cementation has reduced inter-granulâr porosity to ~ 5 % .

Sample BA-8-96-12 is an interlocking crystalline carbonate rock cornposed

of dolomite and calcite. 1t was coUected at the top of the secondary scarp of the

Badtop site (Figure 4.1). There is very little evidence of bioclastic materia1 within

the sarnple. While very simiIar to sarnple 13 there are regular euhedral mosaics of

equant calcite that may indicate dedolomitization. This may account for the

reduced porosity, estimated at <2%.

Sarnple BA-8-96-13, coUected fiom the top of the main scarp of the Badtop

site, (na-scarp zone) is a fhe to medium-he dolomitic iixnestone made up of sub-

altered carbonate minerais and fine grained (<O. 15 mm diameter) rhomb shaped

crystals (Figure 4.1). There is only &or evidence of relia organic matter within

the sarnple as bivalve sheils that have been altered and replaced as a result of

doiornitization. The absolute porosity is estimated at 15-20% and occurs as either

isolated or connected voids, the Iargest being 1 mm x 1 mm.

4.10 Mineralow - As mentioned eariier, nine samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for

Materials Research at McMaster University for X-ray Difûaction analysis. It was

anticipated that clay minerais would be important in weathering and therefore

influentid in block movement. The prMnary minerals found in the samples were;

quartz, calcite, kaolinite, hdoysite and montmorüionïte. Also identified in small

concentrations were plagioclase, dolomite, ankerite and halite. Table 4.5 outlines

the relative concentrations of each mineral for each of the nine samples.

Ouam concentrations range fiom 25% to 35% of the sample material,

which makes it the most abundant rock forming material. The structure of quartz is

usuaiiy hexagonal and prismatic, terminated by two (positive and negative)

rhombohedra resembling hexagonal dipyramids (Mottana, 1978). Quartz has a

Table 4.5 Summary of Minerals Found in Clay and Shale Samples at the'eadlands and Badtop Sites.

hardness of 7 on Moh's hardness scaie and dispIays no planes of weakness when

fiactured. These attributes, plus its low solubility rnake quartz one of the rnost

resistant minerais to chemicai and mechanicd weathering. It has been suggested

that the arnount of quartz in shale may be indicative of shoreiine p r o e t y (Potter,

Maynard and Pryor, 1 980).

Calcite, the most common of the carbonate minerals ranges greatly f?om 3%

to 27% within the samples. It forms when carbonate molecuies bond ionicaily to a

calcium ion. Calcite q s t a l structure is rhombohedral and varies f?om tabular

(rare) to prismatic or needle-like (Pough, 1988). Calcite has a hardness of 2.5 to 3

an the Moh's Hardness scale. Being fairly soft it has cleavage ptanes in three

directions that make up the rhombus-type structure. This makes it more minerable

to mechanical weathering than quartz. Contact with slight acidic water breaks

calcite down to bicarbonate molecules that are easily carried away in solution. This

means that it is highiy susceptible to chemicd weathering since most water is

slightly acidic due to interaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Kaohte is a hydrated aiuminum silicate and ranges in concentrations of 9%

io 28" O of the sarnples. "The structure is composed of a single silica tetrahedral

~ h ~ r r and a singIe alumina octahrai sheet combined in a unit so that the tips of the

sihca tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the octahedral sheet f o m a comrnon

laver " (Grim, 1968) Kaolinite is relatively soft with a Moh hardness of 2 - 2.5 and

has perfect basal cleavages. It forms by aiteration of feldspars and other duminum

bearing rninerals in humid tropical to very humid tropical environments (Mottana,

1978). When rnixed with water Kaolinite becomes plastic and easy to mold.

Haiioyite, which ranges in concentrations of 10% to 17% in the samples is

a clay mineral that is structuraiiy similar to Kaolinite (Grim, 1968). In some cases it

has a layer of water between successive layers and is caiied hydrated haiioysite.

