Realization 11a. PRO & CP Realization 11a. PRO & CP & V2& V2

(Chapter 8)(Chapter 8)

(v1.1)(v1.1)

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Projects for todayProjects for today Review PRO and control, with some Review PRO and control, with some additional evidence for PRO from additional evidence for PRO from Binding Theory.Binding Theory.

Look at one other place where CPs Look at one other place where CPs appear inside other sentences: appear inside other sentences: clausal adjuncts.clausal adjuncts.

Look at the phenomenon of “V2” Look at the phenomenon of “V2” languages—another place where CP is languages—another place where CP is important.important.

Before we finishBefore we finishembedded clauses…embedded clauses…

Another place we find embedded clauses Another place we find embedded clauses is as modificational adjuncts.is as modificational adjuncts. Pat ate lunch [Pat ate lunch [PPPP on the hill ] on the hill ][[PPPP by the tree ] [ by the tree ] [PPPP in the rain ]. in the rain ].

To express reasons and times, we also To express reasons and times, we also find whole CPs adjoined to our clause:find whole CPs adjoined to our clause: We discussed adjuncts [We discussed adjuncts [CPCP before we finished before we finished our discussion of embedded clauses]our discussion of embedded clauses]

There’s nothing really new here, except the There’s nothing really new here, except the observation that observation that beforebefore can have category C. can have category C.

Just like Just like afterafter, , whilewhile, , duringduring, etc., etc.

Adjunct clauses:Adjunct clauses:where do they go?where do they go?

Pat cleaned poorly yesterday.Pat cleaned poorly yesterday. #Pat cleaned yesterday poorly.#Pat cleaned yesterday poorly.

Pat cleaned poorly [before Chris arrived].Pat cleaned poorly [before Chris arrived]. #Pat cleaned [before Chris arrived] poorly.#Pat cleaned [before Chris arrived] poorly. Pat cleaned [before Chris arrived] Pat cleaned [before Chris arrived] yesterday.yesterday.

Pat cleaned yesterday [before Chris Pat cleaned yesterday [before Chris arrived].arrived].

Pat heard that [before Chris arrived]Pat heard that [before Chris arrived][Tracy cleaned the sink].[Tracy cleaned the sink].

Pat heard [before Chris arrived] thatPat heard [before Chris arrived] that[Tracy cleaned the sink].[Tracy cleaned the sink].

BecauseBecause clauses clauses

Reason clauses Reason clauses are also are also clausal clausal adjuncts.adjuncts. Because I lost Because I lost the game, I the game, I leftleft..

I left because I left because I lost the I lost the game.game.

vPlose the game

T

T[past]

TP

DPI

CP

Cbecause

vPleave

T

T[past]

TP

DPI

TP

CP

CØDECL

If If clausesclauses

IfIf clauses are clauses are like like becausebecause clauses.clauses. If he loses If he loses the game, I the game, I will leavewill leave..

I will leave I will leave if he loses if he loses the game.the game.

vPlosethe game

T

T[pres]

TP

DPhe

CP

Cif

vPleave

<M>

TP

DPI

TP

CP

CØDECL

MP

T

M+Twill

Unique Unique -Generalization-Generalization *Dantes accused.*Dantes accused. This cannot mean This cannot mean Dantes accused Dantes accused himselfhimself, and isn’t good on its own. , and isn’t good on its own. We concluded (back in chapter 3, p. We concluded (back in chapter 3, p. 81), that 81), that -role assignment is -role assignment is constrained by….constrained by….

The Unique The Unique -Generalization-GeneralizationEach Each -role must be assigned but a -role must be assigned but a constituent cannot be assigned more constituent cannot be assigned more than one than one -role.-role.

So, presume that’s true.So, presume that’s true.

PROPRO Jack tried to capture NinaJack tried to capture Nina

Here, Here, capturecapture has two has two -roles (-roles (AgentAgent and and ThemeTheme), and ), and trytry has two has two -roles (-roles (AgentAgent and and PropositionProposition). Intuitively, ). Intuitively, JackJack is the Agent is the Agent of both the trying and the capturing. But of both the trying and the capturing. But assuming that the assuming that the Unique Unique -Generalization-Generalization is is true, this can’t be:true, this can’t be:JackJack can’t be getting two can’t be getting two -roles.-roles.

SomethingSomething must be getting the Agent must be getting the Agent -role of -role of capturecapture ( (JackJack is pretty clearly getting the is pretty clearly getting the AgentAgent-role of -role of trytry), but we can’t see it.), but we can’t see it.

Conclusion: Conclusion: There’s something we can’t see There’s something we can’t see there, getting the Agent there, getting the Agent -role of -role of capturecapture. . It’s a little bit like a silent pronoun, so we It’s a little bit like a silent pronoun, so we call it PRO.call it PRO.

