Reading is the foundation for success Reading failure can ...

5 Components of Reading February 16, 2006

Dr. Carol Ronka, Dr. Kathleen Williams 1

A Psychologist’s Role in Promoting Reading Literacy

Carol Ronka, PhD, NCSP

Reading - a National Priority

•  Reading is the foundation for success

•  Reading failure can be prevented Ø Through early

intervention (Pre K, K, 1)

Ø Using research-based interventions and assessments

2 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), various years, 1990–2013 Mathematics and Reading Assessments.

3

Teaching Reading IS Rocket Science

•  It is a job for an expert. •  It requires disciplined study of

language systems and forms, both spoken and written.

•  Research has only recently led to agreement between scientists and educators as to what needs to be done.

•  Must use Scientifically-Based Reading Research.

4 National research effort



Accepted Findings •  Role of phonological awareness

(1975-1995) •  Role of context in WR (1980++) •  Idea of bonding sound, symbol &

meaning as words are learned and fluency is gained (1980++)

•  Meaning is constructed by a reader’s existing schema (1995++)

•  Role of language, vocabulary, background (1995++)

5

Competing Disproven Ideas

•  Word recognition is context driven

•  Whole words are learned through visual imprinting

•  Children learn to read by read – importance of interest and choice

6

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Written language is harder than spoken language

•  We are not wired for reading as we are for spoken language

•  Nationally, 25% of the adult population are non-readers

•  Children begin to speak at age 1, but do not learn to read until age 5 or 6.

8

Characteristics of Proficient Readers

•  Can manipulate speech sounds in words

•  Recognizes new words with few exposures

•  Links sound with symbol •  Processes larger “chunks of print” •  Recognizes words automatically •  Focuses on meaning •  Comprehends words, sentences, & text



9

Characteristics of Poor Readers

•  Over-reliance on context and guessing •  Limited phoneme awareness •  Slow naming speed, lack of fluency •  Limited attention available for

meaning due to effort required for decoding

•  Lack of world knowledge to make inferences and interpret text

•  Chronic failure limits motivation to attend and persist

•  10

Reading and the Brain

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Processing systems

Context Processor

Orthographic Processor

Phonological Processor

Meaning Processor

Speech Print 12

Phonological Processor •  This is the speech sound system that

is responsible for the functions of: Ø Remembering the words in a phrase or the

sounds in a word; Ø Comparing words that sound similar; Ø Retrieving specific words from the mental

dictionary and producing speech sounds; Ø Holding the sounds of a word in memory

so that it can be written down; Ø Taking apart sounds in a word so that

they can be matched with alphabetic symbols.



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•  Processes letters, letter patterns, and whole words Ø Recognition and formation of letters Ø Association of letters with sounds Ø Attention to letter sequences and

patterns Ø Fluent recognition of whole words Ø Recall of letters for spelling

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Meaning Processor

•  We store word meanings in relation to: Ø Other words Ø Categories and concepts Ø Examples of word use in context Ø The sounds, spelling, and syllables Ø Meaningful parts

15

Context processor

•  Interprets words we have heard, named, or partially identified, with reference to: Ø Language Ø Experience Ø Knowledge of the concepts

•  We teach the background that children need to interpret what they read.

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Scarborough’s Rope Model of Reading Development



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Distinct Language Systems

•  Phonetics: the inventory of speech sounds •  Phonology: the use of phonemes in words •  Phonics: sound-symbol associations •  Orthography: the spelling system •  Morphology: the meaningful parts of words •  Semantics: word or phrase meanings •  Syntax: the rules of sentence structure •  Pragmatics: the rules of social language use

and the organization of discourse

18

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS)

•  First Sound Fluency •  Letter Naming Fluency •  Phoneme Segmentation Fluency •  Nonsense Word Fluency CLS and WWR •  DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency – with

Accuracy and Retell •  Daze

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DIBELS and the Processors

background information

sentence context

vocabulary

Context Processor


Phonological Processor

Meaning Processor

writing output speech output reading input

speech sound system

letter memory phonics

fluency

2.FSF

4.NWF

1.LNF

7. Daze

5.DORF 3.PSF

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Phonemic Awareness



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What is Phonological Awareness?

•  Phonological awareness is the recognition of the sound structure of language as demonstrated by the ability to listen for, discriminate, and manipulate sound (i.e. rhyming)

What is Phonemic Awareness? •  Phonemic awareness is the ability

to detect single sounds (or phonemes) in words

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What Is a Phoneme?

•  Single consonants •  Short vowels •  Long vowels •  Consonant digraphs (th, ch, sh, wh) •  Long vowel diagraphs (ea, ee, ai, ay,

oa, ow) •  Consonant blends - Initial and final •  R-Controlled Vowels •  Vowel diphthongs (ow, oi, ou, oy) •  Schwa

Is There a Difference Between Phonemic Awareness and Phonological Awareness?