MontmoriUonite represents 5% to 10% of the samples analyzed.

Montmoriiionite is the magnesium variety of smectite with both aiuminum and

magnesium in an octahedrai sheet (Birkeland, 1984) It is very soft with a Moh

hardness of 1, disintegrates easily and has a greasy feel. A very important

characteristic for work on the Niagara Escarpment is Montmoriilonites high

capacity to expand by absorbing water and other liquids (Mottana, 1978). This is

of particular importance to the overaii behaviour of the underlying sofier shales.

Plagioclase, are feldspars between aibite and anorthite in composition and

are found in equai concentrations of 5% in aü samples coilected. It has a hardness

of 6, and 2 cleavages at about 94 degrees (Pough, 1988). Plagioclase weathers

more readily than other feldspars (Leavens, 1995)

Dolomite, is found at a concentration of 2% in 3 samples and at very high

30% in sarnpie #14. Sample #14 was the closest sample taken to the dolomite that

caps the Niagara Escarpment. It has a hexagonal-rhombohedral crystal structure

(Pough, 1988). Dolomite forms by the chemicai replacement of calcium with

magnesium ions present in solution on the carbonate molecule. This is a simple ion

exchange, but with a significant change in properties. Dolomite retains the same

pIanes as calcite but its hardness increases fiom 3 to 3.5 to 4 and sohbility is much

decreased (Pough, 1988). This makes it more resistant to weathering than calcite.

Ankente and Halite, are both found in s m d quantities in only a few

samples. Halite is of course rock saIt with a hardness of 2.5 and is eady dissolved

in water. Ankente is formed when iron replaces magnesium in doIomite forming an

isostructural series.

4.11 Mineral Bebaviour - Montmorillonite has the ability to absorb water and other liquids which

causes it to sweli. The samples coiiected had a 10% concentration of

montmorilionite, with sample #10 having a 5% concentration. When this is

compared to other studies of swelling clays, it seems that a 10% concentration is

sigdicant. QuigIey, Matich, Horvath and Hawson (1971) exarnined two large

dope failures on the Don Vaiiey Parkway, north of the Bloor Viaduct, Toronto.

The soils at these sites consisted of abundant iUite, chiorite, and carbonate, with

moderate amounts of quartz, feldspar and swelling clays. The sweiiing clays were

pseudo-montmorillonite at concentrations of 10% to 15%. It was the belief of this

study that swehg clays accelerate soi1 softenïng and subsequent fdure. With a

similar amount of s w e h g clays in the samples form the Nmgara Escarpment, it

would suggest that this environment is also susceptible to soi1 sofiening and

eventual Mure. This could also have an impact on the movement of detached

blocks. Softening of the underlying shales is a necessary rnechanism for @ide of

large detached blocks observed at the three study sites dong the Niagara

Escarpment.

Cha~ter 5 Summarv and Discussion

5.1 Summarv of Results - This study cails into question the previously held view of scarp development

dong the Niagara Escarpment. The results of this study support a revised model of

Escarpment development and therefore conter the accepted "homochal" shifting

model. Evidence to suggest this inchdes:

Sites that show the most developed hcturing, display no characteristics

(direct undercutting or spring sapping) of homochal shifting, as suggested

by the literature.

Data arrays indicate movement of fiactured and detached blocks in the

cWed zone.

Movement of the data amays indicate that the blocks are jostling, with

movement away from, and towards the parent cM It also showed lateral

movement of many of the blocks.

Cross sections of the 'near-scarp' zone showed the detached blocks tilted

both away fiom as weil as towards the parent clin.

Detached blocks may lean away fkom or towards the parent clifS thus

creating 'crevice caves'.

Undistwbed Queenston shde is bloclq and dense when dry, but rapidly

weathers and is easiiy rernoved when wet.

Clay minerdogy analysis of clay shales suggests the potential for swelling.

The remaining results fiom this study center around features and the

relationship between process and resulting landforms.

