Redefining Social

Problems

PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

A Series of Texis and Monographs • Edited by Elliot Aronson

THE BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD: A Fundamental Delusion Melvin J. Lerner

HUMAN AGGRESSION Robert A. Baron

INTRINSIC MOTIV A TION Edward L. Deci

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan

NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Richard Heslin and Miles Patterson

THE PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS PHENOMENA Gordon L. Patzer

REDEFINING SOCIAL PROBLEMS Edited by Edward Seidman and Julian Rappaport

SCHOOL DESEGREGATION Harold B. Gerard and Norman Miller

SCHOOL DESEGREGATION: Past, Present, and Future Edited by Walter G. Stephan and Joe R. Feagin

UNIQUENESS: The Human Pursuit of Difference C. R. Snyder and Howard L. Fromkin

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

Redefining Social

Problems

Edited by Edward Seid man

Bank Street College oj Education New York, New York

University oj Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Champaign, Illinois

and Julian Rappaport

University oj Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Champaign, Illinois

Published under the auspices of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Redefining social problems. Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Social problems —Congresses. 2. United States —Social conditions —Congresses.

3. Social psychology —Congresses. I. Seidman, Edward. II. Rappaport, Julian. III. Series. HN65.R43 1986 361.1 85-28217 ISBN 978-1-4899-2238-0 ISBN 978-1-4899-2236-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-2236-6

© 1986 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1986

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1986

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,

recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

To

JEANNE L. SMITH who, in an introductory course in experimental psychology (circa 1961), instilled in us the excite­ment of understanding behavior. Moreover, she challenged and taught us to think and question, both logically and creatively. For these invaluable formative experiences we are eternally indebted.

Contributors

CARY CHERN ISS Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey

MICHELLE FINE Graduate School of Education University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

DENISE J. FOISY Department of Psychology Simon Fraser University Burnaby, British Columbia Canada

LINDA K. GIRDNER Institute for Child Behavior and Development University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, Illinois

NANCY M. HENLEY Department of Psychology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California

LOUISE H. KIDDER Department of Psychology Temple University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

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viii

DAN A. LEWIS Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois

JEAN ANN LINNEY Department of Psychology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

SHARON NELSON-LE GALL Department of Psychology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

JULIAN RAPPAPORT Department of Psychology University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Champaign, Illinois

TRACEY A. REVENSON Department of Psychology Barnard College of Columbia University New York, New York

STEPHANIE RIGER Department of Psychology Lake Forest College Lake Forest, Illinois

RONALD ROESCH Department of Psychology Simon Fraser University Burnaby, British Columbia Canada

SEYMOUR B. SARASON

CONTRIBUTORS

Department of Psychology and Center for Study of Education Yale University New Haven, Connecticut

CONTRIBUTORS

RICHARD R. SCOTI Quaker Oats Company Merchandise Mart Plaza Chicago, Illinois

DIANE SCOTI-JONES Department of Psychology North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina

EDWARD SEIDMAN Research, Demonstration and Policy Division Bank Street College New York, New York

ALTHEA SMITH Department of Psychology Boston University Boston, Massachusetts

STANLEY SUE Department of Psychology University of California at Los Angeles Los Angeles, California

KARL E. WEICK College of Business Administration University of Texas Austin, Texas

NOLAN ZANE Department of Psychology University of California at Los Angeles Los Angeles, California

ix

Foreword

A key element of the American ethos is a constant striving to improve the conditions of life. To achieve this goal requires first identifying problems, then developing an understanding of them, and finally taking steps toward implementing solutions. The actions that are taken typically stem from our understanding of the causes of problems and the conditions that lead to them. It is assumed that solutions derive from correct analysis of causes and con­sequences. Hence, social scientists expend much time and energy on problem analysis.

Even more fundamental than correct causal understanding, however, is proper identification of the problem itself. In the social sphere, problems are not fixed or given; they are open to interpretation, and problem definition may depend heavily on the viewer's perspective. But the way problems are identified and formulated is crucial-it is the beginning of the chain that leads to social improvement, constraining both our understanding of causes and the potential solutions that are generated. Unfortunately, problem defi­nition receives relatively little attention from either social scientists or poli­cymakers. The present volume, edited by Edward Seidman and Julian Rap­paport, attempts to remedy this imbalance by focusing on the importance of getting definitions right.