Phonological awareness is a broader term used when the size of the phonological unit is larger than a phoneme (onset-rime, syllables, words) (Smith, Simmons, Kame’enui, 1995)

Phonemic Awareness

Phonological Awareness

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Developmental stages of Phonological Awareness

24 Moats, 2003



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Awareness Progression

•  Letter knowledge Ø Recognize, name, and distinguish upper-

and lower-case letters

•  Word segmentation

Ø Recognize individual words within a sentence

•  Syllable Segmentation Ø Recognize and separate syllables within

words

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Awareness Progression (Cont.) •  Syllable Blending

Ø Listen to simple polysyllabic words spoken in separate syllables and say the complete blended word

•  Phonemic Awareness – Consonants Ø Tell whether the initial sounds are the

same or different in two spoken words Ø Tell whether the final sounds are the

same or different in two spoken words

•  Phonemic Awareness – Vowels Ø Tell whether the vowel is the same or

different in two spoken words

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Awareness Progression (Cont.) •  Phonemic blending

Ø After hearing separate phonemes, blend them and say the complete word

•  Phonemic segmentation Ø After hearing a complete word, separate and

pronounce the individual sounds

•  Rhyming Ø Recognize and produce rhyming pairs Ø Given onset consonants and a phonogram,

can blend them to produce rhyming words Ø Upon hearing a series of rhymes, can break

the rhyme into the onset and the rime

Phonological Awareness Can be Viewed Along a Continuum

Onset / Rime

Words in a Sentence

Syllable

Phonemes

Based on The Reading Academy materials developed by the University of Texas

Simple Complex

Rhyming/Alliteration

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Examples of Alliteration and Onset – Rime Activities

I’ll say a phrase:

“Big brown bears.” Let’s make a sentence about the bears using 2 more words that begin with the /b/ sound.

Alliteration

The first part of sip is /s/.

The last part of cat is “–at”. Onset-rime

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Phonemic Awareness Tasks Are At Different Levels of Complexity

Words in a Sentence

Syllable

Onset-Rime / Rhyming

Phonemes

Isolation Identity Categorization

Blending Segmentation

Deletion Addition Substitution

Phonemic Awareness

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Three Progressive Levels of Phonemic Awareness

Isolation

Identity

Categorization

Blending

Segmentation

Deletion

Addition

Substitution

• FSF measures isolation & identity

• PSF measures segmentation

Which Levels Are Measured in DIBELS?

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Purpose: Children recognize individual sounds in a word.

Teacher: What is the first sound in van?

Children: The first sound in van is /v/.

•  Isolation

Isolation Identification Categorization



Which Phonemic Awareness Activity Is This?

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Purpose: Children recognize the same sounds in different words.

Teacher: What is the first sound in fix, fall, and fun?

Children: The first sound, /f/, is the same.

•  Identification





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Purpose: Children recognize the word in a set of 3 or 4 words that has the “odd” sound.

Teacher: Which word doesn‘t belong?

bus, bun, rug Children: Rug does not belong. It

doesn’t begin with /b/.

•  Categorization





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Purpose: Children listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes, and then combine the phonemes to form a word. Teacher: What word is /b/ /i/ /g/?

Children: /b/ /i/ /g/ is big.

•  Blending





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Teacher: How many sounds are in grab? Children: /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/ 4 sounds.

Purpose: Children break a word into its separate sounds, saying each sound as they tap out or count it.

•  Segmentation





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Purpose: Children recognize the word that remains when a phoneme is removed from another word. Teacher: What is smile without the /s/?

Children: Smile without the /s/ is mile. •  Deletion - - What skills are involved in

phoneme deletion? •  Isolation, deletion, & blending





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Purpose: Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word.

Teacher: What word do you have if you add /s/ to the beginning of park?

Children: Spark.

•  Addition





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Purpose: Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new word. Teacher: The word is bug. Change /g/ to /n/.

What’s the new word? Children: Bun.

•  Substitution - What skills are involved in phoneme substitution?

•  Isolation, deletion, addition, blending





39

Quick Review What type of PA activity is each of these? •  What is the first sound in man? •  Isolation & Identification

•  What is the word if I add /s/ in front of “eye”? •  Addition

•  What is park without the /p/? •  Deletion

•  Which word doesn’t belong? truck, trailer, car

• Categorization




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Quick Review (continued)

•  The word is cat. Change /c/ to /h/. What’s the new word?

•  Substitution •  How many sounds are in pat and what are they? •  Segmentation

•  What is the first sound in tin, tall, and toy? •  Identification •  How many sounds are in tag and what are they?

•  Segmentation

41 42

Phonics

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Importance of Phonics

•  Even good readers learn to spell better with phonics

•  Many children do better with phonics instruction that is explicit, systematic, and cumulative and that moves from simple to complex

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Phonics: How print represents words

The association between sounds and symbols:

•  Sounds - Phonology •  Symbols - Orthography •  Language of origin - etymology •  Meaningful word parts - morphology



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What is explicit, systematic phonics?

What makes it systematic? Ø Preplanned skill sequence Ø Progresses from easier to more difficult

What makes it explicit? The teacher: Ø explains and models Ø gives guided practice Ø watches and gives corrective feedback Ø plans extended practice on skills, as

needed by individuals

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How much time should be spent teaching phonics

Ø 1st grade—up to 40% of the instructional time.

Ø 2nd grade—time equally divided between comprehension and language instruction.