Cambering of the outermost portion of the cap rock towards the clifFface,

differs fi-om the regional dip of the Escarprnent.

Fractures become progressively deeper and wider towards the cliff face.

Locations with the thickest bedding tend to have the largest detached

blocks, and conversely areas with thin bedding tend to have smder

detached blocks (presumably because the blocks disintegrate before they

can travel very far as a singie unit).

Drainage of the 'near-scarp'zone seems to be entirely underground.

Large quantities of water was observed flowing fiom the base of the scarp

during a storm event.

FiaUy the over-ridùig conciusion is that this study identifies many

explanations for scarp development lacking foundation that a major effort is

necessary to re-investigate and reinterpret the development of the Niagara

Escarpment by the geologicd community.

The following section suggests a possible theoretical mode1 of scarp

development that has been formulated fkom observations of features dong the

Escarpment and fiom this study. It seems safe to Say that Our present

interpretation of slope processes dong the Niagara Escarpment is insufficient.

5.2 Scam Develonment Mode1 - Evidence presented by this thesis suggests that current explmation of scarp

development by homoclinal shifling controiied by river migration, is inadequate if

not wrong. In the sites studied, there are dramatic examples of detached blocks

and crevice caves without any sign of river undercutting or spring sapping. If

homochai shifüng is not the process taking place on the Escarpment, then what is?

The next step is to determine the processes at work on the Niagara Escarpment and

the speed at which they take place. In consulting the literature of other

environments that have strong carbonate cap rock overlying softer ciays and shales

one padcular model seerns possible. The model centers around weathering of the

shale, which deforms under the weight of the overlying dolornitic cap rock.

Fractures develop in the cap rock and get progressively wider and deeper near the

cliffface, due to greater exposure to weathering. Fracturing of the cap rock results

in slow tilting, jostling and evenfuai toppling of large blocks. During this

progression crevice caves develop between the detached blocks and the parent rock

mass. Toveil(1992) suggested that this is caused by the weakening of the

underlying Queenston Formation. While this formation plays a part, its

stratagraphic position suggests other formations need to be involved as weii. In

particula. the Cabot Head formation and the Grimsby formation likely influence

mass movements since both are susceptible to extensive weathering and erosion.

As the Cabot Head and Grimsby shaies weather, they are unable to support the

overlying cap rock and failure occurs in the cap rock dong a plane of weakness,

usuaiiy a joint. The shale is then extruded lateraiiy as the block begins to tilt and

eventually M. This process is aided by the Whirlpool Sandstone directiy above the

shale; where its high porosity enables Iarge quantities of ground water to reach the

shale, promoting rapid weathering. This is a reasonable explanauon since the

bedding planes of the overlying rock strata dip back into the escarpment and are

therefore inherently resistant to rnass wasting. Figure 5.1 shows in sirnpiiûed

fashion, the steps involved in this proposed dope Mure model.

Weathering within Cabot Heab Grimsby a d Queenston Formations reduces support of overlyhg cap rock Weathaing shaie is d e to support cap rack d g widening and depening of regionai joints and nactureç.

Shaie thins and is exrmded due to compfession by overlying cap rock. Blocks begin to slide downslope, tilting away or towards the parent di& This often produces crevice caves. As this progreses, blocks become fulS derached.

Once fully detached the blocks usuaüy topple. conmbirting ta the Nbbie found on the talus dopes. Collapsing of blocks allows wcathering of newly txposed shde resulting in a r e n d of the entire Pr'='==

Figure - 5.1 Steps for a proposed mode1 of scarp development for the Niagara Escarpmerrt. (Source: adapteci fiom Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995) (Not drawn to scale)

53 Limitations of the Studv - The most notabie limitations of this study are the smaii nurnber and

reIativeIy s m d geographicd distribution of the study sites.

Even though efforts were made to select representative and appropriate

sites for this study, the fact remains that only three sites within a relatively s m d

geographic area were examined in detd. This was sirnply a factor of the time

needed to analyze additional sites and to complete the necessary measurements.