PROPRO Jack tried [ to PRO capture Nina ]Jack tried [ to PRO capture Nina ]

PRO must be there to satisfy the UPRO must be there to satisfy the UG.G. But something must be there in the But something must be there in the specifier of TP:specifier of TP: T T alwaysalways has a [ has a [uuD*] D*] feature to checkfeature to check (the “ (the “EPPEPP”).”).

(except maybe in Irish and Arabic)(except maybe in Irish and Arabic)

Since Since Jack tried to capture NinaJack tried to capture Nina is is grammatical, we also need PRO to move grammatical, we also need PRO to move to SpecTP to satisfy the EPP.to SpecTP to satisfy the EPP.

PROPRO Jack tried [ PRO toJack tried [ PRO to <PRO><PRO> capture Nina ]capture Nina ]

So, we have two deep principles of the So, we have two deep principles of the grammar that point to a need for PRO in grammar that point to a need for PRO in this sentence.this sentence. Unique Unique -Generalization-Generalization EPP EPP (T has a [(T has a [uuD*] feature)D*] feature)

PRO acts a bit like an anaphor, in that PRO acts a bit like an anaphor, in that it it must must corefer with the subject of the corefer with the subject of the higher verb (higher verb (trytry is a is a subject control subject control verbverb).).

One more argument for One more argument for PROPRO

Principle A:Principle A: An anaphor must be bound in An anaphor must be bound in its binding domain.its binding domain. Jack hoped [ that Kim would explain herself ]Jack hoped [ that Kim would explain herself ] Jack wanted [ Kim to explain herself ]Jack wanted [ Kim to explain herself ] *Jack hoped [ that Kim would call himself ]*Jack hoped [ that Kim would call himself ] *Jack wanted [ Kim to call himself ]*Jack wanted [ Kim to call himself ] Jack hoped [ PRO to see Kim ]Jack hoped [ PRO to see Kim ] Jack hoped [ PRO to exonerate himself ]Jack hoped [ PRO to exonerate himself ]

Principle B: Principle B: A pronoun must be free in A pronoun must be free in its binding domain.its binding domain. Jack hoped [ that Chase would exonerate himJack hoped [ that Chase would exonerate him ]] Jack wanted [ Chase to exonerate him ]Jack wanted [ Chase to exonerate him ] Jack hoped [ PRO to exonerate him ]Jack hoped [ PRO to exonerate him ]

PROPRO So, we have pretty good evidence for So, we have pretty good evidence for PRO, despite its invisibility:PRO, despite its invisibility:

We believe T has a [We believe T has a [uuD*] feature (EPP).D*] feature (EPP). Every TP needs a specifier.Every TP needs a specifier.

We believe the Unique We believe the Unique -generalization.-generalization. No DP can get two different No DP can get two different -roles.-roles.

Binding Theory reacts as if something Binding Theory reacts as if something is there serving as a binder.is there serving as a binder.

IdiomsIdioms Idiomatic interpretation available for Idiomatic interpretation available for raising verbs:raising verbs: [The cat][The cat]ii seems seems ttii to have your tongue. to have your tongue. [The cat][The cat]ii seems seems ttii to be out of the bag. to be out of the bag.

The catThe cat was originally Merged within the was originally Merged within the lower lower vvP—its P—its -role comes from -role comes from have/behave/be outout..Not so here:Not so here:

[The cat] tried [PRO to have your tongue].[The cat] tried [PRO to have your tongue]. [The cat] arranged [PRO to be out of the [The cat] arranged [PRO to be out of the bag].bag].

A further argument for PRO being there and being A further argument for PRO being there and being something different from [something different from [the catthe cat].].

Subject control v. object Subject control v. object controlcontrol

Subject control verbsSubject control verbs take a nonfinite take a nonfinite complement, with PRO as the subject, and complement, with PRO as the subject, and PRO must refer to the higher subject.PRO must refer to the higher subject.

Gael tried [ PRO to disarm the bomb ]Gael tried [ PRO to disarm the bomb ]

Object control verbsObject control verbs are ditransitives are ditransitives that take an object and a nonfinite that take an object and a nonfinite complement, with PRO as the subject, and complement, with PRO as the subject, and PRO must refer to the higher object.PRO must refer to the higher object.

David persuaded Sherry [ PRO to leave ]David persuaded Sherry [ PRO to leave ]

Persuasion and promisesPersuasion and promises Not all ditransitive control verbs areNot all ditransitive control verbs areobjectobject control verbs. control verbs. Though all object control verbs are Though all object control verbs are ditransitives.ditransitives.