Ø 2nd grade—20% on phonics

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Routines of a Phonics lesson

Letters Sounds (PA) Letter-sound association Word building Spelling Sentence dictation Reading decodable text Application to other contexts

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Example of a Typical Phonics Lesson

Components # of minutes

State Goal & Purpose 1

Review 3-5

Teaching a new phoneme 3-5

Word Building & Spelling 5-10

Writing Sentences to Dictation 5-10

Reading Text 10

Application to other contexts 3-5

30–45 minute lesson for teaching a new phoneme

From LETRS – Louisa Moats



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•  Limited set of consonants + 1st short vowel

•  Next group of consonants + 2nd short vowel

•  More consonants + short vowels •  Digraphs - ch, sh, th, th, wh •  Multiple spellings for 1 sound /

k/ spelled c, k, ck •  Silent e •  Long vowels •  Endings - s and es

Common sequence of Letter-Sound Instruction

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Ways of teaching sound blending

•  Additive Blending - add one phoneme at a time to the whole

•  Whole Word Blending - say each phoneme and then blend together to say the whole word

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Defining a new phonics concept

•  Say what it is.

•  Say what it is not.

•  Give good examples.

•  Give non-examples.

•  Give practice identifying examples and explain why they are good or not good.

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Word Building

•  Grapheme mapping - each box in a grid represents phoneme in a word

•  Word chaining - guide students toward contrasting minimal pairs of words that differ only in one speech sound



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Grapheme-Morpheme mapping

• Use this grid to map phonemes to graphemes. • Each square is one phoneme.

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What’s different about word building?

•  Attention to what is new •  Attention to all letters in a word •  More attention to vowels •  Spiraling sequences •  Begin where students is •  Use child’s error as opportunity to

show the difference between what was read and correct response

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Slow Word Dictation

•  Dictate word •  Have student repeat the word •  Have student segment sounds •  Student writes the letters or

shows the sound in some other way

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Sentence Dictation

•  Say the sentence. •  Students repeat to themselves. •  Say each word while students write. •  Write the sentence on the board so

students can proofread their own papers.

•  Check what they have done!



57

Whole Word Memory Techniques for High Frequency

Words •  Introduce in sentence context.

•  Spell aloud.

•  Trace letters while saying each letter’s name.

•  Write the word large in the air, using whole arm.

•  Cover and write from memory.

•  Review often on cards and written text.

•  Group by pattern whenever possible.

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Decoding multisyllabic words

•  Student must be able to divide words into recognizable chunks

•  Students need training in types of syllable division

•  Syllabication strategies can be used to approximate a word’s pronunciation

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Reading Big Words

•  Look for word parts at beginning of word (prefixes)

•  Look for word parts at the end of the word (suffixes)

•  In the base word, look for familiar spelling patterns

•  Sound out and blend together the word parts

•  Say the word parts fast - adjust pronunciation as needed.

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Speed drills demonstrate fluency

•  Short (one minute).

•  Distributed (a couple per day).

•  Focused (on repeating stimuli).

•  Given to those who are too slow (use DIBELS benchmarks).

•  Good for peer partner, volunteer, parent, or paraprofessional to help with.



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Integrate Phonics with “Real Reading”

•  Early reader’s should use text that is controlled by Ø Word frequency Ø Phonic decodability Ø Language patterning

•  Decodable text bridges phonics instruction to “real reading.”

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Fluency and Comprehension

Automaticity

The ability to translate letters-to-sounds-to-words fluently, and effortlessly (LaBerge and Samuels,1974).

The fluent reader is "one whose decoding processes are automatic, requiring no conscious attention" (Juel, 1991).

Such capacity then enables readers to allocate their attention to the comprehension and meaning of the text.

Fluency

The combination of accuracy and speed. Fluency in oral reading includes additional dimensions involving the "quality" of oral reading including intonation and expression.



What is Fluency?

Fluency is reading words with no noticeable cognitive or mental effort. It is having mastered word recognition skills to the point of overlearning. Fundamental skills are so "automatic" that they do not require conscious attention.

Points to Remember

•  Fluency is not an end in itself but a critical gateway to comprehension. Fluent reading frees resources to process meaning.

•  For students to develop fluency, they must:

perform the task or demonstrate the skill accurately, and perform the pre-skills of the task quickly and effortlessly.

•  Once accurate, fluency develops through

plentiful opportunities for practice in which the task can be performed with a high rate of success.

Reading with Expression

ABC? DEF. GHI! JK? LMN. OPQ? RS! TUV. WX? YZ!

I am here. I am here. I am here.

Phrase-cued Reading

Once upon a time / there was a little girl / whose home was down / a deserted road / deep in the forest. // The little girl / loved living / in the forest / among the animals.



Levels of Challenge

Independent Reading Level: 95% or higher Instructional Level: 90-95%

Frustration Level: 89% or lower

For fluency building, materials should be at instructional level or above. (Hasbrouck, 1998)

What Kind of Practice

•  A student must be able to correctly read approximately 95% of the words accurately to comprehend what is read.

•  In addition, a student must know the meanings of between 90-95% of the words being read.

70 Louisa Moats, Summer Institute 2016

Repeated Oral Readings

•  Students read and reread a text a certain number of times or until a certain level of fluency is reached

•  Oral reading practice is increased

through the use of audiotapes, tutors, peer guidance, or other means.