However, no site that we have examined on the main Escarpment Iacks the same

basic features. For this work to be appiied to the Escarpment as a whole,

additional sites located throughout the entire Escarpment wilI need to be exarnined

in order to broaden the scope of this study.

Cornpared with other studies of this nature, three field seasons was very

good. With this in rnind, additionai time would be usefûl in adding to the number

of measurements with the data arrays. With additionai readings it may be possible

to distinguish between movement and errors.

5.4 Further Research - This is redy just the beginning of what could be an ongoing project to

determine rates of slope processes dong the Niagara Escarpment. Research could

be expanded to include similar studies to this in a greater number of areas as well as

long tenn measurements of slopes with data arrays sirnilar to the ones used in this

study.

While this study had minerd work done on the Queenston formation,

hancial as weli as accessibility restrictions prevented similar tests being performed

on shaies of the Cabot Head and Grimsby formations. It is believed that these

formations play as great a role in dope movements dong the Niagara Escarpment

as does the Queenston formation. The tmth is that the shortcornings of this sfudy

could be reversed by continued, long term research into slope processes dong the

Niagara Escarpment .

5.5 Future in Question? -

On February 8, 1990, Ontario's Niagara Escarpment was inaugurated as a

World Biosphere Reserve, by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This recognizes the Niagara Escarpment as an

internationaily signiticant ecosystem.

The Niagara Escarpment is protected by Canada's first large scaie

environmental land-use plan controlled by the Niagara Escarpment Commission.

The Commission is a provincial agency that has control over 5,200 square-

kiiometers of land, hcluding some of the continent's richest aggregate deposits.

In Marcfi 1997, during the write-up of this thesis the Conservative

goveriunent under Premier Mike Hanis has moved the political and administrative

responsibility for the Niagara Escarpment Plan fiom the Ministry of the

Environment to the Ministry of Naturd Resources. This places the control of the

Niagara Escarpment Plan in the hands of a Mïnistry that has long favored the

exploitation of aggregate resources in the escarpment planning area. In addition the

govenunent has laid off one-thkd of the commission's staff and has gotten rid of its

chairperson and four of its commissioners.

This action seriously cals into question the fùture of the Niagara

Escarpment landscape, The possbiiity of relaxed controls on environmental

protection and in particular an increase in aggregate extraction could severely alter

the physical and cultural landscape of the escarpment.

Appendix A.

Data Set from the Totai Station Base Map Survey. House Site, Quany Site, Badtop Site and the Badlands.

rZOS t'IOIL16P IWIWSSS 9bI

CMS 'CEOILI6P 12618b85~ SPI

LOZOS 1 6 ~ 8 0 ~ 1 6 ~ 1 W ~ S V ~ S S (PZ1

8 . ~ 0 5 jf ~ 6 0 ~ 1 6 ~ Immss jn1 IYWS (t'960~16+ W88P8SS 1 n1 IL'EOS 12'660~16V I6S8W8SS 1 121