David persuaded Sherry [ PRO to leave ]David persuaded Sherry [ PRO to leave ] David promised Sherry [ PRO to run for office ]David promised Sherry [ PRO to run for office ] Chase asked Jack [ PRO to be allowed to Chase asked Jack [ PRO to be allowed to continue ]continue ]

Chase asked Jack [ PRO to get off his case ]Chase asked Jack [ PRO to get off his case ]

Whether a verb is a subject control verb or an Whether a verb is a subject control verb or an object control verb is an individual property of object control verb is an individual property of the verb. the verb. PromisePromise is recorded in our lexicon as a is recorded in our lexicon as a subject control verb, subject control verb, persuadepersuade as an object as an object control verb.control verb.

ECM verbsECM verbs ECM verbs also take infinitive ECM verbs also take infinitive complements, but with an overt subject complements, but with an overt subject (that checks accusative case with the ECM (that checks accusative case with the ECM verb).verb).

Tony found [ Michelle to be charming ]Tony found [ Michelle to be charming ] Tony found [ that Michelle was charming ]Tony found [ that Michelle was charming ]

Jack expected [ Tony to take the day off ]Jack expected [ Tony to take the day off ] Jack expected [ that Tony would take the day Jack expected [ that Tony would take the day off ]off ]

Raising verbsRaising verbs

Raising verbs have no Agent/Experiencer in Raising verbs have no Agent/Experiencer in SpecSpecvvP, and take a nonfinite complement. P, and take a nonfinite complement. The subject of the embedded complement The subject of the embedded complement moves into their subject position:moves into their subject position:

Jack seems [Jack seems [ <Jack><Jack> to be tired ]to be tired ] It seems [ that Jack is tired ]It seems [ that Jack is tired ]

The time appears [The time appears [ <the time><the time> to have expired ]to have expired ] It appears [ that the time has expired ]It appears [ that the time has expired ]

The President happened [The President happened [ <the P.><the P.> to have a pen to have a pen ]]

It happened [ that the President had a pen ]It happened [ that the President had a pen ]

There seems…There seems… We also find the raising verb We also find the raising verb seemseem with with therethere.. ThereThere. The other expletive subject.. The other expletive subject.

Vincent seems to be lost.Vincent seems to be lost. It seems that Vincent is lost.It seems that Vincent is lost. There seems to be a dog in the woods.There seems to be a dog in the woods.

ItIt is an expletive subject that checks is an expletive subject that checks both the EPP and case features of T. There both the EPP and case features of T. There checks only the EPP feature of T (checks only the EPP feature of T (a doga dog checks T’s case feature).checks T’s case feature).

*There seems a man to *There seems a man to bebe

in the garden.in the garden. There seems to be a man in the garden.There seems to be a man in the garden. ThereThere appears in SpecTP, satisfying the appears in SpecTP, satisfying the EPP feature.EPP feature.

There are two TPs here, and each TP There are two TPs here, and each TP has/had an EPP feature.has/had an EPP feature. [[TP TP There seems [There seems [TP TP to be a man in…]]to be a man in…]]

So, So, therethere must have first Merged into must have first Merged into the lower SpecTP and then moved to the the lower SpecTP and then moved to the upper SpecTP.upper SpecTP. [[TP TP There seems [There seems [TP TP <there> to be a man in…]]<there> to be a man in…]]

*There seems a man to *There seems a man to bebe

in the gardenin the garden [[TP TP There seems [There seems [TP TP <there> to be a man in…]]<there> to be a man in…]]

This makes sense, both EPP features are satisfied, This makes sense, both EPP features are satisfied, a mana man gets case from (the higher, finite) T. gets case from (the higher, finite) T.

But think back to when we were building the But think back to when we were building the structure and had reached this point:structure and had reached this point:

[[TT to be a man in the garden] to be a man in the garden]

We now have to satisfy the [We now have to satisfy the [uuD*D*] feature of T. We ] feature of T. We have have therethere lying around in our numeration. But if lying around in our numeration. But if we didn’t, we could have just moved we didn’t, we could have just moved a mana man to to SpecTP to satisfy the EPP.SpecTP to satisfy the EPP.

[[TPTP a man to be <a man> in the garden] a man to be <a man> in the garden]

*There seems a man to *There seems a man to bebe

in the gardenin the garden [[TPTP a man to be <a man> in the garden] a man to be <a man> in the garden]

After doing this, we can continue to add on After doing this, we can continue to add on seemseem, , vv, T, , T, and then insert and then insert therethere into the higher SpecTP, yielding: into the higher SpecTP, yielding:

[[TPTP there seems [ there seems [TPTP a man to be <a man> in…]] a man to be <a man> in…]]

But this is ungrammatical. So what goes wrong?But this is ungrammatical. So what goes wrong? The difference between The difference between There seems a man to be in the There seems a man to be in the gardengarden and and There seems to be a man in the gardenThere seems to be a man in the garden is at is at the point where we’ve got the point where we’ve got [[TT to be a man in the garden] to be a man in the garden]. . Here there’s a choice: Move Here there’s a choice: Move a mana man or Merge or Merge therethere..