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The goal is comprehension

•  Automaticity is never an end in and of itself

•  Fluency is the bridge to comprehension

•  Fluency is ONE prerequisite for comprehension; language processing, background knowledge, strategies are necessary as well



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Ways to Develop Fluency •  Model fluent reading. •  Provide direct instruction and feedback. •  Provide reader support (choral reading

and reading while listening). •  Use repeated readings of one text. •  Cue phrase boundaries in text. •  Example: In the summer / I like / to

swim / at the beach. •  Provide students with reading materials

at the 92-95% accuracy level

Supporting student’s comprehension

•  Give students less material to read ‘per chunk’ Ask students to pre-read & prepare by reading the selection silently to locate any troublesome words

•Use Attribute Reading

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Attribute Reading Overview

•  Replaces Round-Robin reading, which excludes multiple student participation.

•  Encourages active participation of all students, 100% of the time.

•  Enables teacher to control reading situation to check abilities as well as weaknesses

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Attribute Reading Procedure

•  All students silently pre-read the first item in a series (e.g., paragraph, sentence, word, row of words).

•All students orally read the first item in a series. •Change attribute category beginning with the second item in a series.

76 Pat Sekal, PhD



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Four Metacognitive Strategies

•  Questioning •  Clarifying •  Summarizing •  Predicting

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Questioning Strategy

•  Students ask themselves the “w” questions Ø Who, where, when, why, and what Ø Aids comprehension of directly stated

details Ø Similar to the knowledge level of

Bloom’s taxonomy Ø Student should be able to define,

distinguish, identify, recall, or recognize information read

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Clarifying Strategy

•  Students can identify the story grammar (narrative elements) Ø Setting, plot, characters, theme, narrator,

and other elements of the story Ø Beginning and end, conflict and

resolution, goals and obstacles of characters

Ø Separate supporting ideas from unimportant or irrelevant information

Ø Conclude, differentiate, explain, illustrate, interpret, and rephrase

Ø Sequence the events of the story

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Summarizing Strategy

•  Students can identify the main idea or theme Ø Can recognize or conclude from stated

information Ø Or, may have to deduce, contrast, or

derive unstated information Ø Rename the story Ø Recognize whether the story is fact or

fiction Ø Summarize each paragraph with only one

or two words



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Predicting Strategy

•  Student is able to read and comprehend provided information and predict information not specifically stated Ø Young students - listen and predict what

will happen next Ø Older students - read and predict a possible

conflict or resolution Ø More mature students – evaluate, assess,

and judge

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Prior Knowledge

•  Students have prior knowledge and experience to: Ø interpret material Ø elaborate and extend meaning

•  Students recognize that personal beliefs shape interpretation Ø critical lenses

•  Students use social, cultural, and historical context to guide interpretation

The Language Connection to Reading:

Addressing the Needs of Struggling Readers

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Overview

•  Introduction to the language connection to literacy

•  Pre-kindergarten through Fourth Grade •  Grades 5 through 8 •  High School and beyond •  Interpreting assessment results •  Reading and writing connection •  3-Tier Model for teaching vocabulary



Mahatma Gandhi, as you know, walked barefoot most of the time, which

produced an impressive set of calluses on his feet. He also ate very little, which made him rather frail and, with his odd diet, he suffered from bad breath. This

made him a super calloused fragile mystic hexed by

halitosis.

supercalifragilisticexpialidocious

Assignment #1

•  Think of a new word or phrase you learned as an adult and the link to previous knowledge that helped you understand its meaning Ø paradigm Ø segue

Oral Language & Literacy

•  Testing vocabulary and oral language skills is part of most preschool screening batteries and College and Career Readiness K to 3 programs

•  Not all children come to school with the basic vocabulary knowledge required to understand the directions and instructions of the classroom

•  Hart & Risley (1995) demonstrated that early differences noted in children entering school remain static throughout their education



Oral Language & Literacy

•  Very little instruction in vocabulary and oral language takes place in the regular classroom

•  Without a basic vocabulary and knowledge of the syntax of language, the potential for developing a reading problem is great

•  Reading is a receptive language task

Limited Vocabulary & Oral Language Skills

•  Children identified with a reading disability have limited reading vocabularies and lack the necessary comprehension skills to develop vocabulary

•  Language deficits are found in 90% of students identified as LD

•  Many children with an underlying language disability, also demonstrate poorly developed oral vocabularies

The “Matthew” Effect

•  The more words you know, the more you can read

•  The more you read, the more words you will learn

•  For the child starting out with a limited vocabulary, “more” reading does not result in “more” vocabulary

»  Stanovich, 1986



The “Matthew Effect” on Language Development &

Comprehension •  The oral language skills young

children have help them learn to comprehend what they read.

•  What they read further develops their oral language skills and background knowledge.

•  Well-developed language skills and wide background knowledge help older students comprehend more difficult and complex literature.

94

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Listening Comprehension Reading Comprehension

How children learn

age

Thomas G Sticht, et. al. (1974) Auding and reading: A Developmental Model (Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization, U.S. AFHRL Technical Report, No. 74-36.