Seidman and Rappaport have selected as chapter authors both well­established, highly eminent scholars and equally talented younger contribu­tors. Collectively, the authors provide a set of fresh insights that are diverse but complementary. The issues raised in their discussions of redefining social problems are of interest to a broad cross-section of readers.

Problem definition is crucial to academicians, helping professionals, pol­icymakers, and representatives of interest groups. For those concerned with social problems of any kind, the book provides a general analysis of how problem definition and associated social myths can influence the success of attempts to solve these problems. Substantively, the chapters cover a range of issues. Community psychologists and social workers will find the various discussions of social action (especially Chapters 2, 3, 4, 9, and 13) of special

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xii FOREWORD

interest. For criminologists, there are chapters on crime as stress and on the success of criminal justice system interventions. Developmental psychologists will find that the book encompasses life-span issues from custody determi­nation affecting children to the presumed loneliness of old age. Social psy­chologists and educators will be particularly interested in the chapters on ethnicity and desegregation. For students and researchers in all the relevant disciplines, the book will provide insights on how and why good intentions have often led to failure, and offer guidance on how better to formulate questions and direct research efforts.

The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) is proud and pleased to sponsor this book. The volume reflects SPSSl's fundamental goals, particularly the application of social science knowledge to the under­standing of social issues. But social science knowledge is of value only when it is valid and accessible. Seidman and Rappaport have done a superb job of assembling relevant knowledge that can potentially benefit society as a whole. SPSSI hopes that this publication will contribute to its dissemination to a wide audience of scholars and practitioners interested in social change.

President, 1984-1985 Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues

Marilynn B. Brewer

Acknowledgments

This volume grew out of a symposium on which the editors served as chair and discussant, respectively, at the 1982 annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. The symposium was sponsored by the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) under the banner of the 1982 annual theme, "Redefining Social Problems." As a result of the wide array of interesting symposia presented at the convention under this theme and the importance and timeliness of the topic, we began to think about the need for an integrated volume for students and scholars of social issues.

After discussing the idea with Dan Perlman, SPSSI co-publications chair, we were encouraged and decided to move forward. We solicited selected contributions from participants at the APA annual convention, for the most part from symposia sponsored by SPSSI, and from a few additional scholars who, we thought, had something important to offer in such a volume. This volume consists of the sixteen best contributions, and an integrative overview, woven around the theme of redefining social problems.

We are deeply appreciative of the confidence, support, and encouragement Dan Perlman provided us throughout the entire process, and we are also thankful to five anonymous SPSSI reviewers, whose thoughtful comments helped us rethink the volume's organization in important ways, and the last minute editorial and/ or typing assistance of Sharon Medlock and Judith Rapp.

xiii

Contents

Foreword by Marilynn B. Brewer......................................... xi

Framing the Issues .................... '..................................... 1

Edward Seidman and Julian Rappaport

Some Unexamined Premises of Social Problem Definition............... 3 Individualism ........................................................... 3 A Single Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Pragmatism and Rationality............................................ 4 Generalization from Extreme Examples................................ 4 Problemizing and Overextension ....................................... 4 Uniform Solutions...................................................... 5

Should Social Problems be Redefined? If So, How and for What Purpose?............................................................. 5

Organization of the Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PART 1 FRAMEWORKS FOR REDEFINING SOCIAL PROBLEMS..... 9

2

The Nature of Social Problem Solving in Social Action.................. 11

Seymour B. Sarason

Science and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Social Action.............................................................. 19 The Challenge of Intractability ........................................... 23 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28

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3

Small Wins: Redefining the Scale of Social Issues........................ 29

Karl E. Weick

Arousal and Social Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 Examples of Small Wins.................................................. 32 Characteristics of Small Wins............................................. 35 The Psychology of Small Wins ........................................... 38

Cognitive Limitations................................................... 38 Affective Limitations ................................................... 39 Stress.................................................................... 40 Enactment of Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42

The Politics of Small Wins................................................ 43 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46

