Rediscovery of the Elements

AgricolaJames L. Marshall, Beta Eta 1971Virginia R. Marshall, Beta Eta 2003Department of Chemistry, University ofNorth Texas, Denton TX 76203-5070,jimm@unt.edu

Georgius Agricola (1494-1555) was the firstto differentiate bismuth and antimony, andthus was the first to move beyond the sevenmetals known to the ancients (Figure 1). Aphysician by training, he became involved withthe mining industry in Bohemia and Saxonyand wrote prolifically about natural processes inthe earth and he described how mankind couldutilize this knowledge to advance mining tech-nology.1 In addition to his scientific writings, hewas a popular community leader (B6rger-meister) and humanitarian in Chemnitz, hisfinal home (Figure 2).

Agricola's real name was Georg Bauer. Hewas born in Glauchau, a village of about 1000residents. The street where his family lived and

200 km.LeipzigZeitz * Chemnitz

Zwickau *Joachimsthal-G Czech.

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Figure 2. Map of places where Agricola lived.Agricola spent both his early and later life inSaxony (modern East Germany) and his first min-ing years in Bohemia (Czech Republic). His train-ing as a physician was done in northern Italy. Hisbooks were published in Basel, Switzerland, at thefamous Frobenius publication house. He wasburied in Zeitz (Note 3).

where he was born is known (Figure 3). From adevout Catholic family, Georg Bauer attendedthe city parochial school (GlauchauerParochialschule), where he learned reading,writing, arithmetic, and the rudiments of Latin.

During the years 1514-1517 Georg Bauerattended the University of Leipzig (LeipzigerUniversitat); this was during the revival of theclassics of the early Reformation, and he stud-ied philosophy, philology, Latin, and Greek. Itwas in Leipzig that he adopted the Latin name"Georgius Agricola" ("Agricola" = "Bauer" ="farmer").

Next, Agricola taught at Zwickau(1517-1522) where he was schoolmaster, andhe continued part-time at the University ofLeipzig University. He became interested inmedicine, and he traveled south to Italy tostudy at the famous school of Bologna.2 Duringthis period in Italy (1523-1526) he continuedhis studies in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic,and he obtained his Doctor of Medicine. Healso spent time at the Universities of Padua andVenice. AtVenice he also spent time at the glassworks of Murano (which still exist today),where his curiosity of rocks and minerals wasexcited by the special recipes of salts that wentinto the colored blends of the molten glass.

Agricola's next home was Joachshimsthal(Figure 4), a silver boomtown in Bohemia (nowJachymov, Czech Republic), where he wasappointed city physician (1527-1530). This cityhad been founded eleven years beforeAgricola's arrival and had grown to a popula-tion of some several thousands. The productionof silver was so great that the"thaler" (Figure 5)became a major medium of currency in Europe(Figure 5). No hint of Agricola remains inJachymov (Note 1), but the home of the vil-lage's founder, Stefan Schlick, remains (Figure6). When he was not engaged in his medicalduties, Agricola traveled away from his home,collecting minerals and speaking with theworkers at the mines and smelters. During theevenings he would read the Latin and Greekauthors who had written on mineralogy andmining. It was here that published his first workon mining, Bermannus' a catechism on miningtechniques and lore. This book was fashioned

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Figure 1. Statue of Agricola in Glauchau(Bahnhofplatz, N,50 49.63 E 12 32.76), the cityof his birth. This statue stands in the beautifulgardens of Bahnhofplatz, only 200 meters from thetrain station.

after the Peripatetic School where Greek schol-ars would educate their students in a dialog for-mat. Showing an awakening concern for poli-tics, he wrote a pamphlet urging the ousting ofthe Turks (Ottoman Empire), who had laidsiege on Vienna in 1529.

In 1531 Agricola became city physician ofChemnitz, which was in the heart of the silvermining region of Saxony.' (Figures 7,8). He wasa prolific writer, with a profoundly sophisticat-ed understanding of natural phenomena.Among these writings was De Ortu et CausisSubterraneorum, in which he described the

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Figure 3. Nikolaistrafie in Glauchau, the street where Agricola was born (N 50'49.10 E 12 32.56). Thismay be reached by walking 250 meters NE of the Glauchau Castle (Figure 9).

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Figure 4. Jdchymov, located on the Czech side of the Erzgebirge (Kruini Hory) mountain range 5 km southof Germany, was once known as Joachimsthal, Bohemia. The two buildings are the city hall (left, whichnow houses the tourist bureau/museum) and the old mint (right, which dates from 1536). (Note 1).

forces of wind, water, and subterranean vol-

canic forces, and where he correctly interpretedthe phenomenon of mountain building anderosion. He also wrote De Natura Eorum quaeEffluunt ex Terra (subterranean waters andgases), De Natura Fossilium (the first systematicmineralogy), De Veteribus et Novis Metallis (his-tory of metals and minerals), De RerumMetallicarum Intgerpretatio (glossary of Latinand German mineralogical and metallurgicalterms), and De Animantibus Subterraneis (ani-

mals that live underground).Agricola was a contemporary of Martin

Luther (1483-1546) and sympathized with

some of his views, and even prepared someepigrams against the Pope. However, he wassoon repulsed by the activities of Luther, whosometimes appeared to him as an undisciplinedrabble-rouser, appealing to the masses rather

than to reason. Amidst this Protestant strong-hold, Agricola remained a staunch Catholic.