The Benefits of Reading Aloud to Children

•  Continue, even through upper grades •  Read slightly above level •  Why:

Ø Develops background knowledge Ø Builds vocabulary Ø  Increases familiarity with language patterns Ø Develops familiarity with story structure Ø Develops print awareness Ø Models fluency, prosody, appropriate emotion Ø Helps to view reading as pleasurable

Feedback from Assignment #1

Slide 87



Pre-Kindergarten through

Fourth Grade

Assignment #2

•  Building vocabulary, language skills, and world knowledge is often done with thematic units with young children. Can you remember a thematic unit from your early education? Ø Ex: linking grocery shopping with

names of fruits and vegetables

What Does It Mean to Know a Word

•  Phonological form (sounds, syllables) - what is the difference between the words anecdote and antidote?

•  Morphological form (meaningful parts) - how does knowing the meaning of persuade assist in knowing the meaning of the dissuade?


•  Spelling patterns (orthographic form) - How do you spell passed? Ø Most people will say past.

•  Meanings and meaning networks - Define the word green Ø now define green in terms of golf.




•  Syntactic roles - what role does the word avoid take (verb)? What role does a word like avid take (adjective)?

•  Linguistic history (etymological features) - Where does the word metamorphoses come from?

Word-Learning Tasks

•  Sight words •  Multiple-meaning words •  New labels •  New concepts •  Words gradually become part of

receptive oral and written vocabularies

•  Move words into expressive spoken and written vocabularies

Effective Vocabulary Instruction

•  Language rich activities involving listening and speaking

•  Wide reading at home and in school •  Provide illustrations in natural contexts •  Demonstrate use of context to derive

meaning •  Provide exposure to different definitions •  Build conceptual foundation and semantic

relations •  Provide ways to remember basic word

meanings



Vocabulary Instruction Steps

Step 1 Introduces new word Step 2 Link: Integrates new information

with prior knowledge Step 3 Rehearse: Facilitates re-exposure

to words Step 4 Practice: Provides opportunities

for meaningful use

How Does Pre-K Vocabulary Develop?

•  Use of varied vocabulary during meal times

•  Intellectually challenging conversation

•  Rich curriculum in preschool

•  Dialogic reading in school

•  Home book reading time G. Whitehurst, C. Lonegan;

D. Dickinson, C. Snow

From LETRS by Louisa Moats

Pivotal Early Childhood Themes for PreK to 2nd Grade

•  Natural Context for Vocabulary Development

Ø Animals Ø Weather Ø Self-esteem Ø Family Ø Holidays Ø World Cultures Ø Community


Slide 97



Developing Conceptual Words with Young Children

•  Cut cardboard tubes into graduated lengths Ø Longest, tallest, shortest, identical,

nearest, etc.

•  Use toys from fast-food restaurants for teaching prepositions Ø Over, on, above, next, etc.

Developing Conceptual Words with Young Children

•  Empty egg cartons & dry cereal pieces can illustrate quantity & numerical concepts Ø More, less, some, none, few, many, same,

etc. Ø One, two, three, etc. Ø Grocery store visit

Labeling Activities for Young Children

•  Outline the shape of simple objects Ø Child must match objects to shape (in one

try) and name it

•  Using grocery and discount store flyers, create separate posters Ø Things that go in the kitchen, the bath,

the bedroom, the garage, etc.

•  Have child sort various buttons in an empty egg carton Ø Ask child why buttons are sorted the way

they are

Grades 5 through 8



Assignment #3

•  Think of a word or phrase that you learned “growing up,” one that was part of your culture and/or home life but may not be known by others in the audience

More Facts from Vocabulary Research

•  Children should have 5000 words in their vocabularies when they come to school

•  3000 words are added to the oral vocabulary each year in the early grades

•  Between 8th and 9th grade, students are encountering approx. 88,000 new reading words

•  Students must learn 400 new words a month or about 20 per day to maintain growth

Gradual decline in the apparent verbal ability of some LD students may come about because of limited exposure to written text:

•  Middle-grade readers Ø Least able readers read about 100,000

words per year Ø Average readers read about 1,000,000

words per year Ø Voracious readers read as much as

10,000,000 words per year

Reading-disabled students with Poor Receptive & Expressive

Vocabularies

•  Poor fund of knowledge about the world

•  Problems with speed and accuracy of word reading and linguistic processing

•  Inactive learning strategies or comprehension-monitoring strategies

•  Read less than their peers: fewer opportunities to learn new words



Children with Language Disabilities

•  May initially demonstrate average or above-average vocabulary skills

•  May not be identified in the early years if only screening device is a vocabulary test

•  May develop vocabulary problems as other language difficulties prevent or impede instruction in content areas

•  Later retesting of vocabulary and language skills may demonstrate marked decline in scores

Differentiated Vocabulary Instruction

•  Students will learn about 1/2 of their new words through context; 1/2 need to be taught

•  Methods based on an information-processing model, allow children to learn words in natural contexts and link new information with prior knowledge

•  Need to provide different approaches for vocabulary instruction for different types of poor readers

Developing Advanced Vocabulary

•  Complex concepts need to be taught Ø Words with multiple meanings

•  Examples: §  fray, fuse, maroon, toast

Ø Homophones •  Examples:

§  rack, wrack §  cannon, canon §  disburse, disperse



Comprehension Depends on Knowing Word Meanings

•  Vocabulary knowledge is strongly related to overall reading comprehension.