4

Making Sense of Injustice: Social Explanations, Social Action, and the Role of the Social Scientist........................................... 49

Louise H. Kidder and Michelle Fine

Locating the Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49 Defining Solutions......................................................... 50

Level of Analysis: Collective versus Individual ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51 System of Supports: Self-Help versus Reliance on Trained

Professionals.......................................................... 52 Action: Waging a Fight or Requesting Help? .................... ..... 53

Whose Diagnosis Prevails? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Social Scientists Must Deprivatize and Deindividualize Social

Injustice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Social Scientists Can Examine Competing Perspectives on Injustice and

the Differential Power Basis of Involved Advocates ................ 57 Social Scientists Can Transform Prevailing Diagnoses of Injustice and

Encourage Social Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5

Women as a Social Problem: Conceptual and Practical Issues in Defining Social Problems ...................................................... 65

Nancy M. Henley

CONTENTS xvii

Defining Social Problems ................................................. 68 Functional .............................................................. 70 Normative .............................................................. 70 Objective................................................................ 71 Subjective............................................................... 71 Value Conflict .......................................................... 72 Claims-Making. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73

The Natural History of a Social Problem................................ 74 Further Issues in Definition and Natural History........................ 75 The Role of the Social Scientist........................................... 76 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

PART 2 RETHINKING DEMOGRAPHIC DEVIANCE. .................. 81

6

Defining Black Families: Past and Present................................ 83

Diane Scott-Jones and Sharon Nelson-Le Gall

Family Structures ......................................................... 84 Extent of Differences ................................................... 84 Origin of Differences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Meaning of Differences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Family Functions.......................................................... 92 Exten t of Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92 Origin of Differences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Meaning of Differences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96

Directions for Research and Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97 Summary and Conclusions... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98

7

Positive Marginality: The Experience of Black Women Leaders .......... 101

Althea Smith

Perspectives on Marginality ............................................... 103 Traditional Assumptions of Marginality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 Alternative Assumptions of Marginality ............................... 104

Positive Marginality and Black Women Leaders ......................... 105 Structural ............................................................... 106 Functional .............................................................. 107

xviii CONTENTS

Psychological. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109 Implications of Marginality for Majority and Minority Groups ......... 110 References ................................................................. 112

8

Debunking the Myth of Loneliness in Late Life ........................... 115

Tracey A. Revenson

Ageism .................................................................... 116 The Concern about Late Life Loneliness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117 The Experience of Loneliness.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118 Loneliness across the Life Span. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119 Everything Old is New Again ............................................ 121 Themes and Issues in the Study of Aging That Contribute to the

Loneliness Myth ...................................................... 122 Aging and Decline... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 122

Successful Aging .......................................................... 123 Age as a Social Characteristic .......................................... 123 Social Victimization ..................................................... 123 Demographic Shifts in Population Composition ....................... 124 Being Alone versus Lonely ............................................. 124 Isolation or Desolation? ................................................ 125

Difficulties in Debunking the Loneliness Myth ........................... 126 Scrutiny of the Data ...................................... , ............. 126 Age versus Cohort Effects .............................................. 127 Disparity in the Definition of "Old Age" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127 Age Segregation ......................................................... 127 Media Coverage ......................................................... 127

Thoughts and Questions for Research .................................... 128 A Life-Span Perspective ................................................ 128

Social Interventions ....................................................... 130 Summary ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131 References ................................................................. 132

PART 3 RETHINKING SYSTEMS FOR ACTION ........................ 137

9

In Praise of Paradox: A Social Policy of Empowerment over Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141

julian Rappaport

CONTENTS xix

The Paradoxical Nature of Social/Community Problems ................ 142 Paradox ................................................................. 142 Antinomy ............................................................... 142 Dialectic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143 Convergent and Divergent Reasoning .................................. 145

Confronting Paradox: Two Examples from Our Past .................... 146 Community Psychology as a Social Movement ........................... 147 Social History and the Rights/Needs Dialectic .......................... 149 The Logic and the Imagery of Empowerment. ........................... 155 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160

10

Child Custody Determination: Ideological Dimensions of a Social Problem .............................................................. 165