The usual approach here is to say The usual approach here is to say Merge is Merge is preferred to Movepreferred to Move, so if you have the choice, , so if you have the choice, you always Merge (it’s “easier”).you always Merge (it’s “easier”).

Verb classes in summaryVerb classes in summary ECM verbs, ECM verbs, e.ge.g., ., believebelieve, , findfind

I believe [I believe [TPTP him to have told the truth]. him to have told the truth].

We find [We find [TPTP these truths to be self-evident ]. these truths to be self-evident ]. (or (or holdhold))

Subject control verbs, Subject control verbs, e.ge.g., ., attemptattempt, , promisepromise KimKimkk promised Jack [ promised Jack [CP CP ØØNULLNULL PRO PROkk to avoid kidnappers ]. to avoid kidnappers ].

KimKimkk will try [ will try [CP CP ØØNULLNULL PRO PROkk to avoid kidnappers ]. to avoid kidnappers ].

Object control verbs, Object control verbs, e.ge.g., ., convinceconvince, , askask I convinced herI convinced herkk [ [CPCP ØØNULLNULL PRO PROkk to drive to work]. to drive to work].

Jack asked KimJack asked Kimkk [ [CP CP ØØNULLNULL PRO PROkk to avoid kidnappers ]. to avoid kidnappers ].

Raising verbs, Raising verbs, e.ge.g., ., appearappear, , seemseem I appear [I appear [TPTP <I><I> to have missed the bus].to have missed the bus].

Jack seems [Jack seems [TPTP <Jack><Jack> to need a nap].to need a nap].

While thinking about While thinking about syntaxsyntax

Before finishing his homework, Ike watched TV.Before finishing his homework, Ike watched TV.

FinishFinish: : transitivetransitive ( (AgentAgent, , ThemeTheme)) Agent:Agent: ?? Theme:Theme: his homeworkhis homework

WatchWatch: : transitivetransitive ( (AgentAgent, , ThemeTheme)) Agent:Agent: IkeIke Theme:Theme: TVTV

Ike watched TV Ike watched TV is the main clause.is the main clause. Before finishing his homework Before finishing his homework is a is a modifier.modifier.

While thinking about While thinking about syntaxsyntax

Before finishing his homework, Ike Before finishing his homework, Ike watched TV.watched TV.

Intuitively, it is Ike who was (at Intuitively, it is Ike who was (at least at risk of) finishing his least at risk of) finishing his homework.homework. We are not going to have any particular We are not going to have any particular explanation for exactly explanation for exactly howhow the the interpretation tied to the subject interpretation tied to the subject comes about, but it seems to be.comes about, but it seems to be.

Before he finished his homework, Ike Before he finished his homework, Ike watched TV.watched TV.

While PRO thinking about While PRO thinking about syntaxsyntax

Before PRO finishing his homework, …Before PRO finishing his homework, …

This PRO does seem to be This PRO does seem to be controlled by the subject somehow controlled by the subject somehow ((*While raining, Ike dashed to the *While raining, Ike dashed to the storestore).).

The form The form finishingfinishing is not the is not the progressive, it is the present progressive, it is the present participle, a nonfinite form.participle, a nonfinite form.

Before PRO Before PRO finishing…finishing…

T is not finite, so no [tense] T is not finite, so no [tense] feature.feature.

It is not the It is not the infinitiveinfinitive either. either. We’ll say this form has the We’ll say this form has the

[ing] feature.[ing] feature.

The [The [uuInfl:Infl:] feature of ] feature of vv is is matched, valued, and checked by matched, valued, and checked by the [ing] feature, resulting in the [ing] feature, resulting in finishingfinishing..

T

T[ing]

TP

DPPRO

CP

Cbefore

Vfinish

VP

DPhis homework

v

v

vP

<DP>

v<V>

[uInfl:ing]

Before PRO Before PRO finishing…finishing…

How does PRO get its case How does PRO get its case feature checked?feature checked?

Some relevant sentences:Some relevant sentences: Before Before hehe finished his finished his homework, Ike watched TV.homework, Ike watched TV.

Before Ike’s finishing Before Ike’s finishing ofof his homework, tension was his homework, tension was high.high.