•  If a word is decoded and pronounced but the meaning is not recognized, comprehension will be impaired.

•  Knowledge of a word’s meaning also facilitates accurate word recognition.

The phonological, orthographic, and meaning processors all contribute to reading!

From LETRS Module 4, used by permission

What is “Vocabulary”?

•  Storehouse of known meanings in the mental dictionary (lexicon). §  Recognition vocabulary (for listening and reading)

is far greater than productive vocabulary (for speaking and writing) in most people.

•  The term does NOT refer to the number of words children can decode in print.


Listening and Reading Relationship

•  Before the middle grades, children can read many fewer words than they comprehend through listening.

•  After the middle grades, vocabulary knowledge expands as a function of reading itself; more words are learned from reading than from listening to spoken language.


How We Know Words (1)

By reading a lot: •  at the right level of difficulty •  in sufficient amounts •  with sufficient motivation to

pursue understanding.




How We Know Words (2)

•  Through exposure to multiple examples in context, spoken and written

•  Through explicit instruction: Ø Constructing definitions and

using a dictionary Ø Analyzing word structure Ø Exploring word relationships

From LETRS by Louisa Moats, Ph.D.

Why the Dictionary Alone is Not the Answer

•  Reading a definition does not tell us how a word is actually used

•  We need examples in context to infer the connotation and denotation of the word

•  Dictionary definitions can be truncated and incomplete

•  Being able to define a word is an end result of knowing the word very well


Making Definitions

•  Use the following format to write a definition for each word listed below:

A _____ is (a) ______ that (is, does) ________. (critical feature)

Ex: A river is a body of water that

flows into the ocean.

How We Learn Words (3)

By becoming conscious (acquiring decontextualized knowledge):

Ø of the word’s sounds and morphemes

Ø of the word’s origins Ø of the word’s usage and

multiple meanings

From LETRS by Louisa Moats, Ph.D.



Vocabulary-Building in Natural Contexts

•  Read or tell stories Ø Ask questions Ø Ask for a different word Ø Ask student to retell story Ø Demonstrate how the context of the story

can explain the meaning of an unknown word

•  Tell jokes or tall tales Ø Why is it funny? Unusual? Odd? Ø Ask student to retell changing a key word

Building New Words by Adding a Suffix

•  Changing verb forms •  take > taken

•  Make a singular noun plural •  marsh > marshes

•  Change a verb to a noun •  arrange > arrangement

•  Change a noun to an adjective •  pity > pitiless

•  Change an adjective to a noun •  great > greatness

•  Change an adjective to an adverb •  annual > annually

Building Links Among Word Families

•  Use root words Step 1: Start with a word student knows

•  incredible - cred is a Latin root word meaning “to believe”

Step 2: Build a list of words with the same root •  discredit, credence, credible, credibility

•  Build new words using a suffix Step 1: Explain the meaning of a suffix

•  -ant means “a person who” Step 2: Start with a word the student knows

•  command Step 3:Add a suffix & ask student to explain new word

•  commandant



Integrate New Information with Prior Knowledge

•  Build new words using prefixes •  If centennial means 100 years, what does

bicentennial mean?

•  Use Compound words •  Show two pictures & have students guess the

compound word (handbook) •  Have student illustrate compound words and

make others guess

•  Words about time •  quarter or half past or to the hour •  weekly, daily, millennium

Provide Exposure to Different Definitions

•  Homophones - words that sound the same but have different meanings.

• do/dew/due • cent/scent/sent.

•  Words with Multiple Meanings • Use context (cue) • Use pronunciation. (console)

•  Words that sound or look similar. • casual/causal •  through/thorough


Slide 112

High School and Beyond



Dimensions of Word Knowledge

Dimensions of Word Knowledge

•  Semantic features •  Categorical features •  Multiple Meanings •  Antonyms and Scaling •  Contextual uses •  Synonyms

Semantic Features

Feature analysis is a formal comparison of the aspects of meaning that define an entity or concept. It can be useful for differentiating terms such as “shell,” “nest,” and “burrow.”

Try marking the features of “cup,” “glass,” and “mug.” To what extent do these words have “semantic overlap”?

From LETRS Module 4, Used by permission

Provide Context

Preview key words by starting a discussion in which the words are used several times.

“Learning to accept responsibility is sometimes a hard thing to do when you’re growing up. Have any of you ever had responsibility for a younger sister or brother, or even a pet? What are you responsible for doing?”




Semantic features

•  Some nouns are countable Ø Ex: pencils, cars, dogs

•  Some nouns are not countable Ø Ex: sand, water, air

•  Some verbs require a direct object, others don’t Ø Ex: worked, ran, dozed (no object needed) Ø Ex: presented, directed, (object needed)

Antonyms and Scaling

•  Antonyms can be gradable or complementary.

•  Gradable can be used to show degrees of an attribute Ø Ex: Fat-----thin

•  Complementary are either one or the other Ø Ex: dead----alive

Assist Student’s Efforts to Derive Meanings from Context

•  Words that continue thought or idea

• again, moreover, other, also similarly

•  Words that indicate sequence

•  first, after, while, during, always

•  Words that signal a change in meaning

• although, despite, however, rather

•  Illustration

•  for instance, such as, specifically

•  Words that indicate conclusion

• consequently, finally, hence

Word Structure and Word Meaning

•  Notice word pronunciation and word spelling.