Linda K. Girdner

Introduction ............................................................... 165 Custody Determination in Historical Perspective ...................... 166

Custody Adjudication ..................................................... 167 The Paradox of Divorce ................................................ 169 The Paradox of Custody ................................................ 171

Ideologies of the Family in Custody Adjudication ....................... 171 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172 The Code for Conduct .................................................. 173 The Gender-Based Ideology ............................................ 175 The Individual-Based Ideology ......................................... 176

The Problem Redefined ................................................... 178 Mediation and Joint Custody .......................................... 178 The Social Control of Empowerment .................................. 180

Summary and Conclusion................................................. 180 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181

11

Crime as Stress: On the Internalization of a Social Problem ............. 185

Dan A. Lewis and Stephanie Riger

Stress and Interest Groups ................................................ 186 The Stress Model of Crime ............................................... 190 Limits of the Stress Paradigm ............................................ 193 The Stress Model and Public Policy ...................................... 194 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199

xx CONTENTS

12

Examining Criminal Justice Interventions: The Myth of Reform .......... 201

Ronald Roesch and Denise /. Foisy

The Reach of Reform ..................................................... 202 Focus of the Interventions ................................................ 205 Psychological Treatments ................................................. 207 Anticipating Effects of Reform ........................................... 210 Summary and Discussion ................................................. 213 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 214

13

Different Ways of Thinking about Burnout ............................... 217

Cary Chern iss

The Moral-Religious and Scientific-Technical Paradigms ................ 218 Using the Moral-Religious Paradigm to Reconceptualize Burnout ...... 219 Institutional Sources of Social Commitment. ............................. 221

Ideology ................................................................. 222 Guidance ................................................................ 223 Communion ............................................................. 223 Investment .............................................................. 224 Mortification ............................................................ 224

Rethinking Training and Practice in the Human Services ................ 224 Some Implications for Research and Practice ............................ 227 References ................................................................. 228

PART 4 ALTERNATIVE RESEARCH AGENDAS ........................ 231

14

Justice, Values, and Social Science: Unexamined Premises .............. 235

Edward Seidman

Problem Selection, Formulation, and Its Consequeces ................... 236 Determinants Facilitating an Error of Conceptualization ................ 241

Dominant Societal Values .............................................. 242 Officialdom ............................................................. 243 Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 244

CONTENTS xxi

Constituents or Recipients .............................................. 248 Mechanisms for Value Conflict Generation .............................. 249 References ................................................................. 257

15

Court-Ordered School Desegregation: Shuffling the Deck or Playing a Different Game ....................................................... 259

Jean Ann Linney

School Desegregation and a Systems Conception of Change ............. 260 Second-Order Change and Desegregation ................................ 264

Change in Group Relationship ......................................... 264 The Stability of Change ................................................ 266 Organizational-Level Change ........................................... 269

Research Directions and Policy Implications ............................. 271 References ................................................................. 273

16

Indirect Effects of Desegregation .......................................... 275

Richard R. Scott

New Approaches to Desegregation Research ............................. 276 National Studies ........................................................ 277 Community Responses and Racial Isolation ........................... 278 Status Attainment ...................................................... 279 Desegregation and Educational Attainments ........................... 280 Desegregation and Occupational Attainments ......................... 281 Social Effects of Desegregation ......................................... 284

Conclusion ................................................................. 285 References ................................................................. 285

17

Reappraisal of Ethnic Minority Issues: Research Alternatives ............. 289

Nolan Zane and Stanley Sue

Paradox and Problems .................................................... 290 Conflict 1: Etic versus Ernie ............................................ 291

xxii CONTENTS

Conflict 2: Mainstreaming versus Pluralism ............................ 291 Conflict 3: Equal Opportunity versus Equality of Outcome ........... 292 Conflict 4: Modal Personality versus Individual Differences .......... 293 Conflict 5: Racism versus Self-Determinism ........................... 293 Implications ............................................................. 295 A Dilemma in Research ................................................ 296

Recommendations for Research .......................................... 298 Examination of Trends ................................................. 298 A New Emphasis: Parallel Research ................................... 300

References ................................................................. 302

Index ...................................................................... 305