Nevertheless, his devotion and care for hiscommunity, as well as his lack of bigotry andhis sense of fair play, brought him into suchesteem and reverence that he commandedrespect and support during all his days inChemnitz until his death in 1555. He wasappointed Btirgermeister for four terms by

1561, portrays Ferdinand , Emperor of the HolyRoman Empire. Thalers are the etymologicalsource of the word "dollar."

Protestant authority and participated in thevarious Diets in the region.

De Re Metallica. The most famous work ofAgricola was Dc Re Metallica,' thirty years in themaking and published the year after his death.The book is an astoundingly modern contribu-tion to the technology and science of mining.Graced with over 350 woodcuts, it details themethods of mining: finding the proper sites;the construction of the mines; smelting; andassaying. The book is written in excellent Latin;Agricola knew the classic literature well andreferred to it often. When there did not exist aterm he needed, he coined one, and he recog-nized new mineral species and named them.Agricola abandoned the medieval divining rodand replaced it with observation and logic. Witha perceptive eye, he proposed that the forma-tion of veins ("canales") in beds of rock wascaused by the deposition of flowing water-aprophetic interpretation that anticipated themodern view of sedimentary and hydrothermaldeposition. Agricola's education was foundedon ancient scholasticism and yet was not boundby it; he exemplified the brave approach takenby the first scientists who broke out of oldthinking molds. Indeed, he appeared to be thefirst to use the term "chemistry" (chymia)instead of "alchemy" (alchymia).5 Agricola's DeRe Metallica was used as the principal guide forminers and metallurgists for almost 200 years.

For the modem reader, De Re Metallica is dif-ficult to read-technical terms are used whichdon't exist in any Latin dictionary, and the six-teenth century chemistry is obscure.Fortunately, a translation in English exists,complete with detailed footnotes. This monu-mental work6 was performed by a successfulmining engineer, partnered with his wifeversed with the classics in the original

tongues-Herbert Clark and Lou HenryHoover-fourteen years before he assumed thePresidency of the United States. With the

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Figure 6. The home of Stefan Schlick, the founder of Joachimsthal in 1519 (N 50 22.1b E 12 54.65), liesup the mountain, 300 meters SW from the city hall/mint. Schlick oversaw the largest silver producingenterprise in Europe at the time.

Hoovers' translation, one can read De ReMetallica almost leisurely. The extensive foot-notes not only explain just what Agricola meantby confusing Latin terms, but also include his-torical notes on the development of metallurgyof quicksilver, copper, lead, zinc, etc.

It may seem strange that a successful andrich business man would pause to translate ahefty Latin volume, but Hoover found a con-nection with Agricola, because both were moti-vated to promote the professional image of themining industry.7 In ancient times the slavesdid mining labor, but by Agricola's time miningwas assuming a high standing with the forma-tion of guilds. This higher status of miners iscelebrated to this day in the "Festparaden" ofFreiberg and other historical mining towns ofSaxony.4

When Agricola found a discrepancy with theancients, he did not hesitate to correct the error.In this way he recognized the separate identityof new metals.6 In the dialog in Bermannus3 weread:

"I will show you another kind of mineral.... that appears to me to have been unknown tothe Ancients; we call it bisemtum [bismuth]."

"Then in your opinion there are more kindsof metals than the seven commonly believed?"

"More, I consider..."Agricola goes on to show how to distinguish

bismuth from plumbum candidum (tin) andnigrum (lead) by specific characterizing tests,including color, staining (modem "streak"), andfriability (brittleness). He also recognizes anti-mony (stibium) and describes how it can beused with tin as an alloy for printers'type (anti-mony had previously been confused as aspecies of lead). He also mentions cadmia subli-mata (zinc). He describes various compounds ofarsenic (orpiment, realgar, the sulfides; andarsenic oxide), but apparently was not familiarwith the metal itself. Agricola identifies a cer-tain cadmia, called kobelt in German (a cobaltarsenide) that"eats away the feet of workmen";the discovery of metallic cobalt itself was madesome two hundred years later.'

Agricola did not believe in alchemy, but hedid report on the miners' superstitions andinterpretations of Nature. The miners believedin Kobolde (gnomes) who caused mischief inthe shafts. Although he himself did not believein transmutation,5 he reported the miners'

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belief that bismuth was"the roof of silver"-theevolutionary stage before silver. According tot he miners beliefs, the metals transmuted natu-rally, tending toward perfection (gold) over along period of time. The miners believed bis-muth was the stage before silver because theyobserved silver commonly associated with bis-

muth in nature.