•  Explore morphology (compounds, prefixes, roots, suffixes).

•  Generate a definition then check it against the dictionary.

•  Compare similar words.




Example, Word Structure Analysis

Word dissection: collections = col + lect + tion + s hopelessly = hope + less + ly

Word cousins:

sanitation, sanitary, sanitize (from the Latin layer of English, “sanitus” = “health”)


Active Processing of Meaning

•  Construct a conceptual map of the word’s meaning

•  Write and say the word

•  Locate examples of the word’s use outside the classroom (Word Wizard)

•  Contrast the word with confusable words

•  Enter the word in a personal dictionary


Contextual Vocabulary for Adolescents

•  Road signs •  low clearance, minimum speed,

merge

•  Want ads & job applications

• applicant, supervisor, transcript, reference

•  Words on a paycheck • gross pay, withholding, deductions

•  Income tax •  refund, wages, dependent

Strategies for Reading Multisyllabic Words

•  Overt Strategy Ø Circle the word parts (prefixes) at the

beginning of the word Ø Circle the the word parts (suffixes) at the

end of the word Ø Underline the letters for vowel sounds in

the rest of the word Ø Say the parts of the word Ø Say the parts fast Ø Make it a real word

From REWARDS by Anita Archer



Examples

•  reconstruction

•  invitation

•  optical

examples

•  Reconstruction

•  Invitation

•  Optical

Strategies for Reading Multisyllabic Words

•  Covert Strategy Ø Look for word parts at the

beginning and end of the word and vowel sounds in the rest of the word

Ø Say the parts of the word Ø Say the parts fast Ø Make it a real word

Comprehending Challenging

Material

} Semantics •  Idioms

Ø beg the question §  To assume what has still to be proved

Ø damn with faint praise §  To criticize someone or something

indirectly by giving a slight compliment

•  Proverbs Ø Half a loaf is better than none Ø Great oaks from little acorns grow



Comprehending Challenging Material - Syntax

Ø Sentence structure • Compound – Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction § She went to the store and he washed the car.

• Complex – One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses § She went to the store instead of washing the car.

Comprehending Challenging Material - Syntax

Ø Compound/Complex – Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses •  She went to the store and he washed

the car instead of shopping with her. Ø Embedded clauses and phrases •  When someone achieves what no one

else has done, people notice.

Comprehending Challenging Material

Ø Supralinguistic •  Lack of world knowledge

§  “Will things get as bad as in the ’30’s?” §  “You look like a fish out of water.”

•  Inability to make an inference or a prediction §  Identifying the story grammar as you read and

being able to read “between the lines.”

•  Inability to derive meaning from context •  Comprehending the meaning of low

frequency words


•  Reading is a complex, recursive thinking process

•  Goal is to be a fluent reader Ø A reader that can hear the voice of the

author

•  Fluent reading is not fast reading Ø It is not “machine gun” decoding

•  Good readers use lots of strategies to make sense of text




•  Use existing knowledge to make sense of new information

•  Ask questions before, during, and after reading

•  Draw inferences from the text •  Monitor their comprehension

(clarifying) •  Determine what is important

(summarizing) •  Synthesize information to create new

thinking (predicting)

Layers of English •  Teaching English requires the

teaching of four languages •  Anglo-Saxon - 1% of our words, but

the most frequently used •  Latin - over 50% and include prefixes,

roots, and suffixes •  Greek - 10% of our words, combining

forms used in science •  French - advanced and sophisticated

vocabulary needed by older students

Comparison of words

Anglo-Saxon

Latin Greek

Earth Earthquake

Terra Terrain

Gea geology

Fire Ignis ignite

Pyro Pyrotechnic

Water Waterfall

Agua Aquarium

Hydr Hydrogen

Modern English

•  Great Vowel Shift (1400-1600) •  Pronunciation moved further forward

in the mouth •  Occurred after the development of the

printing press •  Spelling did not change to reflect the

changes in pronunciation •  Today we have 30 vowel digraphs

whereas European languages have 4



Interpreting Assessment Results

Receptive > Expressive

•  Significantly higher score on PPVT-4 than EVT-2

•  Good guesser; may have some knowledge of the word and can rule out one or two of the options

•  Good lexical store, but a problem with word retrieval

•  Strong knowledge of the prevailing culture; knows the current label

•  Broad experiential background; knows many labels

Expressive > Receptive

•  Significantly higher EVT-2 score •  Lack of automaticity of word

recognition skills •  Deep processing vs. Superficial •  Less engagement in task •  Limited experiential background; knows

only one label •  Different cultural or “world knowledge”

base; can say an acceptable word •  History of hearing impairment; has

learned a specific set of labels

Important Vocabulary Activities for

Students with Different Backgrounds

1)  Idioms •  Teach as a lexical unit (“let off

steam”) 2)  Daily living words

•  delicatessen, pedestrian, entrance 3)  Onomatopoeia

•  Words borrowed from sounds (crackle, burp)

4)  Word shortened by common usage •  cuke/cucumber •  stat/statistics

5)  Irregular Verb Forms



Reading and Writing Connections

Reading & Writing Connections

Ø Language structure is the common denominator of reading and writing. •  Spelling requires knowledge of phonemes,

graphemes, orthographic patterns, high-frequency words, and word meanings

•  Taking notes requires knowledge of morphology and key phrases

•  Finding and stating the main ides requires knowledge of sentence and paragraph structure

Reading & Writing Connections

•  Creating graphic organizers requires knowledge of text structure to organize and visual represent information.