T

T[ing]

TP

DPPRO

CP

Cbefore

Vfinish

VP

DPhis homework

v

v

vP

<DP>

v<V>

Before PRO Before PRO finishing…finishing…

Given this, the best Given this, the best hypothesis seems to be hypothesis seems to be that the [ing] T also has that the [ing] T also has a [a [nullnull] feature, ] feature, checking case with PRO checking case with PRO just like finite T checks just like finite T checks nominative case with nominative case with other subjects.other subjects. [[nullnull] = [] = [uucase:nullcase:null]]

T

T[ing]

TP

DPPRO

CP

Cbefore

Vfinish

VP

DPhis homework

v

v

vP

<DP>

v<V>

Before Before PRO PRO

finishinfinishing…g…

The only thing left is The only thing left is to attach the modifier to attach the modifier into the main clause…into the main clause…

T

T[past]

TP

DPIke

TP

Vwatch

VP

DPTV

v

v

vP

<DP>

v<V>

T

T[ing]

TP

DPPRO

CP

Cbefore

Vfinish

VP

DPhis homework

v

v

vP

<DP>

v<V>

CP

ØDECL

Before his cooking of the Before his cooking of the t(of)urkey, Ike had never t(of)urkey, Ike had never opened the oven before.opened the oven before.

On gerundsOn gerunds There is yet another form of the verb There is yet another form of the verb that shows up with that shows up with -ing-ing on the end of on the end of it in English: the it in English: the gerundgerund..

A gerund is basically a verb acting as A gerund is basically a verb acting as a noun— we’ve been looking at this kind a noun— we’ve been looking at this kind of deverbal noun already. One way to of deverbal noun already. One way to tell whether you are looking at a tell whether you are looking at a gerund (noun) or not (a verb) is to see gerund (noun) or not (a verb) is to see whether it is modified by adjectives or whether it is modified by adjectives or adverbs:adverbs: Before his quick(*ly) cooking of the Before his quick(*ly) cooking of the t(of)urkey…t(of)urkey…

Before quick-*(ly) finishing his homework…Before quick-*(ly) finishing his homework…

CPCP The thread here (chapter 8) is motivating and The thread here (chapter 8) is motivating and making use of the CP level of our structure:making use of the CP level of our structure:

C is the home of the [clause-type:…] feature, C is the home of the [clause-type:…] feature, differentiating interrogatives and differentiating interrogatives and declaratives.declaratives.

C is sometimes available to check case on the C is sometimes available to check case on the subject when it can’t be checked the higher subject when it can’t be checked the higher verb (ECM) or finite T:verb (ECM) or finite T: I want [ ØI want [ ØNULLNULL PRO to see more syntax ] PRO to see more syntax ] I intended [ for her to be win the lottery ].I intended [ for her to be win the lottery ].

We’ll see more for CP as we explore question We’ll see more for CP as we explore question formation—but first, we’ll see it at work in formation—but first, we’ll see it at work in German…German…

V2 languagesV2 languages There are a number of languages that are There are a number of languages that are classified as “verb second” or “classified as “verb second” or “V2V2” ” languages. They are so called because in languages. They are so called because in general the (tensed) verb must be second, general the (tensed) verb must be second, after the first major constituent in the after the first major constituent in the sentence.sentence. De man heeft een boek gezien gisteren.De man heeft een boek gezien gisteren.(Dutch)(Dutch)the man has a book seen yesterdaythe man has a book seen yesterday‘the man has seen a book yesterday.’‘the man has seen a book yesterday.’

een boek heeft de man gezien gisteren.een boek heeft de man gezien gisteren. gisteren heeft de man een boek gezien.gisteren heeft de man een boek gezien.

Die Kinder haben diesen Film gesehen.Die Kinder haben diesen Film gesehen.(German)(German)the children have this film seenthe children have this film seen‘The children have seen this film.’‘The children have seen this film.’

Diesen Film haben die Kinder gesehen.Diesen Film haben die Kinder gesehen.

Analyzing V2Analyzing V2 How can we account for this?How can we account for this? Assume that in German, most things are Assume that in German, most things are very similar to English:very similar to English: The UTAH is the same (Agents in SpecThe UTAH is the same (Agents in SpecvvP, etc.)P, etc.) The EPP is the same (T has a [The EPP is the same (T has a [uuD*D*] feature; ] feature; there needs to be a DP in SpecTP)there needs to be a DP in SpecTP)

Things to remember:Things to remember: French/Irish and English differ in whether French/Irish and English differ in whether vv moves to T.moves to T.

Irish and French/English differ in whether Irish and French/English differ in whether the subject moves to SpecTP.the subject moves to SpecTP.