The Legacy of Agricola. Hoover appears toclaim that Agricola belonged to the modernIge, while in fact the humanist Agricola want-'d to connect with the classical past'evertheless, Agricola's dependence on sys-'matic classification and his sense of explo-ition anticipated Linnaeus (1707-1778). He

nay have been steeped in Aristotle, but he wasregressivee and anticipated the future.\gricola's insight to geological processes and

his recognition of new minerals gave birth tomodern geology and mineralogy.

At the Glauchau castle (Figure 9) a largemuseum is devoted to the history of the region,and a full section is devoted to Agricola. Withmining artifacts and other exhibits of historicalinterest, the Agricola room describes the great-ness of this humanitarian, scientist, and doctor.

In 1999, the 500th birthday of Agricola wascelebrated in Chemnitz, and annually a sympo-sium is held commemorating Agricola's contri-bution to humanitarianism and science. In the"Agricola cloister" across the street (InnereKlosterstrage) from the Tower (Note 2), aplaque reads [translated]:

"In honored memory of the outstanding sci-entist and once burgermeister of our city Dr.Georgius Agricola born 24-4-1494 in Glauchaudied-21-11-1555 in Chemnitz. He served theprogress of mankind as the founder of modemmineralogy, geology, mining, and smelting, asdoctor and apothecary, teacher and lecturer,diplomat, and historian. He lived here from1531 until 1555." (Note 3) 0

Acknowledgments.The authors are indebted to the gracious

assistance of the staff of the museums atGlauchau and 'Chemnitz for much detailedinformation regarding Agricola and his lifewhich was not otherwise available in the litera-ture (e.g., ref 9).

Notes.Note 1. The museum and tourist bureau of

Jachymov lie on the main street (highway 25),1Nimesti Republiky (N 50 22.28 E 12' 54.81) onthe upper (northern) section of the town.Downhill and southeast along Nim. Republiky,1.0 km from the museum and tourist bureau,stands a memorial (in German) to Schlick in acity park (N 50' 21.89 E 12' 55.36). There was agreat deal of mining history in subsequent cen-turies, including the manufactory and the mineof the uranium ore used by the Curies to isolate

polonium and radium; these sites will taken upin a future"Discoverv" article.

Note 2. During the period 1953-1990, thedays of the Deutsches Demokratische Republik(DDR), Chemnitz was known as "Karl-Marx-Stadt." On Bruckenstrage a 7.1-meter highsculpture of Karl Marx's head still stands, ananachronism from earlier times (N 50' 50.12 E12 55.39).

Note 3. Tragically, upon Agricola's death in1555, anti-Catholic sentiment was strong andAgricola was not allowed to be buried in St.Jakobikirche (St. Jacob's church) in Chemnitz.Instead, his remains were transported to aCatholic cathedral in Zeitz. A plaque dedicatedto Agricola was erected but disappeared in the1600s. Fortunately, a replica was prepared andwas delivered to Dom St. Paul und Peter (St.Peter and Paul Cathedral) in 193~(Schlo'strasse, St. Moritz, N 51 0.05 F L207.5).

References.1. G. Agricola, Dc Re Mletallica l.ilri X1, 1556,

Frobenius, Basel.2. J. L. and J. R. Marshall, Th I Il.\AGON of

Alpha Chi Sigma, 2002, 93(0), 9-11.3. G. Agricola, Bermannus, 1530, Frobenius,

Basel.4. Marshall, op. cit., 2001, 92(2), 20-22.5. A. J. Rocke, Ambix, 1985, 32(1)

(March), 37-45.6. H. L. and L. H. Hoover, English translation

of G. Agricola, De Re Metallica,1912,London; 1950 edition, Dover, NewYork.

7. O. Hannaway, Bull. Hist. Chem., 1992,12, 3-10.

8. Marshall, op. cit., 2003, 94(1), 3-8.9. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry,Vol. 2,

1961, Macmillan, 42-62.

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48.99 E12' 32.41) A historical museum nowresides in the castle and includes an entire roomdevoted to Agricola. In another section of themuseum, an exhibit is presented on the cloth tradewhich was the occupation of his father inGlauchau. This castle is 1.2 km south of the statueof Figure 1.

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*jSIFigure 7. The Altes Rathaus (old city hall) in Chemnitz, the same building where Agricola worked asBurgermeister (Marktplatz, N 50' 49.95 E 12' 55.13). Plaques and a bust of Agricola are located in theAgricola cloister, across the street (extreme lower left of figure, in far building). (Note 2). The St. Jakobikirche,where Agricola was refused burial, is behind and to the right (just out of view).

Figure 8. Tis restaurant/shop complex is the site where Agncola lived in Chemnitz (Kirchgapchen, N 5049.96 E 12th55 07), located 50 meters behind the Cloister of the previous figure. A lovely beer garden islocated on the other side.

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