•  Summarizing requires knowledge of sentence and discourse structures, proper use of transition words, recognition of prepositional structure in narrative or expository text, and the ability to select main ideas.



Rules of capitalization and punctuation in orthography

•  Assists reader in identifying proper nouns and the beginning and ending of sentences as well as providing information about phrasing and emphasis

•  Enables the writer to offer clues to the audience about sentence structure, phrasing, and emphasis.

Transition or Connecting Words

•  Serve as signals to the reader to anticipate the text structure and the relationships between or among ideas in sentences and paragraphs.

•  Enable the writer to present ideas in a more organized format, to link ideas in the text, and to tell the audience the structure of the ideas.

Sentence structure (syntax and rules of grammar)

•  Allows the reader to chunk parts of sentences into meaningful units, to confirm recognition of words, and to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words.

•  Allows the writer to vary sentence structure to create compound and complex sentences, and to the writing richer through the use of advanced parts of speech.

Paragraph structure

•  Allows the reader to identify main ideas (stated and/or implied) and supporting details.

•  Allows the writer to organize writing into main idea chunks and to convey that structure by indenting each new paragraph.



Essay structure

•  Helps the reader identify the theme and conclusion while reading as well as the main points that support the theme.

•  Helps the writer to present a clear statement of theme and to organize ideas into a structure that supports the development of the theme.

Expository text markers

Includes headings, subheadings, and other visual clues:

•  Provides clues and a framework for chucking reading into manageable units; help the reader identify the hierarchy of main ideas and subordinate ideas.

•  Helps the writer to organize ideas during writing and to provide the audience with a guide for identifying the hierarchy of ideas.

Expository text patterns

Ex: cause and effect, comparison/contrast, enumeration, etc.

•  Helps the reader determine a pattern by which the information is presented in the text and how details are related.

•  Enables the writer to relate details in a way that indicates the relationship of those details.

Narrative story structures

•  Allows the reader to identify characters, setting, sequence of events, and plot/theme.

•  Allows the writer to clearly convey information about the characters, setting, sequence of events, and plot/theme of the story, as well as to let the audience know the type of narrative (e.g., folktale, biography, short story).



Writing Skills for Summarizing require

•  The ability to vary word choice, •  Sentence fluency and a

command of syntax, •  Paragraph organization, •  Use of logical connectors or

transition words, and •  The ability to proofread for

spelling, capitalization and punctuations, and content.

3-Tier Model for Teaching Vocabulary

How should we choose words?

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

Words to teach: high-frequency,

high-utility

Low-frequency words; technical words

Known, common

words From LETRS by Louisa Moats

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: The Guilford Press.

Words to Teach Directly

•  Words critical to understanding the text at hand

•  Words with general utility likely to be encountered many times

•  Difficult words that need interpretation (metaphorical, abstract, nuanced)

Beck, et al.




Criteria for identifying Tier 2 words

•  Importance and Utility- words that are characteristic of mature language learners and occur frequently

•  Instructional Potential - words that can be used in a variety of ways ad can build connections

•  Conceptual Understanding - students may understand the general concept, but need precision and specificity

Example: Words to Teach Directly

Ø responsibility Ø her heart sank Ø her heart jumped Ø her heart froze Ø shame

Tier 2


Words to Teach Briefly

Specialty words that are not likely to be encountered again soon because they are unique to the setting or theme of that text.

•  cradleboard, lodgepole, buffalo grass, Lakota, Pawnee, doeskin


Tier 3

Provide Context

Preview key words by starting a discussion in which the words are used several times.

“Learning to accept responsibility is sometimes a hard thing to do when you’re growing up. Have any of you ever had responsibility for a younger sister or brother, or even a pet? What are you responsible for doing?”




Some Final Thoughts What Reading Does for the Mind…

•  Children need to spend time reading!

•  The amount children read predicts vocabulary and reading comprehension in high school.

•  Reading volume contributes to verbal intelligence (word definitions, background knowledge of the world, fluency, spelling).

Stanovich, West, and Cunningham


Current NICHD Research

•  Cognitive, linguistic, neurobiolocal, and genetic mechanisms of reading and writing

•  Genetics, neurobiology •  Learning to write •  Reading comprehension •  Executive function

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Research Basis

•  Report of the National Reading Panel NICHD, NIFL (2000)

•  Beginning to Read M. Adams (1990)

•  Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children Snow, Burns, & Griffin (1998)

•  Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading & Spelling (LETRS) 2nd Edition Louisa Moats (2009)

•  The Simple View of Reading Farrell, Davidson, Hunter, and Osenga, 2010

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Thank you! [email protected]

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