In English yes-no questions (but not in In English yes-no questions (but not in declaratives), T moves to C.declaratives), T moves to C.

English Yes-No QuestionEnglish Yes-No Question In a YNQ, the In a YNQ, the

[Q] feature of [Q] feature of C matches and C matches and values the values the [[uuclause-typeclause-type] ] feature of T feature of T as strong as strong ([([Q*Q*]).]).

T moves up to T moves up to adjoin to C, adjoin to C, checking the checking the feature.feature.

Vperform

VP

DPthe autopsy

v

v

vP

<DP>

T

<T>

TP

DPScully

v<V>

CP

CØ[Q]

C

Twill[Q*]

Analyzing V2Analyzing V2 Since the finite verb is sometimes to the Since the finite verb is sometimes to the left of the subject:left of the subject: Diesen Roman las ich schon letztes JahrDiesen Roman las ich schon letztes Jahrthis book read I already last yearthis book read I already last year‘I read this book already last year.’‘I read this book already last year.’

Just like it is in English YNQs:Just like it is in English YNQs: Will I get an A?Will I get an A?

We can suppose that German and English We can suppose that German and English differ in that when C values the [differ in that when C values the [uuclause-clause-type:type:] feature of T, it is ] feature of T, it is alwaysalways strong. strong. In fact, more natural sounding than what we In fact, more natural sounding than what we have to say in English: When C values [have to say in English: When C values [uuclause-clause-type:type:] as [Q] (but not [Decl]) it’s strong.] as [Q] (but not [Decl]) it’s strong.

TopicsTopics

The constituent that appears first in a The constituent that appears first in a V2 clause is generally considered to be V2 clause is generally considered to be a topic.a topic.

Suppose that C has a topic feature Suppose that C has a topic feature [[uutop*top*] and whatever is the topic of ] and whatever is the topic of the sentence (be it an adverb, the the sentence (be it an adverb, the subject, the object) is also marked subject, the object) is also marked with an (interpretable) [top] feature.with an (interpretable) [top] feature.

Then this will work just like the EPP, Then this will work just like the EPP, essentially.essentially.

V2 languages V2 languages The basic idea we’ll be pursuing with respect The basic idea we’ll be pursuing with respect to V2 languages is this:to V2 languages is this: To get the tensed verb higher than the subject (which To get the tensed verb higher than the subject (which is sometimes is), we move the verb to T, and then T is sometimes is), we move the verb to T, and then T (with the verb) to C.(with the verb) to C.

To put C into “second position”, we move some phrase To put C into “second position”, we move some phrase into SpecCP.into SpecCP.

The “first phrase” in V2 languagesThe “first phrase” in V2 languagesis generally interpreted as the topicis generally interpreted as the topicof the sentences. So, we say that theof the sentences. So, we say that thetopic (whatever it is going to be) hastopic (whatever it is going to be) hasa feature that marks it as such:a feature that marks it as such:An interpretable [top] feature.An interpretable [top] feature.

TP

C

C+T+V+v

CP

DPdiesen Roman

[top]

Reminder: T, v, and [Reminder: T, v, and [u u Infl:]Infl:]

The way our system works (movement The way our system works (movement happens in order to check strong happens in order to check strong uninterpretable features), we implement uninterpretable features), we implement this as follows:this as follows: Because the verb moves to T, we need there to Because the verb moves to T, we need there to be a strong feature checked between T and be a strong feature checked between T and vv..

This is common cross-linguistically. Recall This is common cross-linguistically. Recall French,where the highest verbal head (the French,where the highest verbal head (the vv, , or an auxiliary) moves to T.or an auxiliary) moves to T.

This explained why verbs always precedeThis explained why verbs always precedeadverbs and negation in French.adverbs and negation in French.

Since the [tense] feature of TSince the [tense] feature of Tvalues the [values the [uuInfl:Infl:] feature of] feature ofthe highest verbal head, wethe highest verbal head, wesay that in French, when [tense]say that in French, when [tense]values [values [uuInfl:Infl:], the feature is], the feature isstrong.strong.

VP

vP

T

T[past]

v

v[uInfl:past*]

V

Reminder: v to T Reminder: v to T So, So, vv starts out with a [ starts out with a [uuInfl:Infl:] feature.] feature.

vv alwaysalways starts out with a [ starts out with a [uuInfl:] feature.Infl:] feature. We Merge T, and the [tense] feature (e.g., [past] = We Merge T, and the [tense] feature (e.g., [past] =

[tense:past]) matches and values the [[tense:past]) matches and values the [uuInfl:Infl:] feature.] feature.

What differentiates French and English is that when What differentiates French and English is that when [tense] values [[tense] values [uuInfl:Infl:], the valued [], the valued [uuInfl:Infl:] feature is ] feature is strongstrong..