ZSZOS (t'860~16P 1 6 ~ ~ 8 ~ 8 ~ s

t'VOS ( ~ ' 9 6 0 ~ 1 6 ~ I L I P ~ P ~ S S SI-SOS / I'S60L16P j f O'9SP85S

ES'SOS 1 SE60L16P EP'S80855

EEI

ZEl

IEI

DEI

SOS NOUVATEi

9'90s

WLOS

98205

V880LI6P / ~ P ' P ~ P ~ S Z 1621

D'E80LI6V 1 SV ESP8SS 1821

8.LLOLIdt 1 ZYZSPSSS ~ L Z I

OOILI6P

(A)HLXON

1

OSP%SS 1001

wLSV?i #LNd

f

99'L8i7 ! PZSIMP 1 9.LPZ55S 1 6L1

9-t7SP u'm 9 S 6 f P

68î9 i Z1SIZ6P 1 8'6tZ55S i <LI 1'68P ! OISiZ6P 1 SZSZSSS ! PLI

OSSIt6* ISSTM* Z55IMP

T'SSZSSS ] 561 ~snssr 1 961

8'5SZSSS / E61 9E'VSP 1 tSSIZ6P ZL'PSP 1 PSSIUCoP

P'9SZS55 1 1 6 1 P'WZSSC j 161

IZ'P8b OSSIZ6t 8'ISZSSS 1 061

PNT# 1210

3 100

3110

3 1 11

NOR- 49217989

EASTQQ 557410.84

W A T I O N 427993

49218 103

49218103

492 18 103

425389

425.879

425.879

557449.03

557449.03

557449.03

WOOD STAKE TRAN#l

TRAN#l

l DESCRETION

1

I

3324

3325 3330

3331

3360 1 49218261 557469.85 j 420.379

3361 1 492182231 557464.221 421.001

33621 4921820.61 ~57461.21

3365i 4921813.6) 557455.081 422.881

4921783.8

4921781

49217896 4921791.1

GULLEYS 1 G U U M S

~ ~ I . ~ ~ ~ G U L L E Y S j GULLEYS 1

3332 1 4921731.6

3333 ) 4921793.6

G U Y S

G U Y S

GUUEYS

GULLEYS GULLEYS

GULLEYS

3371 / 4921810.61 557444.48 1 425.246 - 337d 492I818.5

3375 1 49218183

3376 1 49218t7.1 33'171 4921816.7

421.522GULLEYS

GULLEYS

GULLEYS

GULLEYS

557462291

GULLEYS

557465.09

557450.84 557447.53

33401 492179951 557435.53

3341 i 49218025 1 55743729

557442.89

k

3379 i 4921 820.4 1 5~7452.01 3385 4921828.81 557425.69

557430.9 1 426.946 557431.19 1 426.927

420.791

423.865

424.575

426.6(GlJLLEYS 1 426.125 /GUUMS 1

1

425.263

8

424.06 (GULLEYS

427.551 ~GULLEYS

55743736

557441.9

3378 1 4921818.9 1 557447.93

55743721

426.257 425.139

424.437

4 2 5 9 8 9 ] G u u ~ y s 1

OULLEYmE GUUEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE

3402

3403 3404

3 4 5 34061 4921775

3 W

3441

3442

4921773

4921ï74.4

49213163

4921777.6

55745248

557453.7

55745226

557451.62

557455.47

557457.23

3407

3408

3409

3410

3443 ] 4921798.7 1 557442871 426.41 1 (GULLEYS~E

4921776.6

49217793

4921779.7

49217827

4921790.5 j 557440.561 425.989

4921793.4 1 557441.09/ 426.097

4921794.91 557441.581 426.1 15

557447.03

5574473

557447.39

557448.W

423.923

423.419

423182

423.757

423.431

422.49 3411 I 4921781.9

GULLEYSIDE G U Y S I D E G U Y S I D E

GULLEYSIDE GüLLEYSiDE GüLLEYSiDE GULLEYSIDE G U Y S I D E

34441 4921801.61 557435.69 1 426.675

425.113 424.616

424.576

424.583

GUtLEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GüLLEYSDE GüLL,EYSIIIE

3445

3446

3447

3448

49218023 [ 557439.29 1 426343

4921805.8

4921808

4921803.7

55743 l.74! 426.926

557434.73 1 426.54

557434.97 1 426.455

3497' 492181 13 1 557453 ( ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ / G U L L E Y S I D E