In English, it is not strongIn English, it is not strongexcept in one case: if theexcept in one case: if the[[uuInfl:Infl:] feature is one an] feature is one anauxiliary (Perf, Prog, Pass),auxiliary (Perf, Prog, Pass),then a [then a [uuInfl:Infl:] feature valued ] feature valued by [tense] is strong.by [tense] is strong. Auxiliaries precedeAuxiliaries precede

negation and adverbs,negation and adverbs,main verbs do not.main verbs do not.

VP

vP

v

T

T

<v>T[past]

v[uInfl:past*]

V

Reminder: Strong Reminder: Strong featuresfeatures Strong features are uninterpretable features Strong features are uninterpretable features

that can only be checked when they are that can only be checked when they are local local toto (a sister of) the feature that checks (a sister of) the feature that checks them.them. Strong features very often = something must move.Strong features very often = something must move.

A feature gets to be strong in one of two A feature gets to be strong in one of two ways:ways: An An inherently strong featureinherently strong feature of the lexical item. of the lexical item.

vv has a strong [ has a strong [uuV*V*] feature.] feature. T has a strong [T has a strong [uuD*D*] feature.] feature. eateat (V) has a strong [ (V) has a strong [uuD*D*] feature (associated with the ] feature (associated with the Theme Theme -role).-role).

A feature that becomes A feature that becomes strong when valuedstrong when valued.. Prog has a weak [Prog has a weak [uuInfl:Infl:] feature. When valued by ] feature. When valued by [tense], it becomes strong. (In English, Aux moves to T: [tense], it becomes strong. (In English, Aux moves to T: I am not eating green eggs & hamI am not eating green eggs & ham))

T has a weak [T has a weak [uuclause-type:clause-type:] feature. When valued by ] feature. When valued by [clause-type:Q], it becomes strong. (In English, T moves [clause-type:Q], it becomes strong. (In English, T moves to C in questions: to C in questions: Would you eat them on a train?Would you eat them on a train?))

V2 languages V2 languages To account To account for the fact that for the fact that vv moves to T and then T moves to T and then T

moves to C in German: a feature that C values on T is moves to C in German: a feature that C values on T is valued as strong.valued as strong.

[[uuclause-type:clause-type:] is a perfect candidate.] is a perfect candidate. So, when [So, when [uuclause-type:clause-type:] is valued by C in German, it is ] is valued by C in German, it is

valued as strong, and so T moves to C.valued as strong, and so T moves to C.

VP

vP

v

T

T

<v>T[past,uclause-type:decl*]v

[uInfl:past*]V

TP

C

Subject

C[decl]

V2 languagesV2 languages To account To account for the fact that for the fact that vv moves to T and then T moves to T and then T

moves to C in German: a feature that C values on T is moves to C in German: a feature that C values on T is valued as strong.valued as strong.

[[uuclause-type:clause-type:] is a perfect candidate.] is a perfect candidate. So, when [So, when [uuclause-type:clause-type:] is valued by C in German, it is ] is valued by C in German, it is

valued as strong, and so T moves to C.valued as strong, and so T moves to C.

VP

vPv

TT

<v>

T[past,uclause-type:decl*]v

[uInfl:past*]V

TP

C

SubjectC[decl]

C

<T>

V2 languagesV2 languages To account To account for the fact that the topic moves into for the fact that the topic moves into SpecCP, we say that C has a [SpecCP, we say that C has a [uutop*top*] feature] feature. . Whatever Whatever is the topic in the sentence will have a feature is the topic in the sentence will have a feature designating that, [top].designating that, [top]. Just like the EPP feature ([Just like the EPP feature ([uuD*D*]) of T forces the subject into ]) of T forces the subject into SpecTP, the [SpecTP, the [uutop*top*] feature of C will force movement of the ] feature of C will force movement of the topic into SpecCP.topic into SpecCP.

VP

vPv

TT

<v>

T

vV

TP

C

Subject[top]

C[decl,utop*]

C

<T>

V2 languagesV2 languages To account To account for the fact that the topic moves into SpecCP, we for the fact that the topic moves into SpecCP, we say that C has a [say that C has a [uutop*top*] feature] feature. . Whatever is the topic in Whatever is the topic in the sentence will have a feature designating that, [top].the sentence will have a feature designating that, [top]. Just like the EPP feature ([Just like the EPP feature ([uuD*D*]) of T forces the subject into ]) of T forces the subject into SpecTP, the [SpecTP, the [uutop*top*] feature of C will force movement of the topic ] feature of C will force movement of the topic into SpecCP.into SpecCP.