3498 492181 1.3 ( 557451381 424.686 *

3499 4921806.7) 557451.27 1 424.1%

3500 4921804.71 557449.5 1 425.179

.- 350 1 1 4921805.5 ( 557444.76

3502 ' 4921807.2 557445.63

3503 1 4921808.9 55744626

GUUEYSIDE

GUUEYSIDE

GULLEYSIDE

425.761 IGULLEYSIDE

3504 / 4921809.9

350s j 4921810.1

424.962

424.721

G U Y S I D E

GüLLEYSIDE

L

557447.22 1 424.92

557447.94 1 42531

GUUEYSmE

GUUEYS~E

3536 1 4921804.61 557461.53 1 422.996 GULLEYSIDE

3537 / 49218033 1 557459261 423.441 GUUEYSIDE

3538 1 4921807.4 ( 557464.88 / 422.681 GULtEYSiDE

3521

3522

3523

3524

3525

3540

3550

3555

3570

3571

492180631 55746338 422692

422138

421.754

420.323

420.759

4921813.6

4921818.8

4921824.7

492181 6.5

1 4921807.5 1 557467.271 422225 IGUUEYSIDE

GUUEYS 1 GUUEYS 1 GUUEYS

G U Y S

GUUEYS

GUUEYS

3577i 4921824.l1 557474.05 f 419.764

35781 4921833.71 557476.121 417242

GUUEYSIDE

GUUEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE

GUUEYSIDE

GUUEYSIDE

557464-48

557467-76

557472.14

557475.81

4921827

4921792.5

4921827.6

3579 1 4921837.7

3580 1 4921 834.2

3581 1 4921830.2

3582 1 4921837.4

557479.9 1 420.077 1 WOOD STAKE 557485.29 1 420.723 (WOOD STAKE 557457.981 421.861GULLEYS

4921827.91 557460.241 4 2 1 . 0 4 2 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1

557484.48 1 416.244

557483.39

557480.58

557487.85

416.872

418.832

416.154

3651

3652

3653

3654

3655

3656

36691 49218471 557497.171 415.253 ~GUL~EYSIDE

4921828

4921831.7

4921831

4921830.9

4921831

4921832.5

3670 i 4m1m.7

3671 1 4921836.5

3672 1 492183 1.8

36901 4921780.6

557476.05

557468.64

5574653

557460.1

557455.13

557450.1 1

GUUEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE

GLJLLEYSIDE

3691 / 49217828 1 55747633

557492.95! 416.263

557489.45 1 416953

420.181

420289

421.483

422816

423.733

424.859

4 1 8 . 5 5 5 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f

557485.48

G U L L E ~ S ~ E

GüLLEYSIDE

GüLLEYSiDE

GULLEYSDE

GUUEYSDE

GüLLEYSïDE I

418.299

557484.54 4 1 6 - 7 7 l G U ~ ~ )

36921 4921783.2

3693 492 1786.4

3694) 4921790

55747.891 4 1 8 . 0 1 8 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 557479.02 1 41 8.622 IGULLEYS

557478 1 419.628 (GUYS

- 3742

3743

3744

3753 i 4921790.7

3754 1 4921790.1

3755 1 4921787.2

3756 ( 4921787.1

G U Y S I D E GULLEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE

492178591 557490.03

4921783.1 1 557491.57

4921781.81 557493.41

557479.n/ 420.668

557476.88 i 420.254

557475.86 1 420348

557477.21 1 419.885

GUUEYSiDE

418.212

417219

416349

3745 ( 4921783 / 557488.1 I

GULLEYSIDE G U U M S i D E CXiKEYSiDE G W Y S I D E

-L 417.193

Appendix B.

Data Set from the Data Arrays. House Site, Quarry Site and Badtop Site.

House site Data Array Data Set t

S u m e r 1997 Data Anay 1

1 i I Summer 1997 Data Anav 1 1

2 1 555202.937 1 4921515.M ( 486.616

PNT(t ! E A S T 0 1 NORTH(Y) 1 ELEVATION IO i 555207.47 1 4921516 ! 48738

I i Summer 1996 Data Amy 1

PNTg 1 EASÏW 2 1 55520296 10 / 555206.91

NORTfiCr) ELEVATION

4921515.6 / 486.6 4921519.29 1 487.25

3 1 55521334 i 4921518.7 i 4m.75

Badtop Site Data Amy Daia Set 1 t t I

1 I Summer 1996 Data Array 1

PNT# I mgr) 1 NORTHCY) / EVEVATION'

I I I Summer 1995 Dafa A m y 1

EASTm 1 ELEVATION 556984.111 ] 499398

556983.747 1 499.553

556988.862 1 499305

556990JSt / 498.929

PNT# 1 NORïHCY) 8 1 4921439219

7 6

5

4921431.741

4921428.55

4921424292

AppendY Ce

Data Set from the Test Arrays.