VP

vPv

TT

<v>

T

vV

TP

C

<Subject>C[decl,utop*]

C

<T>

CP

Subject[top]

V2…step V2…step 11 V moves to V moves to vv..

Perf moves to Perf moves to T.T.

T moves to C.T moves to C.

Subject moves Subject moves to SpecTP.to SpecTP.

Vgelesen

VP

DPdiesen Roman

v

v

vP

<DP>

T

<Perf+T>

TP

DPich

v<V>

C

CØ

[Decl]

C

Perf+Thabe

[Decl*] PerfP

<Perf>

V2…step 2aV2…step 2a The object is The object is

marked as marked as topic.topic.

C has a C has a [[uutop*top*] ] feature.feature.

Vgelesen

VP

DPdiesen Roman

[top]

v

v

vP

<DP>

T

<Perf+T>

TP

DPich

v<V>

C

CØ

[Decl,utop*]

C

Perf+Thabe

[Decl*] PerfP

<Perf>

V2…step 2bV2…step 2b The object The object

moves up to moves up to SpecTP.SpecTP.

The tensed The tensed verb is now verb is now in second in second position.position.

Vgelesen

VP

<DP>

v

v

vP

<DP>

T

<Perf+T>

TP

DPich

v<V>

C

CØ

[Decl,utop*]

C

Perf+Thabe

[Decl*] PerfP

<Perf>

CP

DPdiesen Roman

[top]

Embedded clausesEmbedded clauses Will John arrive late?Will John arrive late?

T moves to C in English questions.T moves to C in English questions. [[uuclause-type:clause-type:] on T is strong when valued by [Q] on C.] on T is strong when valued by [Q] on C.

I wonder [I wonder [CP CP ifif John will arrive late ]. John will arrive late ]. T does not move to C in embedded questions.T does not move to C in embedded questions. Perhaps because C is “filled” already (by Perhaps because C is “filled” already (by ifif).). Intuition: We need to be able to tell when C is [Q]— if Intuition: We need to be able to tell when C is [Q]— if

nothing is pronounced there, we move T there to signal that C nothing is pronounced there, we move T there to signal that C is [Q].is [Q].

Er sagte [Er sagte [CPCP dass dass ich schon letztes Jahr diesen Roman ich schon letztes Jahr diesen Roman laslas ]]he said he said thatthat I already last year this I already last year this book book readread‘He said that I read this book already last year.’‘He said that I read this book already last year.’ If C is filled in German (If C is filled in German (dassdass), T does not move to C.), T does not move to C. Also notice that when T does not move to C, Also notice that when T does not move to C, the verb is at the verb is at

the endthe end.. German appears to be a German appears to be a head-final head-final language.language.

Interlude: what we’re Interlude: what we’re doingdoing

Remember, what we’re doing is trying to Remember, what we’re doing is trying to describe our describe our knowledge of languageknowledge of language.. We believe that the intricacies of human We believe that the intricacies of human language are actually too complicated to language are actually too complicated to learnlearn, , that we’re in fact describing a kind of system that we’re in fact describing a kind of system that is genetically “built-in”, sort of like that is genetically “built-in”, sort of like our vision system.our vision system.

If that’s the case, the same system must If that’s the case, the same system must underlie all human languages, and the underlie all human languages, and the differences must be relatively minor.differences must be relatively minor.

We’re identifying a few “parameters of We’re identifying a few “parameters of variation”— ways in which human languages can variation”— ways in which human languages can differ.differ.

Interlude: what we’re Interlude: what we’re doingdoing

What we’re saying here is that languages can What we’re saying here is that languages can differ in a few small respects, and differ in a few small respects, and we can we can account for thataccount for that:: Headedness:Headedness: heads come before complements in some heads come before complements in some languages (English), and after complements in others languages (English), and after complements in others (Japanese, German).(Japanese, German).

Verb-raising:Verb-raising: some languages move some languages move vv to T (French), to T (French), others don’t. others don’t. (Under what conditions does T value (Under what conditions does T value [[uuInfl:Infl:] as strong?)] as strong?)

V2:V2: some languages move some languages move vv all the way to C (through all the way to C (through T), and topicalize something, yielding the V2 T), and topicalize something, yielding the V2 pattern. pattern. (Under what conditions does C have a [(Under what conditions does C have a [uutop*top*] ] feature and value [feature and value [uuclause-type:clause-type:] as strong?)] as strong?)

EPP:EPP: VSO languages seem to move VSO languages seem to move vv up to T, but don’t up to T, but don’t move the subject to SpecTP, yielding VSO.move the subject to SpecTP, yielding VSO. (Does T (Does T have a [have a [uuD*D*] feature?)] feature?)