Test Amy Data Set I

Bedding Piane Study Sketcbes. House Site, Quany Site and Badtop Site.

Appendix E.

Data Set from the Fracture Survey. House Site, Quarry Site and Badtop Site.

Appendix F.

X-ray Diffraction Results fmm Brockhouse Iastitute for Materiah Research.

Bir& B. J. (1972) Ilie N e a Z Landsqe cflmtclrtr, a a d y in regional earth science. Toronto: Wdey.

Blatt, EL (1992) secimenfary Petrology, New York: WH Freeman & Co.

Bolton, TE. (1957) Silunmt Stmti@qhy cznd PalaeontoIogy of the Niagma Escapnent in Ontano. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 289.

Bruce Trail Association. (1995). TrailReference - TrailGuide andMaps. Toronto: Money's Worth P ~ t i n g .

Campbell, C.V. (1 967) Lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset. SedimentoIogy, vol. 8, p.7-26.

Carlson, RE. and Foley, T.A. (1992) Interpolation of track data with Radial Basis Methods. ComputersMarh. Applzc. vo1.24, no.12, p.27-34.

Chapman, L.T., and Putnam, D.F. (1966) ne Physogrupphy o f S o u t h Ontario. Toronto : University of Toronto Press.

Chigira, M. (1992) Long-term gravetationd defonnation of rock by mass rock creep. Engineering Geology. 32. p. 157-1 84.

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Gross, M.R. and Engelder, T. (1991) A case for Neotectonic joints dong the Niagara Escarprnent. Tectonics, 1 O: 3, p.63 1-64 1.

Hewitt, K., Saunderson, 8, and a t z , D.H- (1995) Lanalslides, CZzr Development and Cuesta Morphology of Niagara Esccapmen?: Report of activities and Findings 1995. Cold Regions Research Centre and Department of Geography, W ï d Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario.

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Lee, C.F. (1978) Stress relief and c W stability at a power station near Niagara Faiis. Engineering Geology, 12. p. 193-204.

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Montgomery, C. W. (1 990) Physical Geology. Dubuque: Brown Pubtishers.

Moss, M-R, and Nicklingy W.G. (1980) Geomorphological and vegetation interaction and its relationship to dope stabiüty on the Niagara Escarpment, Bruce Peninsula, Ontario. Geogrqhze Physique et Quarientaire. v.34, no. 1, p. 95- 1 06.

Moss, M.R, and Rosenfeld, C.L. (1978) Morphology, m a s wasting and forest ecology of a post glacial re-entrant vaiiey in the Niagara Escarpment. GeograFska Annaler. 60q p. 16 1 - 174.

Mottana, A et al. (1978) Guide to Rocks mdMinerals. New York: Simon & Schuster Inc.

Potter, P.E., J.B. Maynard and W.A. Pryor. (1980) Sedmenfology of SMe, New York: Springer-Verlag.

Pough, F.H. (1988) Rocks andMinerals. Petersons Field Guides. Boston: Houghton Mifnui Company.

Quigley, RM., M.A.J. Matich, RG. Horvath and H,H. Hawson. (1971) Swelhg in Two Slopes at Toronto, Canada C d m Georechnical J-1. v.8, p. 417- 424.

Radbruch-Hali, D.H. (1978) Gravitational creep of rock masses on dopes, in Voight, B. (ed.) Rockslides and Avalanches, v. l p.607-657.

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TEST TARGET (QA-3)

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